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UNIVERSITY OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Bonifacio St., Davao City

FLOOD RESILIENT HOUSING DESIGN THROUGH

OPPORTUNISTIC ADAPTATION

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Bachelor of Science in Architecture

Yoshiko Jane F. Dedel

March, 2019
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Table of Contents

Chapter 1 ......................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1

Background of the Study .............................................................................. 1

Research Objectives .................................................................................... 4

Review of Related Literature ........................................................................ 5

Theoretical Framework............................................................................... 16

Conceptual Framework .............................................................................. 19

Chapter 2 ....................................................................................................... 21

METHODS..................................................................................................... 21

Research Design ........................................................................................ 21

Research Locale ........................................................................................ 21

Research Respondents .............................................................................. 21

Data Collection ........................................................................................... 22

Research Procedure .................................................................................. 23

Research Instruments ................................................................................ 24

Ethical Considerations................................................................................ 25

Bibliography ................................................................................................... 29

APPENDICES ............................................................................................... 33

Appendix: A – Causes of Climate Change ................................................. 33

Appendix: B – Human Impacts on Climate Change ................................... 35

Appendix: C – Subsequent Natural Disasters ............................................ 36

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Appendix: D – Impacts of Flood to the Building and Human Components . 38

Appendix: E – Approaches in Flood Risk Reduction .................................. 39

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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The world is changing faster than it did in the past centuries. In some

cases this is a good thing, but in others it is not. The realm of science and

research has gone several steps further, with the result of the development of

futuristic technological advancements. However, the works of humanity cannot

assuage the forces of nature. The world is changing in aspects far greater than

that of technology: nature is also going through massive changes. Climate all

over the world is fluctuating, weather is unpredictable, and the globe is steadily

becoming warmer. It has gotten to the point where our most advanced

technologies cannot cope with natural disasters. Scientists have then coined

these fluctuations in climate “climate change”. Climate change has a huge

impact globally on people’s lives.

One of the effects of climate change is flooding. Due to rising

temperatures, ice caps on the northern and southern poles are melting, causing

a rise in water levels all over the globe. Seawater then overflows into the human

built environment, damaging human lives and settlements. There are weather

occurrences - heavy or prolonged rains, storm surges, sudden snow melting -

and then there are the human-driven aspects - including how we handle our

rivers and the changes we make to land (Denchak, 2017). It is clear that

flooding, when not handled efficiently, can cause devastating damages and

losses.
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Floods caused the largest portion of insured losses among all catastrophies

around the world in 2013; there have been huge-scale flood events in the

United States, the Philippines, and the United Kingdom, showing how

susceptible coastal cities are to storm surge flooding (Aerts et. al 2014). Studies

show that urban areas will be more prone to flooding than rural areas in the

decades to come (Henrique, 2015). Various professionals and government

institutions have tried implementing different methods and technologies in

reducing the risks caused by flood and climate change. Some methods have

satisfyingly effective results, others do not. Engineering defences are not

enough to accommodate unforeseen changes in climate anymore (Liao, Le, &

Nguyen, 2016). Hard infrastructure projects and architectural designs that aim

to keep out flood waters are currently being challenged by increasing climate

change, rendering them obsolete; the notion of an adaptive community that

takes advantage of opportunities to improve various aspects requires an

understanding of the urban dynamics and the potentials of intervention to adapt

these areas to better cope with floods (Henrique, 2015). A replacement for

conventional design approaches for flood mitigation is sought for effective

disaster risk reduction.

The "Global Climate Risk Index 2015" identified the Philippines as the

country most affected by climate change, with twenty tropical cyclones passing

through in the country each year. (Tacio, 2018). On average, sea levels around

the world rise one-eighth of an inch (3.1 mm) each ten years since the beginning

of the satellite sea level record in 1993 (Lindsey, 2018). In contrast, water levels

are expected to rise between 7.6 to 10.2 centimetres per decade in the
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Philippines (Tacio, 2018). The rate of the rise of sea levels in the Philippines is

about two to three times faster than the rest of the world.

Although the main course of action to ensure the inhabitants’ safety is

displacement and evacuation to more secure places, Jamero, a lead researcher

from the University of Tokyo, stated in an interview by Doherty (2019) published

in “The Upside Philippines” regarding the displacement of communities: “But

when I went these places, it’s completely different. People don’t want to leave

their homes, they have found a way to live their lives, to adapt, even to enjoy

the floods.” This forms the conclusion that the inhabitants of coastal

communities are driven by reasons not to leave their homes. One of these

reasons could be the loss of livelihood (Henrique, 2015), as the source of

livelihood for residents of developments near bodies of water is usually

dependent on the body of water itself. Doherty (2019) reported in “The Upside

Philippines” after conducting interviews on the inhabitants of a coastal

community situated atop the Cebu Strait that nearly all the inhabitants have

selected to remain for reasons of economy, social cohesion, and fundamental

identity.

The megacity of Davao usually does not experience the wrath of

typhoons, but it does not escape the incessant rains brought by these typhoons

and the floods that follow (Tacio, 2018). There are a total of 186 barangays in

Davao City; 26 are in coastal areas; with 240,057 households built near coastal

areas (Pana, 2019). According to an article in SunStar davao by Perez (2016),

barangays Calinan, 1-A, and 8-A are the three most flood prone areas in Davao

City. The city’s inhabitants mainly rely on the government’s aid during disasters

and are forced to leave their homes temporarily whenever flood occurs.
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Some megacities are still employing conventional flood control methods

despite its inefficiency due to the rising flood levels. Communities are at risk

because of relying on these conventional methods instead of switching to an

adaptive design paradigm. Displacement of entire communities results in the

disruption of daily activities and social cohesion, and can overpopulate an area

in the urban settlement. The results of the study will introduce a new innovative

way of thinking in designing that can be sustainable in the future and can rebuild

the connection of megacities to nature, gradually making communities adaptive

to climate change by employing adaptive design technologies based on the

individual assets’ temporal dynamics. In this study, the researcher will be able

to explore new approaches in innovative design and gain significant insights of

the ecological issues happening in the locality.

Research Objectives

The study focuses on designing a prototype of a Flood Resilient housing

through the Opportunistic Adaptation Design paradigm, proposing a new

design approach that will gradually make communities near coastal

developments flood resilient through technologies incorporated based on the

individual structure’s temporal dynamics. The study aims to be a catalyst for

opportunistic adaptation design strategies for disaster risk reduction.

In line with these objectives, the researcher would like to seek answers

to the following questions:

1. What are the lived experiences of the inhabitants during and after the

flood?
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2. What are the frequency and level of flood in Barangay 1-A as

experienced by the participants?

3. What are the specific strategies that should be employed in flood

resilient housing utilizing the opportunistic design?

4. What kind of building materials should be used in the structures that

can withstand flood waters that are cost effective?

5. On the basis of the findings what prototype of the flood resilient

housing design can be proposed?

Review of Related Literature

Climate Change

“Climate is what we expect, weather is what we get”. Climate is often

defined alongside weather. The difference between the two is that ‘weather’ is

the set of meteorological conditions: wind, rain, snow, sunshine, temperature,

etc. at a particular time and place; while ‘climate’ describes the overall long-

term characteristics of the weather experienced at a place (Geneva, 2008).

Climate can be defined as the average or summary of weather conditions over

a long period of time. Weather and climate are temperamental factors. The

fluctuations that occur from year to year and the statistics of extreme conditions

such as severe storms or unusually hot seasons are part of the climatic

variability.

For most people, the expression ‘climate change’ means the alteration

of the world’s climate through fossil fuel burning, clearing forests, and other

practices that increase the concentration of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the

atmosphere (Geneva, 2008). The Climate Action Plan for San Francisco (2014)
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stated that climate change can mean the variable consequences of global

warming over time. For some scientists, climate change is simply any change

in climate brought on by extreme natural fluctuations. Through extensive

research over the years, leading scientists have confirmed the reality of climate

change and deduced that the main causes for intensifying ‘greenhouse effect’

are human activities. Climate change has various root causes

(see Appendix A).

Effects of Climate Change

Climate change will affect the whole world in different varying degrees

and frequencies in different countries. Unfortunately, scientists have pointed

out that humans are mostly responsible for the extreme fluctuations in climate

(see Appendix B). People in the poorest countries and the poor people in richer

countries are likely to suffer the most because these people tend to live in high

risk areas such as unstable slopes and flood plains - inhabiting houses that are

not built for disaster resiliency - and because their means of living largely

depend on agriculture which is heavily dependent on climate (Geneva, 2008).

There are various types of natural disasters that result in climate change (see

Appendix C).

Geneva (2008) described the effects of climate change in a report for the

IPCC Fourth Assessment Report of the Working Group II “Impacts, Adaptation

and Vulnerability”, including increases of temperature to extreme events. The

effects on key sectors, in the absence of countermeasures, may be

summarized as follows:
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(a) Areas affected by droughts are likely to become more widespread.

Heavier occurrences of precipitation are likely to increase in frequency,

resulting in greater flood hazards.

(b) While some mid-latitude and high-latitude areas will initially benefit from

greater agricultural manufacturing, many others will benefit from lesser

attitudes, particularly in seasonally dry and tropical regions. The

increases in temperature and the frequency of droughts and floods will

likely have negative impacts on crop manufacturing, increasing the

amount of individuals at risk of hunger and higher displacement and

mitigation rates.

(c) In general, the most susceptible sectors, settlements and societies are

those situated in coastal regions and river flood plains, and those whose

economies are strongly connected to climate-sensitive resources.

(d) The projected climate change will probably change millions of people’s

health status: enhancing fatalities and injury owing to heat waves, floods,

storms, fires, and droughts.

Effects of Flooding

Flooding has far-reaching repercussions in society - it affects both the

built environment and humanity. The damages inflicted by shallow flooding can

take months to repair, and deep water flooding can cause extensive damage to

structures, especially in residential dwellings (Adedeji, et. al 2018). While

flooding may have its benefits especially for rural areas (such as allowing

various species of flora to thrive and being a major factor in their livelihood), it

can have tragic effects in urban megacities. As a center of human activity and

economy, flooding can cause disruptions in the different systems of the city.
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Rising sea levels threaten infrastructures needed for local employment and

regional industries in urban settlements along the world’s coastlines (Lindsey,

2018).

The impacts of flood in the built environment is the main lookout of

government agencies and even the inhabitants themselves, but there are other

important aspects that should be considered. One of the overlooked damages

that flood inflicts are the intangible effects it has on people’s lives (Wingfield et

al. 2005). Floods can disrupt social harmony, lifestyles, communal bonds, and

destabilize mental health. Property damage is only a minor impact compared

to the true cost of flood. The major damage is inflicted upon the inhabitants:

flood damage can cause them to lose personal possessions, live in temporary

accommodations while their houses are being repaired, and in some cases

inflict trauma (Adedeji, et. al 2018). Flood inflicts direct and indirect damages

and further categorized as tangible and intangible on the basis of whether or

not these losses can be evaluated in monetary values (Joseph, 2014).

Floods are known to cause damages to buildings and property. The

damages extend to other building utilities like electrical installations, and in

extreme cases, plumbing. Although damage to buildings and property may be

considered tangible, there are items that have sentimental values to the

inhabitants that can be considered intangible loses (Adedeji, et. al. 2018).

There are direct and indirect impacts of flooding towards human lives. Some

of the direct intangible impacts of flooding to human lives are diseases and

economic losses; the direct intangible impacts are the disruptions to daily life,

being upset about the damages to the building and personal possessions, and
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psychological disorder; the indirect tangible impacts include the rise in

insurance premium and travel cost, and the reinstating of properties (Adedeji,

et. al. 2018). The impacts of flooding can be a combination of health, social and

financial impacts (McNulty and Rennick, 2015). The impacts of flood vary on

whether they are direct and indirect, and further categorized as tangible and

intangible by Joseph (2014) (see Appendix D).

Opportunistic Adaptation Design Principle

Opportunistic adaptation encompasses the integration of new climate-

related design standards and subsequent adaptation measures at the moment

the assets reach the end of their lifespan (EOL); it requires a “system

perspective”, in which the city is seen as a collection of interacting components,

constructed at different moments in time and with different lifespans.

Information regarding the EOL is imperative for knowing the exact moment of

redevelopment of the assets and components of the urban area (Zevenbergen

et. al 2015). This means that the distribution of assets reaching the EOL over a

given range of years defines the actual adaptation rate of the individual urban

implementation, including both the upgrade and replacement of the

components.

Cities constitute various spatio-temporal dynamic systems. The

differences in temporal dynamics of these aspects require adaptation when it is

due (Zevenberhen, et. al, 2012). The implementation of the opportunistic

adaptation design principle presupposes an understanding of the urban

dynamics and the possible issues that would arise in attempting to build an

adaptable urban settlement. Consideration must be made to the age and

lifetime of the building stock, exposure and sensitivity to floods at the level of
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individual buildings, and the effectiveness and efficiency of potential retrofitting

measures (Zevenbergen et. al 2015). Nilubon, Veerbeek, and Zevenbergen

(2015) published an article in UNESCO (2015) stating the following indicators

for the opportunistic adaptation methodology: there must be (1) timing - this

aspect is dependent on the End of Lifetime (EOL) of individual assets and

components: by knowing the temporal dynamics, adaptation measures can be

integrated at the right time; (2) flood maps – mapping out the flooding events in

the area is significant for the assessment of the whole spectrum of these

events, allowing the designer to get an idea as to how to implement the flood

adaptation measures for that particular area; and (3) flood adaptation measures

- once the flooding events are mapped out, the accumulation of more detailed

information regarding flood depths, frequency, and duration is next. The

effectiveness of the flood adaptation measures will also depend on the design

and construction of the buildings. Retrofitting techniques such as dry-proofing

(aims to prevent water from entering the building) are most effective in areas

with low water depths (maximum 0.3 meters). Wet-proofing (allows the water

to enter the building) are more effective in areas with high water depths

(between 0.3 and 0.6 meters) (Ref DG523, 2014). A total rebuilding of the

existing buildings and infrastructure into elevated or amphibious structures may

be considered for areas with high flood depths (>0.6 meters) and a relatively

high probability of flooding (>1:25 years).

Adaptation Through Disaster Risk Reduction Methods

Adaptation is defined in a report by Anderson in the IPCC (2008) as “the

adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected

climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial

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opportunities”. The development of adaptation methods has led to the

application of sustainable design. The method of adaptation could be a more

effective alternative than that of the conventional linear approach to disaster

planning, characterized as “mitigation–preparation–response–recovery”

(Beatley, 2009), reducing the risk to lives and livelihoods and increases

resilience of communities to all hazards.

“Disaster risk reduction” is defined by Anderson (2008) as “action taken

to reduce the risk of disasters and the adverse impacts of natural hazards,

through systematic efforts to analyse and manage the causes of disasters,

including through avoidance of hazards, reduced social and economic

vulnerability to hazards, and improved preparedness for adverse events”; it

answers to the problems brought on by constant fluctuations of nature.

An article in the “Philippines News Agency” written by Mellejor (2019)

reported that about 20 thousand families were forced to evacuate their homes

after a major flooding event in Compostella Valley. Another article by Sunstar

Davao reported how thousands of residents in Davao City were forced to

evacuate due to floods caused by heavy rains (Casamayor and Comilang,

2019). Davao City used to be a flood and typhoon-free zone, stated Maglana

(2013) in an article in Sunstar Davao, but climate change made even Davao

City at risk of frequent natural disasters, making the employment of adaptation

methods necessary.

Designers strive for establishing relationships between the built

environment and hydrologic dynamics that are not mutually exclusive

(Shannon, 2013). Climate change gave rise to new calamities and predictions.
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This eventuality calls for a new design paradigm in disaster risk reduction that

focuses on adaptation rather than control.

Flooding is one of the most common problems caused by climate

change. Changes in temperature cause a rise in sea level, which causes

deeper inundations in flood waters (Liao, et. al, 2014). However, most urban

settlements rely on flood-proofing instead of making their cities flood resilient,

making it harder for settlements to adapt to the ever-changing state of flooding.

To combat this problem, Liao, Le, and Nguyen (2014) translated ecological

wisdom into three community design principles: community design should (1)

anticipate and accommodate flooding, (2) incorporate the ecological process of

flooding, and (3) reveal the flood dynamics to the public.

Community design should anticipate and accommodate flooding. One of

the repercussions of the flood control paradigm is that urban designers do not

see flooding as a normal part of the ecosystem, hardly considering the

phenomenon as a factor in designing (Liao, Le, & Nguyen, 2014). The old

design paradigm assumes that hazard mitigation is the responsibility of

hydraulic engineers. Urban cities receive more severe repercussions in the

event of flooding than rural areas (Aerts, et. al. 2019). The established mentality

is that flood-control is the fool proof method to minimize damage and risks,

when there are other approaches that lean towards ecologically-based

principles.

Community design should incorporate the ecological process of flooding.

Floods vary from their levels, effects, and seasonal-basis. There are medium

floods that serve their purpose for the ecology, especially in rural areas (Liao,
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et. al. 2014). In a study conducted in Vin An, Vietnam by Liao, Le, and Nguyen

(2014), they found out that seasonal flooding deposits alluvium to fertilize the

fields and brings more aquatic lives. It also supports non-potable water uses,

like dishwashing, laundry, and/or bathing when the sediment-laden floodwater

is settled to become clear. Making cities flood-tolerant would provide a chance

to re-introduce ecologically critical flooding and could consequentially restore

some ecosystem services of urban rivers (Liao, 2014).

Community design should reveal the flood dynamics to the public. One

of the consequences of the flood control design paradigm is the building of

floodwalls between rivers and the city itself. This results in an ignorance of the

ecological processes and the effects of climate change in the urban area (Liao,

et. al. 2014). Flooding is a natural phenomenon and can be mitigated more on

the basis of regular observations than on scientific knowledge alone (Ehlert,

2012). Allowing the community to interact with the flood and river ecology will

result in a deeper understanding of river health and dynamics and the causes

and effects of climate change in their area. This approach revolves on the

concept of eco-revelatory design proposed by Brown (1998) – the concept has

a huge impact on ecological urbanism. Eco-revelatory design is about the

revelation of natural processes in designing and allowing a physical interaction

between humans and nature. This approach would serve as valuable public

education of flood ecology and help cultivate public appreciation of the positive

side of flooding in the city.

Strategies for Flood Resilient Construction of Dwellings

Flooding has a large-scale effect in megacities. The density of population

in flood-prone coastal areas and megacities is anticipated to rise to about 25%

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by 2050; predictions in climate change and the rise of sea level may further

boost the frequency and/or severity of large-scale floods (Henrique, 2015).

Because of these ominous predictions, designers and planners developed new

design paradigms that will counter the changes in flood levels due to climate

change.

Henrique stated in his paper Housing Responses to Climate Change:

Analyzing architectures of transition in flood-prone zones (2015) that the

community flood resilient approach should be constructed in sufficient surplus

capacity (headspace) to cope with previously experienced elevated

concentrations of flooding and should have sufficient flexibility to adjust in time

when greater levels of flooding are expected. This means that the strategy (1)

requires immediate responses in frequently flooded areas (return periods lower

than five years) with significant flood depths (0.6m and beyond); (2) will

necessitate the gradual adaption of the entire region to minimize the nuisance

and damage caused by annual floods; (3) requires the area to be adapted in a

medium-term (50 year) manner to restrict flood damage from a 100 year event

(comparable to the 2011 flood); (4) must be flexible enough to accommodate

greater flood rates due to unforeseen changes; and (5) requires the

incorporation of adaptation measures at the individual asset stage: buildings,

roads, public spaces, etc. without the need for massive reconstruction efforts

(Henrique, 2015).

There are various approaches, technologies, and techniques developed

through the years to lessen flood risk as summarized by Henrique (2015) (see

Appendix E). Until now, structural defences such as flood walls, dams, and

levees are still used (Proverbs and Lamond, 2017). Retrofitting and flood
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damage repair measures such as dry-proofing is a method in flood control

(Henrique, 2015). The disadvantages of controlling the entry of flood waters

has already been pointed out, and is a poor option to employ in urban

communities. Elevated housing is one of the most common design method for

flood prone settlements (Nilubon, Veerbeek, & Zevenbergen, 2015). however

the structures might not be able to adapt to the increase in flood rates and

inundation due to unforeseen changes in climate (Henrique, 2015). The typical

approach towards amphibious technologies consists of a foundation that rests

on the ground under normal conditions but enables a building or infrastructure

to rise as high as necessary when flooding occurs (Nilubon, Veerbeek, &

Zevenbergen, 2015). This could then be integrated with wet-proofing methods

because the amphibious approach allows flood waters to enter the area. These

methods incorporate resilience in the structures, rendering it adaptive to the

effects of climate change (Henrique, 2015).

The issues rising in urban flood control can be addressed with a different

innovative design strategy. Adaptation towards flooding addresses the

problems pertaining future changes in climate more effectively than flood

control design strategies (Liao et. al, 2014). Instead of keeping water away from

communities, integrating different levels of water into design can lead to the

development of distinctive alternatives in which transient waters translate into

dynamic liveable areas for communities to build on and flourish (Henrique,

2015).

One of the newest technologies employed for flood resilient dwellings is

the dynamic housing approach, wherein the main principle is the integration of

ecological wisdom into new innovative building strategies, seeking to integrate

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the natural phenomenon of flooding into the built environment rather than

barricading it away. Liao, Le and Nguyen (2014) stated that “to survive in a

future of hydrological uncertainty, modern cities need ‘amphibious urbanism’ -

capable of operating at both dry and wet conditions”. Some studies like

Henrique (2015) translated the principle of ‘amphibious urbanism’ into the

concept of building structures ”able to adapt to both land and water”, which is

the definition of Merriam-Webster Dictionary towards the term ‘amphibious’.

The dynamic housing approach is an adaptive house that transforms in the

event of flooding. It allows the inhabitants of the dwelling to have a key part in

urban flood resiliency.

One of the pressing issues that hinder effective urban resiliency is the

idea that the government is solely responsible for the safety and disaster risk

reduction of the locality (Liao, Le, & Nguyen, 2014). By giving the residents an

active role in flood risk reduction, it instils a sense of resilience in them. The key

principle of this technology is that it enables the natural hydrological cycle to

“work together” because it tolerates fluctuating water levels instead of trying to

prevent or divert water (Nilubon, Veerbeek, & Zevenbergen, 2015).

Theoretical Framework

With the issues caused by climate change, Nilubon, Veerbeek, and

Zevenbergen (2015) built a framework on flood resilience strategies for

communities adjacent to coastal developments with the idea that in order to

adapt areas to better deal with future flood occurrences, a “robust strategy” will

be the most beneficial, capable of coping with annual local flood events,

extreme events as well as unforeseen occurrences as a consequence of long

term modifications by climate change, physical interventions in the river basins,

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and/or increase in neighbouring impervious areas. This approach in flood risk

reduction is applicable in the built environment. However one of the challenges

in the flood adaptation paradigm pointed out by Liao, Le, and Nguyen (2016) is

the prevention of wider adaptation measures by the inhabitants’ perspective

that the government is solely responsible for implementing disaster mitigation

methods. A study conducted in the Netherlands and U.K. shows that most

people would not invest in flood resilient technologies and approaches because

they consider the government responsible for their well-being and the reduction

of risks caused by disasters (Bichard & Kazmierczak, 2011).

Adedeji et. al (2018) developed an approach that considers both the

building components and its residents in minimising flood risk exposure through

flood resilience called the “hybrid approach”. In a paper they published entitled

“Making Homes More Resilient to Flooding: A New Hybrid Approach”, they

stated that there are direct and indirect impacts and tangible and intangible

losses caused by flooding that affects both buildings and humans (Adedeji, et.

al 2018).

The study will be anchored on the “hybrid approach” by Adedeji et. al.

The approach used will be a synthesis of the “robust strategy” (Zevenbergen

et. al. 2018) and the consideration of humans as active components in disaster

risk reduction (Adedeji et. al 2018). Opportunistic adaptation methods are used

by Zevenbergen et. al (2018) in response to the “robust strategy” in design. The

framework for this method is the consideration of urban dynamics and the

potentials of intervention to adapt. Data on new climate-related design

standards and subsequent adaptation measures by the study locale will be

needed for the implementation of the new adaptation paradigm. This framework
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is relevant to the study for it can combat the urban problems brought on by

climate change that could not be addressed by conventional design and

engineering methods on both the structural and human components of the

community.
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Conceptual Framework

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

A. Lived
experiences of
the inhabitants
during and after
the flood
B. Frequency and
level of flood in
Barangay 1-A
as experienced
by the residents
C. Specific
strategies that
should be
employed in
flood resilient
housing utilizing Opportunistic Flood Resilient
the opportunistic Adaptation Design Housing
design
D. Building
materials to be
used in the
structures that
can withstand
flood waters and
are cost
effective
E. Prototype
design of flood
resilient housing

Figure 1. Framework of the Study

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The conceptual framework as shown in Figure 1 shows the input,

process, and output of this study. The input variables shows all the necessary

information required for the process. First, knowledge of the lived experiences

of the inhabitants during and after the flood is needed in order to gain

understanding of how floods affect their daily lives and how this can be applied

to the housing design. Second, for the purpose of building ideas on how to

implement the flood adaptation measures in design, acquiring information on

the frequency and levels of flood in Barangay 1-A as experienced by the

residents is necessary for the assessment of the whole spectrum of flood

events in the areas. Third, specific strategies that should be employed in flood

resilient housing utilizing the opportunistic design are necessary in order to

design a functional house that is capable of adapting to climate change. Fourth,

determining what kind of building materials should be used in the structures that

can withstand flood waters that are cost effective will be useful in ensuring the

flood resiliency of the structure while making sure the cost of the project stays

within reasonable terms. Lastly, the resulting prototype design of the flood

resilient housing will lead to a solution to the lack of climate change resiliency

of communities.

The approach used in the study is the opportunistic adaptation design

method. At the last stages of the study, models will be built to test theories and

concepts and to exhibit a substantial result of the design strategies employed

on the structure. The output of the study will be a flood resilient housing design

for residential communities near coastal developments.

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Chapter 2

METHODS

This chapter discusses the methods of the research design to be used

in the study, including the research participants, data collection, data gathering

procedure, ethical considerations and the trustworthiness of the study.

Research Design

The study applied a descriptive method to gather in-depth information,

deepening the study and examining the research problems holistically

(DeFranzo, 2011). The qualitative research methodologies explored in-depth

analysis of the complexities of human experiences and community systems that

cannot be fully captured by analytical tools and statistical results through

conducting semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and

documentations.

Research Locale

The study is conducted in the most flood prone areas in Davao City:

Barangays 1-A. The 2015 Census calculated the population of every barangay

in Davao City, and Barangay 1-A is located adjacent to the Davao River, with a

population of 3,103, representing 0.19% of the total population of Davao City.

Research Respondents

In the quantitative phase of the study, reliable sampling techniques is

utilized, focusing on the residents of Barangays 1-A. Seven (7) long-term

residents of legal age with a minimum of ten (10) years of lived experience in
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the place and had experienced heavy flooding along with two (2) barangay

officials will be some the participants for the in-depth interview, assuming them

to have longer and more in-depth experiences regarding the flooding events of

the chosen barangay. One (1) architect/environmental planner will also be

interviewed for the planning and environmental aspects of the design.

The researcher used purposive sampling techniques in selecting the

respondents coupled with the snowball sampling method. The purposive

sampling technique is a non-probability sampling technique based on the

researcher’s on judgment and is useful when studying a certain cultural domain

and selecting knowledgeable experts within it (Tongco, 2007). This technique’s

advantage is its efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Snowball sampling method

is also a non-probability sampling technique in which the researcher starts with

a small number of individuals and expands the number of respondents by

asking the initial respondents for friends or acquaintances that could participate

in the research, thus the term “snowballing” (Crossman, 2019).

Data Collection

The study utilized primary data, which are gathered by the researcher

itself (Sindhu, 2012). The researcher gathered the following primary data: (1)

level of damages caused by floods in the research locale; (2) current measures

the communities’ residents use to protect themselves and their properties

against flood; (3) experiences and perceptions of the inhabitants towards

flooding in their communities; (4) types of livelihoods of the residents; (5) effects

of flood towards the inhabitants’ livelihoods; and (6) the daily activities of the

inhabitants before, during, and after floods.

 23

Research Procedure

The following are the steps used by the researcher for data collection:

1.) Asking Permission to Conduct the Study. The researcher submitted

a letter of consent to the principal to ask authorization in conducting

interviews and facilitate a focus group discussion with selected research

respondents. The letter of consent was sent to the thesis adviser Ar.

Steven Adrianne Chua, thesis moderator Ar. Leonida D. Santos, and to

the Engineering and Architecture Dead Engr. Juvie Pauline L. Relacion,

seeking to gain approval to conduct the study in Davao City.

2.) Conducting an Interview. The researcher conducted interviews

following the interview protocol consisting of a written questionnaire for

face-to-face interviews. Conversely, the researcher used a semi-

structured style of interviewing using open-ended questions and

additional sub-questions as the interview progresses to allow the

participants sufficient freedom to control the pace and direction of the

interview. Note-taking and digital voice-recording was used by the

researcher to record the information from the interviews.

3.) Conducting Ocular Inspections. The researcher conducted ocular

inspections in the research locale, documenting and recording the

various findings in the course of the inspection through digital

photography, video recording, notes, and manual sketches.

4.) Transcribing and Analysing of Data. Finally, the researcher analysed

the gathered data using the thematic data analysis.

 24

Research Instruments

The study was accumulating secondary data, which is used to gain initial

insight into the research problem (Sindhu, 2012). The instruments used to

gather this type of data are ebooks, online journals, news journals, government

and organizational data, and various internet searches. The resources chosen

contain credible information that other authors and researchers have gathered

through reliable methods of data gathering.

The study also utilized primary data, which are gathered by the

researcher itself (Sindhu, 2012). The study employs the descriptive research

design in qualitative data gathering, which will utilize (1) open-ended semi-

structured interviews designed to collect in-depth analysis of the residents’

experiences and insights; and (2) personal observations and documentations

of the study locale. The in-depth interviews will look into (1) the lived

experiences of the inhabitants during and after the flood; (2) the frequency and

level of flood in Barangay 1-A as experienced by the participants; (3) the

specific strategies that should be employed in flood resilient housing utilizing

the opportunistic design; (4) the kind of building materials should be used in the

structures that can withstand flood waters that are cost effective; and (5) the

type of prototype design of the flood resilient housing that can be proposed.

The in-depth interviews lasted for one (1) hour each. The researcher will

conduct the interview and an audio recorder will be used to record the session.

The interview took place in a designated room or structure depending on the

interviewee. The data was analysed through thematic data analysis methods.

Thematic data analysis summarizes important parts of data, making the

 25

researcher take a well-structured approach in data analysis, producing an

organized final transcription (Moules, et. al. 2014).

Ethical Considerations

This research proposal was submitted to the Review Ethics Committee

of the University. I assure that this study will strictly abide on ethics policies and

protect human subjects throughout this research.

Social Value. This study will prevent displacement of communities

during floods. Displacement of entire communities results in the disruption of

daily activities and social cohesion, and can overpopulate an area in the urban

settlement. Using a new disaster risk reduction strategy that does not involve

displacement of entire communities will encourage inhabitants to take action

and trust in their fellow residents, forming bonds and reinforcing social

cohesion.

Informed Consent. The researcher will ensure that all participants has

voluntarily consented to be part of this study. Informed consent will clearly

indicate the purpose of the researcher and will ensure full understanding of the

study. The participant will be asked to sign a written informed consent to get

their absolute permission. They will be given opportunities to clarify, ask and

decline whenever they have doubts during their participation in the research

process.

Vulnerability of research participants. The researcher will ensure that

unique social groups will not be singled out for the purpose of the study. There

are no identified vulnerable participants in this research and every one of them

is of legal age. Residents and barangay leaders are all in the capacity to decide
 26

whether to participate or not, as they will be purposively identified as samples

of the research. The subjects who will be involved in this study will be chosen

solely on their relevance to the problem of practice that was studied.

Risks, benefits, safety. Participants will be oriented of the possible risk,

benefits and safety issues of the study. The risk identified could be the possible

psychological effects of discussing traumatic events. To counter this, the

researcher will extensively brief the participants on their rights to keep quiet and

leave questions unanswered if they choose to do so.

The results of the study will introduce a new innovative way of thinking

in designing that can be sustainable in the future and can rebuild the connection

of megacities to nature, gradually making communities adaptive to climate

change by employing adaptive design technologies based on the individual

assets’ temporal dynamics. The study will also raise awareness of the

environmental state of the locality. In this study, the researcher will be able to

explore new approaches in innovative design and gain significant insights of

the ecological issues happening in the locality.

Privacy and confidentiality of information. The researcher will make

sure that access to the personal information of the participants and the

recordings of the interview discussion (transcription) will be protected in

accordance with the Data Privacy Act of 2012 and ethics policy of the school to

assure that the data cannot be traced back to their real sources to protect their

identities. The researcher will respect the rights of the participant for privacy

and confidentiality by ensuring them that no records will be released and

exposed that might jeopardize the identity of the participants. Confidentially will
 27

be guaranteed to the participants throughout the study through the careful

guarding of all collected data and information from them. Research assistants,

transcribers and translators if there is, will be instructed and oriented

accordingly about confidentiality and privacy considerations.

Justice. The researcher will ensure to be fair and just at all times within

the entire conduct of the study. Participants will be fairly treated and their rights

will be protected as well. Participants’ availability during the focus group

discussion will be given equal consideration to make sure that no time will be

compromised.

Transparency. To be absolutely transparent, all necessary attachments

will be included in the appendix and all possible forms of limitations will be

declared in the research. Any information applicable and evidences needed that

may have an effect on the overall findings of the study will be reported

accordingly to ensure transparency. The possible influence of the researcher

to the selected barangay was also declared as one of the methodological issues

of this study.

Qualifications of the researcher. The researcher has no previous

experience in conducting a descriptive research but will ensure that

comprehensive reading, analysis and research is done to supplement ideas on

how to effectively conduct the study. The researcher will be very open in getting

the recommendations and support from the adviser, research experts and the

panelist for the improvement and reliability of this research. The researcher will

give the participants the respect they deserve and will remain to be humble,
 28

morally upright, socially aware and sensitive in all aspects that might affect the

participants.

Adequacy of facilities. The researcher will ensure that the research

environment for the conduct of the research will support the research

procedures and protocol. The researcher will make use of the university library

and the college library where the researcher is currently working. The focus

group discussion will also be conducted in the available areas and conference

rooms of the participating barangay upon granted request by the school

administrators. Also, the researcher will make sure that all needed facilities will

be provided to avoid delays and discomfort of the participants.

Community Involvement. The researcher as a resident of the place of

the study, will respect the local traditions and culture of the people of Davao

City. The heads and leaders of the barangay and the architects/environmental

planners will be properly oriented about the study as one of the main

participants. Residents of the barangay will be given awareness of the

environmental health of the locality and will be given a clear understanding of

the impact the study could give in climate change adaptation and the

community of architects and environmental planners can help enrich the design

of the prototype.
 29

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APPENDICES

Appendix A

Causes of Climate Change

Geological and historical records show that Earth’s climatic status has varied

considerably for thousands of years. The causes of these changes are not

always clear but are generally known to be related to changes in ocean

currents, solar activity, volcanic eruptions and other natural factors (Geneva,

2008). These fluctuations were not a cause for extreme alarm, as fluxes in

climate and changes in atmospheric behaviour are common.

However, nowadays global temperature has risen much too rapidly over

the last few decades. It is believed that greenhouse gases are the major

contributors to climate change as they very effective in trapping heat into the

atmosphere, hence the greenhouse effect (Kaddo, 2016). It is known that the

ozone layer filters most of the sun’s light before reaching the Earth’s surface.

Unfortunately human activity has caused the accumulation of greenhouse

gases, which act as a “blanket”, trapping incoming solar energy and keeping

the Earth’s surface warmer than it otherwise would be (Geneva, 2008). If the

accumulation of greenhouse gases in the ozone layer continues, global

warming would soon hasten to worsen.

In “Climate Change Effects – Where to Next,” Daniela Burghila et. al.

(2015) stated that scientists are mostly concerned about CO2 emissions as it

accounts for about 75% if total worldwide greenhouse gas emissions. Berbisi

et. al (2014) stated that “methane leakage from evolving petroleum systems:

Masses, rates, and inferences for climate feedback” ascribed the current
 34

warming trend to an annual rise in the concentration of atmospheric methane

and CO2. A report by Geneva to the IPCC (2008) stated that the current

concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is now the highest it has

been for the past 500,000 years, having grown by 70% between 1970 and 2004

alone. It can therefore be concluded that human activities, in particular fossil

fuel use and changing land-uses, are the dominant factor in global warming and

climate change growth for the past 50 years (Geneva, 2008).

 35

Appendix B

Human Impacts on Climate Change

The arguable perspective on climate change is that human activities are the

main causes to these undesirable events (Geneva, 2008). Some of these

include activities that increase global warming through the unwanted

accumulation of greenhouse gases and deforestation (Mason et. al. 2018).

Greenhouse gases are so-called because their abundance leads to a

“greenhouse effect” (Mason et. al. 2018). Naturally, solar energy is consumed

by the surface of the earth and then reflected back into the atmosphere, then

the greenhouse gases absorb a portion of the heat as the heat passes into

space (Kaddo, 2016).

Cutting down tree canopies without replacing it passively increases

climate change by simple fact that trees and other vegetation are carbon sinks

(Bradford, 2018). The fewer sinks we have, the faster carbon emissions will

accumulate in the atmosphere and it seems deforestation is increasing despite

international efforts to slow it down and replace more trees than we are cutting

down. Some of this carbon is heading for the oceans which is now absorbing

much more carbon than it has done for a very long time, leading to ocean

acidification and coral bleaching which is upsetting the delicate balance of

marine ecosystems (Mason et. al. 2018).

 36

Appendix C

Subsequent Natural Disasters

Leading scientists have reported the more sinister meaning behind the extreme

fluctuations in the world’s climate. Due to records of past events it is safe to say

that climate change is rapidly increasing. By extrapolating the data of past

climate-related events, the IPCC (2008) has concluded that the likely events to

happen are as follows:

(a) More heat waves will result in more fatalities, particularly among the

elderly, the very young, or among the individuals who are chronically ill,

socially isolated, or otherwise particularly vulnerable.

(b) Increased drought in some areas is probable to result in land

degradation, crop damage or decreased yields, enhanced livestock

fatalities, and enhanced wildfire risk. Such circumstances will enhance

the risk to agriculturally dependent communities through food and water

shortages and a higher incidence of malnutrition, waterborne and

foodborne illnesses, and may lead to population displacement.

(c) Increased elevated rainfall frequency in some areas will cause floods a

nd landslides, with big losses of lives and property. These events will

interfere with agriculture, settlements, trade and transportation and may

further boost urban and rural infrastructure pressures.

(d) Increases in the amount and intensity of very powerful cyclones (typho

ons and hurricanes) will impact coastal areas, significant life and asset

losses.

(e) Sea-level rise, combined with coastal storms, will enhance the impact of

storm surges and river flooding and harm livelihoods and ecosystem
 37

protection. Low-lying settlements may become unliveable, leading to

enhanced population and infrastructure loss.

(f) Higher temperatures and melting glaciers may cause glacial lake

outbursts that could flood downstream settlements.

 38

Appendix D

Impacts of Flood to the Building and Human Components

The impacts of flood vary on whether they are direct and indirect, and further

categorized as tangible and intangible (Joseph, 2014) as summarized in Table

1.

Building Human

Tangible Intangible Tangible Intangible

Direct Physical Loss of Injuries and

damage to irreplaceable fatalities

building and items Hypothermia

contents Loss of Ill health

memorabilia

Indirect Loss of Increased Stress

house value travel cost Anxiety

Loss of utility Increase in Disruption of

supplies (like insurance daily life and

electricity, premium normal

gas, water) Repair costs activities

Inconvenience

of post flood

recovery

Table 1 Classification of the flood impacts to the building and human

components
 39

Appendix E

Approaches in Flood Risk Reduction

Flood risk reduction can be implemented by various approaches and

technologies, as summarized by Henrique (2015) in Table 2.

Design Water Depth Approach/Technology Features

< 0.3m Dry proofing Creating a water barrier

(external or internal) that

reaches the building

envelope.

0.3 – 0.6m Wet proofing Allowing water to enter the

building.

< 0.4m Amphibious The building can adapt when

the water level begins to rise.

0.6 – 2.5m Elevated Prevents water from entering

the building by raising the

ground floor.

Table 2. Flood resilient design strategies for structures