CAMERA
 Literally speaking, it is a device use for capturing
the image of the objects being photograph
 It is a (1) light tight box with a pinhole or (2) lens
to form an image, with a (3) shutter and
diaphragm to control the time and amount of
light passing through it and a (4) means of holding
sensitized material to record photographic
images.
 Note: Pinhole is a small or tiny hole which
produces an image entirely free from distortion
but its image is so dim that is impractically long to
be recorded even if the fastest film is used.
PARTS OF CAMERA
1. Light Tight Box (LTB)- it is an enclosure devoid of
light. Its function is to exclude all unwanted light
that might expose the sensitized material or film.
(unwanted exposure)
2. The Lens- a transparent medium which either
converge or diverge light rays passing through it
to form an image.
The Shutter
 A contraption or device that opens to uncover the
film to make an exposure in a pre-determined
interval of time.
 It’s action is measured in second or fraction of a
second.
 This literally controls the length of time that the
film will be exposed to a given amount of light.
Kinds of Shutter
1. Central Shutter or Between the Lens Shutter
-a shutter that is located between the lens components. It
is made up of metal leaves and its action starts from the
center toward the side, then close back to the center.
2. Focal Plane Shutter
-a shutter located near the focal plane of the film. It is
usually made up of cloth curtain but also available in
mental. Some focal plane shutter opens vertically, while
other camera models use horizontally moving shutter. This
type of shutter can give a faster shutter speeds than the
between the lens shutter.
Shutter Speed: 1-2-4-8-15-30-60-125-250-500-1000
B (BULB)- setting in the shutter speed will make the shutter
remain open until the shutter released button is pressed, it
will again close the moment the finger is lifted and lost its
pressure to the button.
T- setting- has the same effect with B- setting, the only
difference is that in order to make the shutter close, the
button must be pressed for the second time.
X- setting- on the other hand is use when a flash unit is
desired.
Film Holder or Holder of Sensitized Material
 This is located at the back of the camera. Its
function mainly is to hold the film in its place
during exposure to prevent the formation of
multiple or blurred image of the subject. It is
usually consist of a cavity for the film cartridge
and a film take up spool on the other side.
Other Parts of Camera
1. Viewfinder or Viewing system- the viewfinder of
the camera determines the entire scene coverage
that will be recorded on the fil inside the camera.
In SLR types of camera, the viewfinder shows
exactly what the lens sees.
2. Film Advancer- This mechanism transfer the
exposed film on the take up spool while at the
same time advancing the next remaining
unexposed film behind the lens for new exposure.
3. Lens Aperture- the light gathering power of the
lens is determine by the area of its aperture or
opening. Control over the lens aperture can be
obtained by selecting the desired f-numbers,
engraved on the lens barrel.
 a glass bulb that looks like a light bulb. The flash
bulb is ignited with the aid of a flash gun and can
be used only once.

4. Shutter Speed Selector- control the speed of

opening and closing of the shutter, to regulate the
quantity of light that will expose the film in the 6. Electronic Flash- involves the process of
camera. producing light by passing an electrical current
through a glass bulb containing a gas. Electronic
Flash guns produce a light of a much shorter
duration than the flash bulbs. The electricity can
come either from the electric wiring or from a
battery.
5. Focusing Mechanism- provides sharpness and
clearness to the object being photograph. The
mechanism will determine the distance of the
object from the camera, where the image will
appear sharp and focused.

Camera Accessories 7. Light Meter- a device used in determining the

intensity of light that strike the subject and affect
1. Tripod- are the most popular and useful camera the film. It is used in order to determine the
support for general photography. possible correct amount of exposure.
2. Photo Filter- is a transparent homogenous
medium, which absorbs and transmits different
light rays passing through it. It usually made up of
small disk of colored glass or sometimes from
gelatin cemented between glass plates. The filter
itself is screwed in front of the lens barrel of
sometimes came up with its own holder. MAJOR TYPES OF CAMERA

A color Asterisk will show you which colors are 1. View Finder Type
complimentary a. The smallest and simplest type of
camera to operate.
3. Cable Release- these come in different length and
b. Eye level camera equipped with a
allowed the operator to fire the camera from a
simple lens system
distance. This is attached to the shutter release of
c. Inexpensive and allow the operator to
the camera and use in releasing the shutter to
focus even in low light level.
prevent unnecessary movement caused by the
d. Suffers from “parallax error”
pressing the shutter release button to permit
longer exposure.

4. Flash Units- this could either be a flash bulb or

electronic flash, which is synchronized to the
action of the shutter. This is very effective
especially when there’s no enough light for the
object being photograph. This accessory could
enable the operator to stop or arrest the
movement of the subject.
5. The Flash Bulbs- A source of artificial light that
occurs through the burning certain metals in an
atmosphere of oxygen. The burning takes place in
Parallax- is the change in appearance and orientation of
objects when sees from the viewpoints. It is also used to
refer to the distance between the viewpoints themselves.
Parallax in view finder cameras shows the difference on
what the viewfinder sees as compared as to what the
capturing lens sees. The result, some parts of the subject
were missed in the final print.
2. Single Lens Reflex (SLR)
 a. Allows the operator to view and focus
through the same lens that captured
image on the film.
b. This type of camera automatically
eliminates “parallax error”
c. Heavier and more complex than the
viewfinder type
d. Create a loud click during exposure that
makes it ineffective for self-conscious
subject
e. Not advisable to be used in poor
lightning condition.
3. Twin Lens Reflex Type
a. A camera with two lenses
b. The upper lens is the focusing lens and
lower the lens in the taking lens
c. Best used in ground subjects
d. Suffers from “parallax error”
Photomicrography- the science of obtaining photographic
magnification of minute objects by using a camera attached
to a compound microscope. The camera lens is removed
because the microscope lenses are us to form final image.
Photo macrography- is a process of obtaining magnified
photograph of a small object without the us of a
microscope, by using a short focus lens and a long bellow
extension.
4. View or Press Camera
a. Considered as the most sophisticated
and biggest among the different types
of camera
b. Provides through the lens viewing and
large photograph
c. Focusing is achieved by moving the lens
forward or backward until a sharp
image is seen in the viewing screen
d. Parallax error is eliminated
e. Used in reproduction of documents and
in photomicrography
f. Due to its bulkiness, it requires tripod to
operate smoothly
g. Useless for candid or action
photography
h. It creates discomfort for the operator
for the image in the viewing screen
appears inverted
THE LENS
GENERAL TYPES OF LENSES
 THE CONVERGENT,POSITIVE OR CONVEX LENS
o Characterized by a lens thicker at the
center and thinner at the sides. When
light rays pass through it, they converge
and meet at the certain point behind
the lens. It has a positive focal length.
 THE DIVERGENT, NEGATIVE OR CONCAVE LENS
o This lens is always thinner at the center
and thicker at the sides. Light passing
through it are bended away from each
other as if coming from a point.
FOCAL LENGTH
 The distance measured from the optical center of
the lens to the film plane when the lens is set to
focus at infinity position.
 It is expressed in millimeter (indicated in the lens
barrel of the camera) and tells some important
thing about how lens will act when installed on
the camera.
 It determines the size of the image at a given
distance, and the area coverage or the angle of
view of the lens.
Lenses Accuracy Focal Length
1. Wide angle
2. Normal
3. Telephoto/Long
4. Zoom
CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES AS TO FOCAL LENGTH
1.Wide Angle Lens
 A lens with a focal length less than the diagonal of
its negative material.
  It produces a wide angle of view but the image
decreases in size which sometimes causes
distortion.
 Usually used on non-spacious or narrow places or
areas mostly on small rooms.
 Also utilized outdoor when panoramic view is
desired. Note: Focal Distance is not the same with the Focal
Length. Focal Distance refers to the distance from the
optical center of the lens to film plane.

Depth of Focus- in focus

Focal Length- infinity position

Focal Distance- not in infinity position

2.Normal Lens
THE LENS DIAPHRAGM
 A lens with focal length is approximately equal or
 The light gathering power of the lens is indicated
more but not more than twice the diagonal of its
by its f- number or relative aperture. This can be
negative material.
controlled by means of diaphragm. The
 This provides realistic view of the scene to be
diaphragm of the lens can be made larger or
photograph
smaller. Its control depends upon the quantity
 37mm-74mm (50mm)
and quality of the light coming from the subject.
 Note: As a rule, the more light given by the
source, the more light will be reflected or
transmitted by the subject.

3.Telephoto Lens

 A lens with a focal length more than twice of its

diagonal material
 This kind of lens has a narrow angle of view
 This offer great magnification and mostly use for
surveillance purposes for its capability to take
pictures even at great distance
 75mm
 The smaller the opening or aperture of a
diaphragm, the less light will be admitted, and
being represented by a higher numerical value.
Contrary to that, the wider the aperture the more
light will be admitted and it is being represented
by lower numerical value off.
 The following are the f-number series:
 F1.4 - F2 – F2.8 – F4 – F5.6 – F8 – F11 – F16 – F22

4.Zoom Lens

 A lens with variable focal length

 This enable the photographer to adjust focal THE DEPTH OF FIELD
length and magnification of the lens without the
need of replacements.
  It is measure of the zone of acceptable focus it is
the distance from the nearest object in good
focus, to the farthest object in good focus.
Rules on Depth of Field
Depth of Field is increased by : SMALL LENS APERTURE
Rules on Depth of Field
Depth of Field is increased by : SHORTER FOCAL LENGTH
LENS
Rules on Depth of Field
Depth of Field is increased by : GREATER SUBJECT
DISTANCE
Another Factor that affects the depth of field is the size of
the circle of confusion which is considered acceptable. Circle
of confusion refers to a small circle which is seen by the eye,
not as a circle but a dot or a point.
NOTE: Hyperfocal distance is different from depth of field.
 Hyperfocal Distance- is the nearest distance at
which a lens is focused with a given particular
diaphragm opening which will give the maximum
depth of field.
To find hyperfocal distance, focus lens at infinity as at left.
Lens aperture is set as f-11, so yellow lines on depth-of-field
indicator show depth of field from a near limit of about 3
meters to infinity and an equal amount beyond infinity.
Hyperfocal distance is 3 meters. Refocus lens to hyperfocal
distance, as at night. Now depth of field extends from about
1.5 meters all the way to infinity, with none wasted beyond
infinity. Shortcut method. Find the near and far limits on
depth-of-field indicator, for the aperture you are using.
Then set infinity mark on focus distance scale so it is
opposite the far limit as in the photo at right.
Depth of Focus different from Depth of Field and
Hyperfocal Distance
 Depth of Focus or Focal Range- refers to the
distance between the film and the lens where the
subject will appear in acceptable focus.
FOCUSING
 Is the setting of the proper distance in order to
form a sharp image to the sensitized material
inside the camera.
 When light passes through a converging lens it
(light) bends and meet at a certain point behind
such lens. Such point is the “Point of Focus”.
 A camera except, those fixed focused requires
focusing. A lens maybe in focused in any of the
following.
1.FOCUSING SCALE OR SCALE BED
 A scale found at the lens barrel indicating pre-set
distance in feet or in meters.
 To use the rangefinders, the object’s distance
from the camera should be first measured,
estimated or calculated.
 By using the pointer or marker provided at the
lens barrel, the observe distance of the subject is
then adjusted to the corresponding measurement
of the scale.
 3.GROUND GLASS

 Focusing is done by directly observing the image

formed at the ground glass, in which a screen is
place behind the taking lens.
 If the image formed appeared blurred, fuzzy or
not cleared, the lens is not yet in focused.
 Rotate the lens barrel until the desired sharpness
2.RANGE – FINDERS
of the image being photograph is achieved.
 It is a mechanism that measure the angle of
4.ZONE
convergence of light coming from the subject, as
seen from 2 apertures.  Possibly only among wide angle lens
 2 types of Range Finders:  There are only 3 setting for focusing
o Split- Image Type o Close distance (approximately 3 to 6
o Co-incident Image Type feet)
o Medium distance ( approximately 6 to
Split- Image Type
15 feet)
 The image of the object appears cut into halves o Distant ( object with 15 feet to infinity)
and separated from each other by a straight line
which indicates that the lens is not focus.
 As the image becomes aligned the line that
divides the image soon disappears indicating that
the lens is in focused.
 Widely used in police investigative work
especially in photographing fingerprints and
questions writing.

LENS DEFECTS OR ABERRIATION

Spherical Aberration

 These are found on lenses with spherical surface.

The rays of light passing through it (spherical lens)
are bended more sharply than those passing
through the central part of the lens. Thus, it brings
the rays of light into a shorter focus than the light
Co-Incident Image Type entering at the center.

 Through the view finder a single image is seen

doubled which indicates that the subject is out of
focus.
 Do the necessary adjustments of the lens barrel
to make the image coincide, for the lens to be
focused. Coma

 Another form of spherical aberration but more

concerned with light rays entering the lens
obliquely.
 Also known as “Lateral Spherical Aberration”.
 The defects is noticeable only on the outer edges
and not on the central part of the lens.
 If a lens has a coma, circular objects reproduce at
the corners of the negatives are comet - like form.
  If the diaphragm is placed in front of the (Barrel)
lens, straight lines near the edges of the objects
tend to bulge outside Distortion.
 If the diaphragm is placed behind the lens,
straight lines near the edges tend to bend inward
(Pincushion Distortion).

Chromatic Aberration

 It is the inability of the lens to focus all the colors

of light at the same point. Types of Lenses according to their Degree of Correction
 Lens suffering from this defect bends light with
shorter wavelength more sharply than those with Achromatic Lens- a lens corrected for Chromatic Aberration
longer ones.
 Thus bring blue colors of light into shorter focus
than that of the red.

Aspherical Lens- a lens corrected for Spherical Aberration.

This lens element has non spherical shape design to bring
all the light rays to focus at the film plane for sharp image.

Curvature of Field

 A kind of defect where the image formed by the

lens comes to a sharper focus in a curved surface
than a flat surface.
Rapid Rectilinear Lens- a lens corrected for Distortion

Astigmatism Anastigmat Lens- A lens corrected for astigmatism

 Inability of the lens to focus in different direction

like for example a cross.
 This observation occurs when the lens surface are
not balance in shape or position with respect to
the principal axis of the lens.

Distortion

 Incapable of rendering straight lines correctly;

either horizontal or vertical lines in an object. Aphochromat Lens- also corrected for astigmatism but with
 This is caused by the placement of diaphragm higher degree of correction of color.