Behind The Veil

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AN
OUTLINE OF BIBLE METAPHYSICS

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BEHIND THE VEIL
AN OUTLINE OF BIBLE METAPHYSICS
COMPARED WITH ANCIENT AND MODERN THOUGHT
THOMAS GRIFFITH, A.M.
PREBBNDA.BY OF ST PAUL'S
' 0 for thy voice to soothe and bless

What hope of answer or redress?
Behind the veil, behind the veil'
Tennyson
a LONDON
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
1876
All rights reserved

/if/,J, u
' The veil shall divide unto you between the holy place
and the most holy.' Exod. xxvi. 33.
' The hope set before us entereth in within the veil.'

Heb. vi. 18, 19.
' We teach every man the fullest wisdom, that we may
present every man accomplished in Christ Jesus.'
Col. i. 28.
' The Gnostic spoke of a blind faith for the many, of a
higher yv&oiz for the few ; but St Paul here declares that
tlie fullest wisdom is offered to all Christians alike.'
Canon Lightfoot.
PBEFACE.
The writer of the following pages has no quarrel with

Science. Nor does he presume to tread upon her
pride with greater pride. He honours her methods
of research. He accepts with admiration her legitimate
discoveries.
But still he ventures to question the claims of some
of her votaries to step beyond their proper sphere,
and to ' prolong ' conceptions obtained from the world
of sense into a region transcending sense. To talk of
Mind in terms of Matter, of Thought as a secretion
from the brain, of mental movements as nervous
tremors, seems to him only what Coleridge has cha
racterised as ' Jack Eobinson between two mirrors,
prolonged into an endless series of Jack Eobinsons.'
The object, therefore, of this book is to remind
its readers of the old but never antiquated truth, that
the world of sense, by the very nature of its pre
sentments as merely phenomenal, requires the admission
of supersensuous Eealities as the indispensable comple
vi PREFACE.
ment and base of these phenomena. And further, that

since the action of such Eealities is shown by their
phenomena to be limited and conditioned, they must
be regarded as subordinate to a Supreme Eeality, from
whom they spring, in whom they subsist, and by whom
they are organised towards a preconceived end.
Such views I gather, first, from the Eecords of Divine
Eevelation. But since Eevelation is to Eeason as the
manifest to the secret voice of God, I add next the
unconscious echoes of this voice in ancient and modern
thought. For these, however changing in form, accord
in substance with the sacred Testimony. They are
variables of Truths for ever constant. What the multi
form Folk-lore of different peoples is to the common
heart of man ; what the complex tones of the enhar
monic scale are to the ' low sad music of humanity ; '
what the most excursive Variations are to the few notes
of a simple melody ; such are Conceptions to Ideas ;
the opinions, ever changing, of men, to the eternal
thoughts of God. The Invisible never leaves Himself
without witness, though He speaks at sundry times
and in divers manners. The glory between the Che
rubim reveals itself in many-coloured rays. But the
rainbow round about the Throne is the refraction of
unmixed Light, behind the Veil.
SUMMAEY
PAET I.
INVISIBLE BEAUTIES.
This is the age of Positivism, which claims to be the Philosophy
of Facts. Yet even Positivism cannot restrict itself to the mere
notation and classification of Pacts, but proceeds to investigate
the laws of their co-existence and succession ....
And the due treatment of what is 'given' must carry us further
still. For this discloses to us Facts as simply phenomena in
the human mind. And phenomena, by their very name, call
up the questions, ' Of what are they phenomenal ? and To
what are they phenomenal ? ' And thus Physics urge us on to
Metaphysics as their necessary complement ....
Hence arise the Faiths of the human race, which are no products
of mere Feeling, Emotion, Desire, but of our necessary reason
ing onward, from the known to its correlative unknown .
So it is equally with Religious Faith. This also has its root not
in Emotion, but in logical conclusions which arouse Emo
tion ; nor does it vary inversely, but directly, as the Eeason
with which God has endowed us. Eeligion, therefore, is re
garded by both Saints and Sages as Divine Philosophy .
And the Bible, as the treasure-house of this Philosophy, affirms in
Nature, Realities underlying all physical phenomena; in Man
a Reality at the base of all mental phenomena ; and in the
Universe made up of Nature and of Men, a supreme Reality as
their abiding life and law . .-
viii SUMMARY.
PART II.
THE REALITIES IK NATURE.
CHAPTER I.
THE SCRIPTURE DOCTRINE.
PAOE
Nature is, according to its name, that which is always being born
into sight. The Bible calls it, as the sum of all phenomena,
' The world ; ' and as distinguished from things not phenomenal,
' This world ' and ' Things below ' 27
And this world the Bible affirms to be only transient appearance,
in successive forms, of enduring Realities which remain un
seen 27
CHAPTER II.
PHILOSOPHIC OPINION.
God has not left Himself without witness, anywhere or at any
time. And therefore the lover of God will delight to trace
the manifestations of his Truth in Sages as well as Saints . 32
And Sages as well as Saints proclaim that all things seen are
unreal 33
But that the unreal is nevertheless a sign and proof of Realities to
which it owes its origin ....... 39
This is corroborated by investigation of the leading phenomena of
Nature, Extension in Space, and Succession in Time, both
which are but appearances within us of changes of relation
among Realities without us . . - . . . .42
PART III.
THE EEALITY IN MAN.
CHAPTER I.
The Bible declares Man to be a single elementary Substance, the
Centre and Subject of all the phenpmena of body and mind . 53
SUMMARY. ix
PAGB
Not therefore tripartite, nor bipartite, but an indivisible Intelli
gence, whom it terms ' The inward man,' in contradistinction
to the instrument of its self-manifestation, which it terms ' The
outer man ' 56
This ' Outer man ' it describes as made up of earthly particles ;
destructible by earthly force ; nay, falling to pieces by its own
earthly nature ......... 61
But the ' Inward Man,' on the contrary, is distinct from that outer
man ; dwelling in it as but a temporary occupant ; springing
directly from God ; partaking of likeness to God ; capable of
intercourse with God ; returning, when the body is dissolved, to
God ; and having his future determined by what he has done
in this body to realise the purpose of God . . , .65
CHAPTEE II.
Ancient Philosophy, with few exceptions, regarded man, notwith
standing his manifold self-contradictions, as essentially superior
to all other earthly creatures, being endowed with the Divine
Reason ; akin to the Divine nature ; sprung from the Divine
essence ; capable of Divine Inspiration . . . .92
And therefore, as thus superior to this world, surviving onwards
into another world . . . . . . . .105
Modern Philosophy concerning Man is marked by an effort to
resuscitate the defunct Atomism . . . . . .111
But the best thinkers appeal from this to our personal conscious
ness, which demands the admission of a subjective Reality
underlying all mental phenomena, as certainly as there are
objective Realities underlying all physical phenomena . . 112
This subjective Reality we find to be a somewhat conceptive,
concentrative, and causative . . . . . .120
Whence we draw the logical conclusion that it must be also
permanent . . . . . . . . .128
a
X SUMMARY.
PART IV.
THE SUPREME REALITY.
CHAPTER I.
THE BEING OF GOD.
PAGE
As the phenomena of Nature demand the recognition of ob
jective Realities for their base ; and the phenomena of Man,
of a subjective Reality for their seat; so the interdependence
of these Realities and their mutual limitations, demand the
belief of a Supreme Reality, transcending all, which originates,
sustains, and controls them ....... 135
For all the Causes observable in the universe must have their
origin in a Cause antecedent to them ; and all the lives in the
universe, in a Life concomitant with them .... 137
1 . The Scripture Doctrine on this point is that neither of Me
chanism, nor Pantheism, but of Enpantitheism, God in all
things 139
2. Ancient Philosophy coincides with this in contemplating the
Supreme as all pervading Mind . . . . . .141
3. And Modern Philosophy equally admits that all the Forces
in the Universe imply as their correlative a Supreme Force
in no wise to be identified with them ..... 143
CHAPTER II.
THE CHARACTER OF GOD,
1. The Scripture Doctrine.

God is in Himself unknowable, but his character, in relation to
his creatures, is knowable by his mode of dealing with them 147
And this mode of dealing indicates, in Nature, a character of
Intelligence, Justness, and Benevolence . . . .150
Nor are the same qualities less witnessed to by their reflections
in Mind . . . . . . . . . 151
2. Philosophic Opinion.
Ancient Philosophy agrees with Scripture in recognising God as
unknowable in Himself, yet knowable by his self-manifesta
tions in Nature and in Mind, as Intelligent, Just, and Good . 154
SUMMARY. xi
PAGK
Modern Philosophy, while insisting much on the inscrutableness
of God's essence, is less ready to admit the knowableness of
his character; referring all the adjustments in Nature to
unconscious instincts : and specially contesting the ascription
to the Deity of anything like human Personality . . . 158
Yet Personality does not necessarily include in its idea limitation
by others, but simply consciousness of Self and control over
Self . 161
And if the Supreme Mind must be conceived as resembling the
human mind, this resemblance must include that self-con
sciousness which is Personality 163
CHAPTER III.
THE PROCEDURE OF GOD.
1. The Scripture Doctrine.

This teaches that the Supreme Reality brought into existence
the elements of the universe ; is producing from these elements
progressively-complicated Forms of manifestation ; and,, since
such products are liable, in proportion to their complexity,
to aberration from their type, is continuously redeeming
them into ever closer correspondence with the original Divine
Idea 167
1. The elements of the universe were brought into existence by
means of the Word, or Utterance of God's mind and will . 167
2. From these elements this Word is evolving progressively-
complicated Forms of manifestation . . . . .172
3. These products are liable, in proportion to their complexity,
to abnormal development . . . . . . .173
4. Therefore the process of Evolution is accompanied by a cor
responding process of Redemption, wrought out by the Word
and the Spirit of the Supreme, which culminates in Chris
tianity as a moral Restoration . . . . . .176
5. And the ultimate consummation of this Process is guaranteed
to us by the Promises, the Providence, and the Power of the
Great Supreme ......... 187
6. For while this redemptive process has its commencement in
individual men, it will ultimately spread throughout the race
of Man 190
7. And thence embrace, as its final result, the sphere of Nature
as well as of Humanity. ....... 201
xii SUMMARY.
PAOK
Ancient thinkers harmonise with the Scripture writers in be
wailing the predominance of evil ; in searching into its
origin ; in hoping for its ultimate elimination . . . 207
And modern Thought admits a Process of Development which
involves innumerable Differentiations, but shall issue finally
in universal Integration . . . . . . . 215
3. Conclusion.
The consolations flowing from this Faith that all things have their
Origin, their Development, and their Redemption, in an
intelligent, just, and good Supreme ..... 228
NOTE
On Pases 176-186.
Having just met with Professor Lightfoot's ' Commentary on the
Colossians,' I must congratulate myself on having anticipated, in my
view of the Redemptive process, the advice of so great a scholar and
divine as the Canon of St. Paul's, p. 182 : ' How much more hearty
would be the sympathy of theologians with the revelations of science
and the developments of history, if they habitually connected them
with the operation of the Divine Word, whose mediatorial function in
the Church is represented in Scripture as flowing from his mediatorial
function in the world. Through the recognition of this idea with all
the consequences which flow from it, more than in any other way, may
we hope to strike the chords of that " vaster music " which results only
from the harmony of knowledge and faith, of reverence and research.'
PAET I.
INVISIBLE BEAUTIES.
' The very principle of Causality, the great agent that prompts every
human inquiry, forbids us to rest content with the Now and the Here, and
urges us to search for the hidden and the past.'—Mahaffy, Proleg, to History, 1.
' There are two classes of things ; the one visible, the other invisible.
And the invisible are always the same, while the visible never continue in
one stay.'—Plato, Phcedo, 79 A.
INVISIBLE BEAUTIES.
It has been justly said concerning the times of Cicero,

that ' the general decay among the educated classes of a
belief in the supernatural, accompanied by an increase of
superstition among the masses, prepared the way for the
acceptance of a purely mechanical explanation of the
universe.'1
And like causes are producing like effects among our
selves. Our age is specially one of observation and ex
periment. And those who are enamoured of the vast
results which yield themselves to this method of research
are too ready to limit all attention to that ' positive,' or
certain, knowledge which some call ' the Philosophy of
Fact.' 2 But we may be permitted to observe, first, that
it is not a Philosophy at all, except in the limited sense
of co-ordinating facts and seeking for the laws which
regulate them ; whereas Bacon has ruled that ' the busi
ness of Philosophy is to transform the notions derived from
observation and experiment, and work them into more
1 Reid, The Academica of Oicero, p. xxvii.

8 The antithesis included in this term ' Positivism ' may be illustrated by
that in one of G. Sand's tales : ' Je te croyais plus positif (a more matter of
fact person).—' Si tu me supposes romanesque, je repousse ton compliment.'
b 2
4 INVISIBLE REALITIES.
intelligible forms : ' 1 and, secondly, that better systems

than Positivism are equally 'Philosophies of Fact,' for
they derive their material entirely from facts, and draw
their conclusions exclusively from this material. 'They
are based essentially on what is " given," for only from
our knowledge of what is given do we discover the neces
sity of transforming, and thus completing, the notions it
supplies to us.' 2
And, after all, even Positivism cannot avoid this on
ward course. M. Littre admits that it has to ' work out
the questions which experience gives rise to.' 3 But the
very first of these questions is, ' What are the facts that
come before us ? ' To which we must reply that they are
simply phenomena in the observer's own mind. But phe
nomena, by their very name, imply realities of which
they are phenomena. Appearances oblige us to acknow
ledge things which make appearance. Show proves sub-
1 Bacon, Nov. Org. xcv. : ' Philosophise verum opificium est, quod ex
historia naturali et mechanieis experimentis praebita'm materiam in intellectu
mutatam et subactam reponit.' Similarly, Herbart (Lehrb. d. Phil. § 4) :
' Philosophy is the fashioning (Bearbeitung) of notions.' And Ferrier
(Inst, of Met. 33) : ' Philosophy has, and can have, no other end in view
than the rectification of the inadvertencies of man's ordinary thinking.' And
Mr. Hodgson (Mind, for January, 1876), ' Philosophy is primarily and mainly
concerned with clearing the ideas.' This formed the distinctive character
and worth of the Socratic method. ' Its principle (says Zeller) was that all
knowledge must be based on corrected notions ; ' or, what Schwegler calls,
' the transformation of conceptions into notions.' So Xenophon states his
master's view when he says, ' Socrates considered that those who had gained
the knowledge of what each thing is (W eKaorov e*7 TS>v SvTwv) could then
make them clear to others ; ' and Aristotle, when he notes that Socrates
' rightly searched into the what of things (eiXdywr e'tfjTM ro rl e(rriv).'
Whence Cicero, when about to philosophize about death, begins with exam
ining and correcting the current notions of it. ' Mors igitur, quse videtur
notissima res, quid sit primum est videndum.'—Tusc. i. 9.
1 Herbart, Lehrb. d. Phil. § 6.
8 Littrt5, Phil. Posit, p. 9.
METAPHYSICS INVOLVED IX PHYSICS. 5
stance.1 Whence Schopenhauer rightly affirms that

' every physical fact is at the same time a metaphysical
one.' And Mr. Lewes, though he began with maintain
ing that ' whatever relates to the origin of things, i.e.
causes ; and to the existence of things per se, i.e. essences,
are wholly and utterly eliminated from the aims and
methods of positive science ; ' 2 now admits, ' Comte per
emptorily excluded all research in the direction of Meta
physics, but it is surely more philosophical to bring
metaphysical problems under the same speculative con
ditions as all other problems, than to exclude them alto
gether, since our ignoring them will not extirpate them.
The problems exist, and form objects of research. Few
researches can be conducted in any one line of inquiry
without sooner or later abutting on some metaphysical
problem, were it only that of Force, Matter, or Cause.
Metaphysics comprise properly the highest generalizations
of Physics ; they are what comes after Physics, and em
braces the ultimate generalizations of research.'3
Now here there is conceded what the schoolmen meant
when they declared that. ' all things run into the inscru-
1 See my Fundamentals, pp. 8 and 234 : and Herbart, Hauptpunkte der

Metaphysik, p. 20, and Met. ii. 78, 79 : ' Wenn Nichts ist auch Nichts
erscheinen muss.' Add Ritter, Unsterblichkeit, p. 24 : ' Damit Erschein-
ungen sein kbnnen, muss etwas sein, was die Erscheinungen begriindet, und
von welchem wir die Erscheinungen aussagen konnen.' Vacherot (in Caro
de FldSe de Dieu, 224) : ' Chaque terme empirique appelle un terme ration-
nel correspondant. La conception de l'idee de l'etre est impliquee de telle
sorte dans la notion du phenomena, que la logique ne peut Ten separer. ' Brit.
Qu., July, 1874 : ' The very word phenomenon implies a duality of exist
ence. There cannot be an appearance without a seeing Self, and a seen object.'
Ibid, July 1871 : ' The law of contrast renders phenomena as unintelligible
without substance, as" substance without phenomena.'
2 Lewes, Hist, of Phil. 1st edit. i. 16.
3 Lewes, Pi-oblems of Life, i. 6-16.
table,'1 and what Plato enforced when he distinguished

between mere opinion about phenomena and knowledge of
realities. For ' knowledge' is with him ' that apprehen
sion of things which penetrates beyond their sensible ap
pearances into their essence and cause.' It differs, there
fore, in name only, from the ' wisdom ' of Aristotle, which
he defines as ' the knowledge of the primary causes and
principles of all things.' 2 Whence Cicero defines Philo
sophy as ' the study of Wisdom, which wisdom is the
knowledge of things divine and human, and of the causes
which underlie them.' 3 And these things he affirms to
be, 'though hidden in the depths of nature, yet dis
coverable by reason.'4 Like as Seneca declares, ' Thought
breaks through the ramparts of heaven ; for it is never
satisfied with knowing what is merely set before the
senses, but demands the scrutiny of things that lie beyond
the confines of this world. Nay, we are born to this end.' 5
' For every great mind has this for its task, to remove the
1 ' Omnia exeunt in mysterium.' An equivalent thought is that of Dr.

Tyndall (Belfast Address) : ' All we see around us, and all we feel within
us, have their unsearchable roots in a cosmical life of which only an
infinitesimal span is offered to the investigation of man.' Cf. H. Ritter,
Ueber das Bbse, p. 323 : ' The causes of every development are different from
their phenomenal effects. If we wish to explain the sensible, we cannot stop
short of the super-sensible ; the interpretation of whatever takes place in
Time sends us onward to what is beyond Time.' And Mr. Picton has well
shown, in his Essay on The Mystery of Matter, that ' all physical science, if
only followedfar enough, has metaphysical issues.'
" See Mansel, Gnosticism, p. 1.
3 Cicero, De Offic. ii. 2 : ' Nec quidquam aliud est Philosophia prseter
studium Sapientise. Sapientia autem est rerum divinarum et humanarum,
causarumque quibus hse res continentur, Scientia.'
4 Id. de Fin. v. 21 : ' Consideratio cognitioque rerum coelestium, et earum
quas a natura occultatas et latentes indagare ratio potest.'
, 6 Seneca, De Otio Sap. xxxii. 6: • Cogitatio nostra cceli munimenta per-
rumpit, nec contenta est id quod ostenditur scire. Illud, inquit, scrutor
quod ultra mundum jacet .... Tu ad heec quserenda natus.'
POSITIVE KNOWLEDGE INSUFFICIENT. 7
barriers of nature, and penetrating far within the surface,

to go deep down into the secrets of the gods.' 1 And in
full accordance with these noble sentiments, Mr. Spencer
maintains that ' Positive knowledge does not, and never
can, fill the whole region of possible thought. At the
uttermost reach of discovery there arises, and must ever
arise, the question, what lies beyond ? Eegarding Science
as a gradually increasing sphere, we may say that every
addition to its surface does but bring it into a wider con
tact with surrounding Nescience. 2 Throughout all time
the mind must occupy itself, not only with ascertained
phenomena and their relations, but also with that unas
certained something which phenomena and their relations
imply.' 3 And the method of such ' occupation ' with the
unascertained is well stated by Herbart : ' Observation
of the world and of ourselves gives rise to many notions
which perplex us ; and the problem is, how to modify
these notions so as to render them tenable. In the pro
cess of modification something new presents itself, by
1 Seneca, Nat. Quast. vi. 5, 2 : ' Magni fuit animi rerum naturae latebras
dimovere, neque contentum exteriori ejus adspectu introspicere, et in deorum
secreta descendere.' And again, Ibid. Praf. i. : ' Altior philosophia non fuit
oculis contenta. Majus esse quidquam suspicata est, ac pulchrius, quod extra
conspectum natura posuisset.'
2 Cf. T. a Kempis 1, 2, 3 : 'Si tibi videtur quod multa scis, scito tamen
quia sunt multa plura quae nescis.'
5 Spencer, First Fi-inciples, 1st edit. p. 16. Cf. Mr. Baring-Gould (Some
Mod. Diff. 22-27) : ' In the temple of human science, the sphinx, if it does
not watch at the gate, still crouches' within its last recess behind the veil.
.... The very atoms out of which chymistry constructs its most recent
theories and cosmology builds up its worlds, are postulated, not posited. We
know by reason only, and not observation, that any things beyond percep
tions exist.' And Mr. Bosworth Smith (Mahommed, 15) : ' There is no fear
that science will ever explain too much. Behind what she explains there
will always remain the unexplained and the unexplainable. Let her classify
the phenomena of Mind and Matter as she will, can she ever be able to tell
us what Mind and Matter are.'
means of which the perplexities vanish. This something

new we may call the complement (Erganzung) of the notion
first obtained. And the science which occupies itself with
the discovery of such complements is Metaphysics.' 1 So
far, therefore, from beginning (as so many object) with
' the a priori road ' of speculative assumption, this science
declares by its very name, Meta-physics, that it follows
upon Physics as their necessary complement. It takes
the notions furnished to us by the various physical sciences,
and it subjects these notions to such investigation as dis
covers both their incompleteness in themselves, and the
new thoughts needful to their integration.
Nor is this research, thus commended by philosophers,
absent from ordinary life. It is instinctively pursued by all
men. Even in children, the dawn of'Eeason manifests itself by
the constantly recurring questions, How ? and Why ? Every
childhas in himself an appetite for the transcendental. When
he has looked into a mirror he will turn it round to see
what is behind it. And as universal as our experiences, so
universal is the effort to look behind them, to interpret
them, to account for them, to ' integrate ' our knowledge
of them by the complementary ideas which they demand.2
Those who forbid such excursiveness of thought forget
that, as Seneca affirms, we are born to it. Just as Moliere's
M. Jourdain spoke prose without being aware of it, all
men, in their way, think Metaphysics, even when quite
unconscious of their presumption. For to be metaphysical

2 Cf. Emerson, Essays I. p. 10 : ' Every soul must know the whole
lesson for itself ; must go over the whole ground. What it does not see it
will not know. We must in our own nature see the necessary reason of
every fact ; see how it could and must be.' And I may add that what we
cannot thus see, remains for us only a nebula unresolved.
FAITH GROUNDED ON REASON. 9
constitutes the differentia or distinguishing mark of man.

' We have much,' says Epictetus, ' in common with the
brutes ; but though they have, like us, the practical use of
things, man alone has the power to penetrate their sur
face. For God brought man into the world to be an
investigator both of himself and of his works ; and not
only an investigator but an interpreter of them. It were
disgraceful, therefore, for us to live below these powers
of investigation and insight, which constitute our distinc
tive nature.' 1 Vain, then, is it for Positivists to pitchfork
this propensity out of the homestead ; it will always come
creeping back again. For the more needfully we study
the presentments of sense the more irresistibly are we
carried onward to surmises, anticipations, conclusions,
convictions, concerning a realm of existence beyond
sense.
And such convictions, thus arrived at, constitute the
Faiths of the human race. Faith, even when implicit
and obscure, is essentially the result of Eeason. ' It has
for its foundation,' as Herbart says, ' the facts given in
nature and the consideration which these facts awaken in
us. It is the necessary complement of observation.' ' Its
verities are conclusions from what is given by the senses
to what lies beyond sense ?' 2 And the authority of such
1 Arriaris Epict. i. 6. Comp. Seneca, Nat. Qu. Preef. 9 : ' Sursum

ingentia spatia sunt ; in quorum possessionem animus admittitur ; quutn ilia
tetigit, alitur, crescit, ac veluti vinculis liberatus in originem redit. Et hoc
habet argumentum divinitatis suse quod ilium divina delectant ; nec ut alienis
interest, sed ut suis. Curiosus spectator excutit singula, et quserit. Quidni
qutzrat f Scit ilia ad se pertinere.'
2 Herbart, Werhe, i. 279 : ' Der Glaube beruht auf dem Gegebenen, auf
der Naturbetrachtung, als eine theoretische nothwendige Erganzung unseres
Wissens.' Ibid. i. 39 : ' Glaubensgriinden sind Schlussen aus dem Ge»e-»
benen auf das tTbersinnliche.'
faith is therefore as strong as the authority of that capacity

for reason, to which it owes its existence. If we cannot
trust Eeason, there is nothing we can trust. The senses
are continually deceiving us. They constantly require the
corrections which Eeason supplies. Whence, while we
say of the presentments of sense, simply, ' Such things
are,' we use, concerning the determinations of Eeason, the
formula of logical conviction, ' Such things must be.' As
when Newton reasoned from what simply was before him
—the falling apple—to what must be beyond his ken in
the depths of the universe ; and Le Verrier was convinced
by the perturbations visible among planets already ob
served, that there must be another planet, not yet ob
served, to account for such perturbations. So that Faith,
in its proper sense, is equivalent to Demonstration as this
latter is defined by Cicero, ' the reasoning which leads
onward from things seen to things unseen.' 1
1 Cicero, Acad. Priora. viii. 26 : ' Argumenti conclusio, quae est omo-
8et£ir, ita definitur : Eatio quae ex rebus perceptis ad id quod non per-
cipiebatur adducit.' How unhappy, therefore, is the antithesis sanctioned
by Tennyson when he says—
' We have but faith ; we cannot know,
For knowledge is of things we see ! '
For the fact is, that the greatest and most certain part of our knowledge is of
things we do not see, but only gather as a legitimate deduction from things
seen. Whence Herbart says (Werke i. 39), ' It is a great mistake to con
sider Faith, because it diners from verified knowledge (Wissen), to be there
fore of no authority. For in social life we repose faith in men even where
knowledge, strictly so called, fails us ; and we can neither get on without such
Faith, nor can we shake ourselves free from it.' See also Murphy, Scientific
Basis of Faith, p. 91. ' It was faith in the conclusions of a sound philosophy
which led Adam Smith to see the wisdom of free trade at a time when
the means of verifying the theory scarcely existed. And it would be no
misuse of the word to speak of the faith of Professor McCullagh in the pro
cess of mathematical reasoning, when he made what is perhaps the most
remarkable prediction recorded in the history of science ; namely, that a ray
of light passing through a biaxial crystal in a particular direction would be
RELIGIOUS FAITH. 11
And of just the same nature and validity is Religious

Faith. Many, indeed, have striven to relegate religious
faith to other grounds. Kant, having banished it from
the chain of rational conclusion, sought afterwards to find
a footing for it on the soil of moral necessity (praktische
Bedurfniss). Max Miiller thinks it enough to make ' wish
parent to thought,' and even derives the verb ' believe '
from the Sanskrit ' lobha,' to desire. Baden Powell dis
misses Faith to the dim domain of Feeling, as a sort of
luxury permissible to impressionable natures : ' Eeligion
rests on Faith, which Faith does not appeal to the under
standing, but is nearly allied to the aesthetic faculties of our
nature.' And the favourite writers of the present day
assume this view as settled. Mr. Matthew Arnold defines
Eeligion as ' morality touched with emotion.' And Dr.
Tyndall says, ' It is wise to recognize man's religious sen
timents as the forms of a force, mischievous if permitted
to intrude on the region of knowledge, but capable of
being guided to noble issues in the region of emotion,
which is its proper sphere.' And again, ' the immovable
basis of the religious sentiment is the emotional nature of
man. And to yield this sentiment reasonable satisfaction
is the problem of problems at the present hour.' 1
But let us consider. ' Eeligion lies in morality touched
with emotion.' Yet Morality may be touched with
emotion, i.e. our state of tranquil contemplation of
Morality may be stirred into a state of interest concerning
it, desire for its accomplishment in ourselves and in the
refracted into an infinite number of rays forming a hollow cone. This was
totally unlike anything previously known to experience, yet on trial the pre
diction proved to be true.'
1 Dr. Tyndall, Belfast Address.
world, and so on, without any translation of the moral

feeling into a religious one, until we gain from other sources
some religious notions and convictions, i.e. beliefs ; some
faith in a Being who, like ourselves, loves morality ; like
ourselves desires the advancement of morality in the
heart and in the world ; and who, unlike ourselves, has
wisdom and power sufficient to accomplish this advance
ment. Then, indeed, as I. H. Fichte has well shown,1
the baffled moralist turns with a new-born Faith and
Hope to one upon his side, and on the side of his be
loved pursuit; to 'a Power, not himself, that makes for
righteousness ; ' and thus can go on working, on his own
soul and on others, with a morality truly ' touched ' with the
sublimest emotion, the most fervid glow, of confidence in
final triumph, because greater is He who is in him, than
all the antagonisms that are in the world. But then, this
is not ' Morality touched by emotion into Beligion,' but
Morality touched by Beligion into emotion. And the
religion which begets this emotion is not born of Morality,
but (in an altogether different sphere) of thoughts, con
victions, beliefs, produced by reasoning onward from
things seen to their correlatives unseen.
But then Dr. Tyndall affirms that the very base of the
religious sentiment is the emotional nature of man. But
how can emotions be the base of religion (or indeed of any
thing), when they are no existences per se—acts of mind,
but only modes of existence ; variable states into which
such acts are thrown ? Emotions, by their very name, are
simply movements, undulations, vibrations, with more or
less intensity, of acts of perception, conception, belief,
1 Ethik, ii. 71.

EMOTIONS ARE STATES OF THOUGHT. 13
pre-existing or co-existing in our minds. ' Feeling,' says

Herbart, ' has its seat in thought. It is a state of the
conceptions, or mental acts ; and for the most part, an
ever varying state.' 1 ' Emotions,' says Dr. Fleming,
' like other states of feeling, imply knowledge. Some
thing, beautiful or deformed, sublime or ridiculous, is
known and contemplated ; and in the contemplation springs
up an appropriate feeling. Emotions are awakened
through the medium of the intellect, and are varied and
modified through the conception we form of the objects to
which they refer.'2 As, e.g. our conception of a distant
object may be that it is an enemy, and thence arises the
emotion of fear ; but when we draw near and find it is a
friend, this new conception changes the emotion into that of
joy. In like manner Dr. Chalmers says, ' The emotion
comes from the presence of an external object.' And Bishop
Butler, ' God's greatness, goodness, wisdom, are different
objects to our mind. Hence must arise various movements
of mind ' (emotions) ' towards Him.' Emotions, then, are
but states of thought—thoughts in motion ; varying in in
tensity according to the more or Jess clear presence of an
object in the consciousness, varying in duration accord
ing to the more or less freedom of this object from dis
turbing conceptions, varying in character according as
this object takes on different forms, and raises in us
different beliefs of its bearing on us. What, e.g. is the
emotion of fear but a state of thought concerning some
1 Herbart, Lehrb. d. Psychol, p. 118 : ' Die Seele wird Geist genannt, so
fern sie vorstellt ; Oemiith, so fern sie ftihlt und begehrt. Das Gemiith aber
hat seinen Sitz im Geiste ; oder Fiihlen und Begehren sind zunachst Zustande
dor Vorstellungen, und zwar grossentheils wandelbare Zustande der letzteren.'
8 Fleming, Voeab. of Phil. 155.
object which I believe to be injurious to me ? What, of

hope, but a state of thought concerning some object which
I believe to be helpful to me ? What, of love, but a state
of thought concerning some object which I believe to be
well-disposed towards me ?
And the religious emotions are in no way different
from others, either in their origin, their nature, or their
seat. They are just similarly states of the conceptions, in
relation to higher objects than those of sense. They are
but a transference of our ordinary emotions towards men
to beings surpassing men. They imply, therefore,
some knowledge, however imperfect and dim, of such
beings ; some thoughts about them ; some notions,
beliefs, concerning them. And thus emotions, so far
from being grounds of belief, are but states of belief,
movements which accompany belief ; movements differ
ing in intensity according to the clearness of this belief;
differing in duration according to the freedom of this
belief from disturbing doubts ; differing in character ac
cording to the different attributes of the object believed.
Our belief in God's greatness rouses in us the emotion of
reverence ; in His goodness, the emotion of love ; in His
justice, the emotion of fear; in His faithfulness, the
emotion of trust ; in His absolute authority, the emotion
of anxiety to enjoy his favour. ' Eeligion,' says Bishop
Butler, ' does not demand new affections, but only
claims the direction of those you already have, those
affections you daily feel. And it only represents to you
the higher, the adequate objects of those very affections.
Love, reverence, desire of esteem are employed about
their respective objects in common cases ; must the ex
ercise of them be suspended with regard to Him alone
RELIGIOUS FAITH IS NOT EMOTION. 15
who is an infinitely more than adequate object to our

most exalted faculties ? ' 1
Eeligious faith then is not emotion, nor is it grounded
on emotion. It is, on the contrary, the ground of emotion,
having its seat in thoughts and convictions, the movements
of which towards the object thought of and believed in,
constitute emotion. Against this fundamental principle
divines sin as much as philosophers when they place faith
in feelings and affections irrespective of conviction. In
their zeal to show that religion is not like the moon, light
without heat, they represent it as like a stove, heat with
out light. And they quote for this the numerous pas
sages of Scripture in which religion is declared to be a
matter of the heart, and faith is connected with devout
emotion. But when (to take one of these passages) St.
Paul says, in Eomans x. 10—' With the heart man be-
lieveth unto righteousness,' the antithesis in his mind is
not that between feeling and insight, but between the
inward apprehension of the Gospel and the outward con
fession of it. For this ' belief of the heart ' is belief of
a something presented to the mind ; viz. the resurrection
of Jesus Christ from the dead (v. 9). The heart therefore
is, according to a well-known Hebrew and Oriental idiom,
the inner man as contrasted with the outer ; and the ar
gument of Paul is, ' As with the inner man (or mind)
men receive the teachings of the Gospel, so with the
outer man (or mouth) they must make confession of their
convictions,' i.e. in the baptismal formula which avows the
creed of the Church. And that this inner man (or mind)
must embrace with conviction the things proclaimed to it
1 Bishop Butler, Sermon on the Love of God.

before either emotion or confession can take place, is

clear from the 14th verse, ' How shall they believe in him
of whom they have not heard ? ' So, similarly, when we
are required 'to love the Lord our God with all our
heart,' we must previously have heard of this Lord,
believed the character ascribed to Him, and thus become
convinced that He is ' our God.' Whence the declara
tion of Jesus, ' This is life eternal, to know thee, the only
true God, as revealed in him whom thou hast sent ! ' 1
But still more do divines sin against the majesty,
because against the reasonableness, of religious faith,
when they represent it as a mere reliance Upon authority ;
a blind confidence in what we are told ; nay, when they
exalt such a state of credulity as the only safe and saving
state of heart, and call it a childlike (say rather a child
ish) trust, ' Faith,' they say, ' varies inversely as reason !
The more men reason the less they believe ; and only in
the death of reasoning lies the life of faith.' Wherein
they betray a strange unacquaintance with Holy Scrip
ture. For St. Peter commands us to be ' always pre
pared to give a rational defence (airoKoyia) to every one
who asks us a reason (\6yov) of the hope that is in us.' 2
And our Lord expressly upbraids the two disciples going
to Emmaus for that want of reasoning which caused their
want of faith. ' 0 fools (unreasoning persons, avor]Toi),
and (therefore) slow of heart (dull of understanding) to
believe 1 ' And then, to produce the faith in which by
their lack of reasoning they were wanting, he proceeded
to thoroughly explain (Sir]pljb-qvevev) to their understand
ing the things concerning Himself.3 And Paul followed
1 John xvii. 8. Cf. xiv. 9. ' He who hath seen me hath seen the
Father.' 2 1 Pet. iii. 15. 3 Luke xxiv. 25-27.
RELIGION HAS ITS METAPHYSIC. 17
his Master in this, wherever he went. In Thessalonica,

' three Sabbath days he reasoned with his hearers (culled
for them arguments, SieXeyero) out of the Scriptures.' At
Corinth ' he reasoned in the Synagogue (picked out proofs
for them, SieXeyero) every Sabbath day, and (so, by this
appeal to reason) persuaded (eVeiê, won over to convic
tion) both Jews and Greeks.' 1 And the same Apostle,
who casts such contempt on the sophistical disputations
of the Gentiles, claims for Christians a far deeper and
truer exercise of reason. ' We also speak wisdom (o-o<£ia)
among the initiated, though not the wisdom of the leaders
of this world, but the wisdom which comes from God.' 2
And for such wisdom the Book of Proverbs demands, not
only our crying for God's enlightening Spirit, but our
diligent use of the power of research which He has given
us. ' If thou incline thine ear unto wisdom, and apply
thine heart (the reasoning faculty) to understanding ; if
thou seekest her as silver and searchest for her (diggest
down into the unseen depths for her) as for hid treasures,
then shalt thou understand the fear of the Lord, and find
the knowledge of God.'3 So fully in accordance with
Scripture is Bishop Butler's dictum, ' Beason is the only
faculty we have wherewith to judge concerning anything,
even revelation itself.'
In reason, therefore, must religious belief (like every
other faith) have its ground. Beligion, equally with all
other subjects of knowledge, must have its metaphysic,
or doctrine concerning things unseen. Beligion, in its
higher regions, is ' divine philosophy.' 4 For it is a logical
1 Acts xvii. 2 ; xviii. 4. 3 1 Cor. ii. 6, 7. 3 Prov. ii. 1-4.

4 Cf. Quinet, Le Christianisme, 88: ' Lo Christianisme n'a pas 6t6 la
ruine de la philosophic ; dites plutot qu'il en a 6t6 tapotheose.'
C
deduction from received facts. It has its rise, and its

necessity, in the observation of things around us and
within us. These cannot remain to any thinking person
barren phenomena. They demand to be accounted for.
They call forth surmises about their correlations in an
other sphere. They oblige us to investigate, revise, com
plete the notions they suggest to us. And in this process
of investigation, revision, completion, he the germs of re
ligious faith. Whence Pascal rightly calls Faith, ' Reason
striding onward to her last step.' 1 It is a passing through
from things without to things within the veil. It is an
impulse to seek the interpretation of whatever is ob
scure, the reconciliation of whatever is contradictory, the
integration of whatever is imperfect, by means of comple
mentary ideas. But though this is the germ of religion,
its flower and fruit rise higher into the region of feeling,
emotion, desire, will. For, enlarging somewhat Mr.
Matthew Arnold's terms, we may call religion ' the recog
nition of a power, not ourselves, which works for Tightness '
(law and symmetry) in its widest sense ; Tightness in the
mechanism, the organisation, the life, as well as in the
ethics of the world. And then such recognition will be
followed, in spite of all apparent deviations from the
rhythm of the universe, by a hearty acquiescence in what
ever this power does, or calls on us to do.2
And now, for this view of religious Faith, as the
highest Eeason, I cite the teaching of Holy Scripture.
1 ' La demiere demarche de la Raison.'

2 It is such hearty acquiescence that Epictetus denotes by his rfj 'Avayiof
a-vyxa>peXv Ko\S>s (Ench. 78) ; and Cleanthes (ibid.) by his i>s ttyopai
SoKvos; and Seneca, by his ' ion pareo Deo, sed assentior: ex animo
ilium, non quia necesse est, sequor ' (Ep. xcvi. 2).
SCRIPTURE PROOF. 19
There we find St. Paul declaring, first, that the essence

of the Christian frame of mind lies in its transference by
such Faith into the world of the Invisible. ' We, having
the spirit of Faith, look not at the things which are seen,
but at the things which are not seen ; for things seen are
but for a time, but things unseen can never pass away.' 1
Next, we have laid before us a precise definition of such
Faith. ' Faith is a confidence of things hoped for, and a
conviction of things not seen '—a confidence grounded on
substantial Facts (whence the term un-dorao-is),2 and a con
viction brought home to us by logical proof, whence the
second word, IXeyx0?-3 Then we find the same writer
showing by what process this Faith brings home to us its
conclusions, and what are the truths which by this method
are revealed to us. ' By Faith we reason onward to the
logical conclusion (voovfiev) that the worlds we observe
were framed by the word of God, so that the phenomena
they bring before us have their ground, not in what we
see, but in something beyond sight.' 4 And thus ' the
power and divinity, otherwise invisible, become disclosed
1 2 Cor. iv. 13, 18.

2 Heb. xi. 1. From vqtto-rrflu, I set under. Whence viroirnja-ai rb iri-
o-Tov Tivl is to give him sure grounds of confidence (Liddell). And in 2 Cor.
xi. 17, our translators rightly render the word xmoo-rao-is, ' I speak with con-
Jidence of boasting,' on the sure ground that I have a right to do so.
3 Heb. xi. 1. Where we learn from the parallelism—
' Faith is the xmaarao'is of things hoped for,
And the e\eyxos of things not seen '—
that since tm-oorao-ir is plainly a subjective confidence (as in iii. 14, ' if we
hold fast the confidence—viroirria-is—which we began with '), TKeyxos, in
like manner, must mean, not objective ' evidence,' as our translators render it,
but subjective ' conviction.' And so the Italic version has it, ' convictio.' See
my Faith Grounded on Reason.
4 Heb. xi. 8. The whole world of appearance (To f3\eir6nevov) springs, not
out of these appearances (« (f>aivouevu>v), but from the unseen will of God.
c 2
20 INVISIBLE IDEALITIES.
to us when we reason onward from their visible results

(tois iroujpacri. voovpeva KadopaTaC).*1
Such are the utterances of the Divine Spirit in Holy

Scripture, touching what lies behind the veil of sense.
Nor are such utterances confined to the sacred writers.
The same Spirit who has ' made of one kind all nations of
men,' has also impelled them to ' seek the Lord if haply
they might feel after Him and find Him ; ' 2 and in this
feeling after Him they have found Him ' not far from
them.' How fully is the doctrine of Plato in accordance
with that of Paul : ' There are two sorts of things ; the
seen and the unseen ; and the unseen never change, while
the seen are constantly in flux.' 3 How firm was the faith
of the Stoics in the same distinction : ' They held two
principles of all existence, the active and the passive :
the passive, which is but the characterless stuff of the
world ; the active, which is the Eeason that pervades
them, even God.' 4 How bitter is the censure by Plato of
those who doubted this distinction : ' There are men who
drag things invisible and heavenly down to earth. For,
-cleaving only to the visible, they declare that nothing is
but what we strike against and touch ; thus making out
1 Kom. i. 20.
4 Acts xvii. 26: ' Has made of one kind all men.' ailurros is spurious,
and the phrase e'£ 4vbs is the same as in Heh. ii. 11 : ' He that sanctifieth,
and they who are sanctified, are all e£ ivos (of one nature), so that he disdains
not to term them brethren.' In both passages, the essential kinship of all
men, as children of the one common Father, is insisted on. Cf. 1 Tim. ii.
4, 5 : ' God desires all to be saved, for He is the one God of all.' And
Rom. iii. 29 : 'Is He the God of the Jews only, and not of the Gentiles
alsoP'
» Plato, Phcedo. 79 a. * In Diog. Laert. vii. i. 134.
PHILOSOPHIC CONCURRENCE. 21
body to be true being.' 1 And again : ' Such men, unini

tiated in the divine mysteries, count nothing to be real
but what they i^rasp with their two hands ! ' 2 On the
other hand, how intense the longing after this true being,
so that Plato defines Philosophy as ' the passion for
divine wisdom ; ' 3 and Dio Chrysostom says, ' In all men
lies a restless sighing for the knowledge and worship of
God. For like as children, separated from their mother's
arms, experience an indescribable yearning after her,
stretch out their hands towards the absent one, dream of
her ; so men who feel themselves akin to God, are ever
striving after fellowship with God.' And, therefore, how
do they exult when they have discerned His law pervad
ing all things ; and how do they place all wisdom in a
loyal acquiescence in this law ! Look at the adoration of
Cleanthes : ' Thou, first Father of all nature, orderest all
things by Thy law ! Thou, with justice, governest the
world! Thou hast so harmonised to one fundamental
note the whole of being, that one eternal Eeason reigns
throughout ! What honour then so great for man as to
hymn the praise of this ever-active, universal Law ! ' *
And close with the conviction of Euripides : ' This truly is
to be wise indeed, this to have made proficiency in all
1 Plato, Sophist. 246 a. 3 Plato, Theeetet. 155,

3 In Diog. Laert. iii. 38, (piKoo-o(pia ope£is Ttjs deias o-o(ptas.
* Cleanthes, in Ueberweg, i. 197 ; and in Cud-worth, ii. 117 :
Zev, (j>vo-ea>s apffiye, vopov pera irdvra Kvfiepvav.
. . . . Sv 8i'otjs /ieVa irdvra Kvfiepvqs.
rli8e yap els ev airavra o-vvfipp0Kas eo-d\a KoKouTiv,
"Qa-ff eva ylyvea-dai iravrav \Ayov aliv eovra.
. . . . OCre fiporoZs yepas aXXo Tt pe%ov,
OSre deois rj Koivov del vopov iv Sltcg vpveiv.
divine knowledge, when we gracefully move hand in

hand in concert with this Law ! ' 1
Now it is just this Law of the Invisible whose fuller

revelations are enshrined for us, as in a sacred casket,2
in Holy Scripture. From the dim hints given by prophets,
poets, and moralists in the Old Testament, to the clearer
disclosures by our Lord and his Apostles in the New,
the Spirit of God has been ever shedding a brighter light
upon the problems of life. He has vouchsafed to his
favoured ones that ' Eevelation,' which is abbreviated
Eeason ; that ' Inspiration,' which is divinely quickened
induction. And thus He has made Saints to see at once,
without cloud, what Sages, after long research, could only
surmise ; and has unveiled to. us ' things invisible to
mortal sight.' ' The thing that is hid, He hath brought
forth to light.' 8 And He has done for our perplexities
what the prophet did for his servant's fears—opened out
a glimpse behind the veil. When the man said, ' Alas,
my master, what shall we do ? ' Elisha ' prayed the Lord
to open the eyes of the young man, and behold, the
mountain was full of horses and chariots of fire ; and
they who were with Elisha were manifestly more than
they who were with his enemies.' 4 Just so the sacred
Scriptures ' open our eyes ' to abiding Realities 5 under-
1 In Epict. Ench. 78 :
"Os Tts 8' dvayxg (rvyxe^topi/xe KaXas
2o(p6s irap rfplv, Kai ra del eViorarat.
* Cf. Abp. Leighton, Preelect. xx. p. 189 : ' Hi libri sunt doctrinse sacrse
et cselestis Keipr)\ia.' They enshrine the crown jewels, and the Koh-i-
noor.
» Job xxviii. 11. * 2 Kings vi. 15-17.
5 That is, the ultimate elements of real Being ; the Svras ovra of Plato.
\
THE BIBLE UNVEILS REAL BEING. 23
lying all passing appearance. They unveil to us, in

Nature, Eealities which form the base of all physical
phenomena ; in Man, a Eeality which forms the base of
all mental phenomena ; and in that organic Whole, made
up of Nature and of Men, which we call the Universe, a
supreme Eeality, the Source and the Support of these
derived ones, ' in whom they live and move and have
their being.'
I do not call them substances, though Butler uses this word for ' the living
Being whom we call our Self—our substance ' (Anal. i. 2), because the term
has been abused, to denote sometimes the material ' molecules ' of the corpus
cular philosophy ; and sometimes the merely logical ' supports ' of quality, of
Locke. Its right meaning is given by Augustin, when he says, ' Sicut ab eo
quod est esse, appellatur essentia, ita ab eo quod est subsistere, substantiam
dicimus ' (De Trinit. vii. 4).
PAET II.
THE EEALITIES IN NATTJEE.

' Pour éviter les erreurs où nous sommes tombés, il s'agit de rectifier et
d'étendre notre conception de la natura natwrans.'—Miisand, Rev. des deux
Mondes, Sept. 15, 1875.
CHAPTER I.
SCRIPTURE DOCTRINE.
Nature is the sum total of what is observable by sense.1

It is, by its very name, that which is ever being born into
view, as distinguished from that which remains within
the womb, invisible.2
And this sum total of things observable by sense is
termed in Scripture ' the world ; ' as when Jesus says,
'I came forth from the Father and am come into the
world : ' 3 and more specifically, in contrast with another
sphere of things not open to sense, ' this world ; ' and
' the things below,' in distinction from ' the things
above : ' as when Jesus said to the Jews, ' Ye are from
beneath, I am from above ; ye are of this world, I am not
of this world.'4
Now this world of Nature, through the whole range
of the objects it presents to us, the Bible affirms to be
1 See Coleridge, Friend. ' The sum total of all things, so far as they are
the objects of our senses.'
3 Natura from 7U18CQV j (jjvo'ts from (£ua>,
8 John xvi. 28.
4 John viii. 23. Where ' this world ' (6 Koa-pos ofcos) must be distin
guished from ' this age ' (6 alav oSroy). The first phrase denotes the
visible as contrasted with the invisible ; whence its parallelism with
To xara, ' the things below,' as opposed to ra 3va>, ' the things above.'
But the second phrase denotes the present phase of this visible as contrasted
with another phase to come.
28 THE REALITIES IN NATURE.
nothing but appearance ; show as opposed to substance,

seeming as distinguished from reality. For James asks
concerning the present phase of our existence, ' What is
your life ? It is nothing but vapour ' (diyus, unsubstan
tial mist, the momentary exhalation from momentary
warmth l) ' which appeareth (faivoiiein}) for a little time,
but then vanisheth away.' 2 And the whole scene on
which this vapour displays itself Paul declares to be
as superficial and as transient as the painted decorations
of a theatre : ' the fashion (o^/ia, show s) of this world
is passing off (irapayei) ;'—its scenes are even now being
shifted to make way for something else. In like manner
St. John calls on his readers not to love this world nor
the enjoyments in it,—the lust of the flesh (or pleasure) ;
the lust of the eyes (or pelf) ; and the pride of life (or
pomp) ; 4 because this world, with all its objects of desire,
is passing off like a shifting scene (TiapdyercLi). Whence,
in the Epistle to the Hebrews, the present phase of
1 As Seneca has it, Troad, 393 :

' Ut calidusfumus ab ignibus
Vanescit spatium per breve aordibus,
Sic hie, quo regimur, spiritus effluet.'
* James iv. 14.
* 1 Cct. vii. 31. o-xripa> ' show as opposed to substance ' (Liddell
and Scott). Comp. The Tempest, iv. 1 :
• Like the baseless fabric of this vision
The cloud-capp'd towers, the gorgeous palaces,
The solemn temples, the great globe itself,
Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve,
And, like this insubstantial pageant faded,
Leave not a rack behind.'
4 1 John ii. 15-17. Where compare the remarkably similar distribution
of Cleanthes :
avroi 8' aZff 6ppa>o~iv avev KaKov aXXo? «r* aXXa,
oi /i£» V7rep doijrfs (nrovdrfV Sv(ripurrov fyovres,
oi 8' eirl KepSoo-vvas Terpappivoi. oiSevi Koo-pa,
aXXoi 8' els aveo-iv xai o-wpaTOs rf8ea epya.
NATURE ONLY APPEARANCE. 29
phenomenal existence is compared to ' temporary struc

tures which must soon be shaken by an earthquake, to
make way for another form of those realities which can
never be shaken.'1 And it is this series of transient forms,
the mere temporary fashioning of enduring realities,
which the Scripture writers have in mind when they
speak, not simply of ' the world,' but of ' the worlds '
(in the plural), —the successive appearances of realities
which do not appear. ' By his Son God made the
worlds (tous alwvas).' 2 ' By faith we arrive at the conclu
sion that the worlds were framed by the Word of God.'3
Christ is said to remain the same through all coming
worlds (eis Tows aiwâs).4 To Him there is ascribed
increasing glory through successive worlds (eis tous aicS-
vas Twc aicx)vo>v).h Peter foretells the occurrence of one
of these successions when he says, 'AH these present
things shall be dissolved and give place to new heavens
and a new earth.' 6 And John sees the accomplishment
of this transformation actually taking place before his
prophetic eye : ' I saw a new heaven and a new e^rth ;
for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away.' 7
The worlds, then, of Nature are but a succession of
scenic transformations. Nor are the changes which per
petually occur in the phenomena of each world the
1 Heb. xii. 26-28 : ' Yet once again I will shake (as by an earthquake,
a-ela-a) not only earth hut heaven ' (the whole of the present phase of things).
And this points to the ' putting aside (jierddeo-iv) of those temporary struc
tures which are shakeahle, to make' way for the things which never can be
shaken ; ' where ' shakeahle because iretroarnieva ' contrasts the present
phenomena, as only fashioned, with the realities, or permanent elements of
these phenomena, which have not been fashioned (made) but ' created.'
8 Heb. i. 2. ' Quod proprie significat totam rerum mundanarum succes-
sivam ac semper mutatam serietn.' (Bohme.)
» Heb. xi. 3. 4 Heb. xiii. 8. s Heb. xiii. 21.
6 2 Peter iii. 11-13. 7 Rev. xxi. 1.
results of these phenomena themselves. They must

be ascribed to unchangeable realities which underlie
them. For ' the things which are seen ' (the whole
mass of the present and visible—to fSkeiropevov) ' do
not derive their origin from things apparent to sense,
(e/c <f»aivopa'cov),' but from the working of invisible
elements antecedent to them ;1 whence it is declared that
' the Lord God made every plant of the field before
it was in the earth ' (before it began to appear with
visible development), ' and every herb of the field before
it grew, and before there was any rain to assist its
growth.' 2 For all the phenomena of growth are but the
outward manifestations of inward forces. The natural is
but the coming to birth of the supernatural. Existence,
or that which stands out (exstat). before our eyes, is
but the obverse side of reverse Essences standing in,
secluded from our sight.3 To this St. Paul alludes in
Coloss. i. 16, when he says, 'By Him were all things
created that are in heaven and that are in earth, the
latter visible, the former invisible, whether they be thrones
or dominions or principalities or powers ; ' whatever rank
they may hold in the hierarchy of supernatural forces
which produce and actuate and dominate the visible
1 Heb. xi. 3. Cf. Herbart, Eney. d. Phil. 221 : ' Matter does not spring
in an endless series out of matter ; and not, therefore, from either molecules
or atoms: but it results from what Leibnitz calls monads; that is, from
elements which are in themselves perfectly immaterial, without extension.'
s Gen. ii. 5.
s ' Existence is essence clothed with form.'—Tiberghien. These essences
you may call ' Atoms,' but not in the sense of either the physical or the
most attenuated ' ethereal ' atoms of the corpuscular philosophy. For Re'ville
justly says of such, ' L'atome, c'est a dire la particule indivisible de matiere, est
une contradiction in adjecto, contre laquelle la pensee regimbe comme devant
un non-sens.' (Revue d, d. M., 15 mars 1875.)
REAL BEING ETERNAL. 31
things of earth.1 And the same distinction he insists

upon in 2 Cor. iv. 18, when he affirms that while 'the
things seen are only temporal,' are but appearances in
perpetual change, 'the things which are not seen are
eternal, are realities that never pass away.'
1 For the angelic potencies here enumerated are but the symbols of the
energising spiritual forces which underlie and actuate the phenomenal
world : they are the ' creatures ' which dominate creation. Whence their
name in Rev. v. 13 : 'I heard the voice not only of the " angels of the
presence," who do homage before the throne, but of every created spirit (irav
KTtorpa) presiding in heaven and over (ori) the earth, and the under
world, and the sea, saying, Blessing, and honour, and glory, and power, to
Him that sitteth upon the throne.' And John enumerates ' the angel of the
waters ' (xvi. 5 ) ; ' the angels of the winds ' (vii. 1) ; ' the angel that had
power over fire ' (egovo-lav eVi Tov irvphi) (xiv. 18) ; and ' the angel standing
in the sun' (xix. 17). See Ewald and Stuart on Rev. v. 13.
CHAPTEE II.
In inquiring what lies behind the veil of the world of

appearance, we have begun by consulting the Sacred
Scriptures, which contain the record of God's teachings to
the elect of men. But the Father of all has been edu
cating all his children, by various modes of instruction,
in the knowledge of Himself, his works, and his ways.
He has nowhere ' left Himself without witness ' to any
who have sought Him out, if haply they might find Him.1
The universal and eternal Ideas of Truth, as distin
guished from the particular and temporary Conceptions in
which these clothe themselves to different minds, He has
' at sundry times, and in divers manners,' revealed. And
the lover of Truth will always delight to trace these ideas
through all the forms which they put on. He will feel
with Justin Martyr, that ' whatever philosophers and law
givers have uttered of good and true, this has come to
them from the degree of research and contemplation, im
parted to them by the Word (Xoyos) of God ; ' 2 and so
he will appreciate the avowal of this ancient Father, ' I
have become a Christian, not because the teachings of
1 Acta xiv. 17 ; xvii. 27.

2 Justin Martyr, Apol. ii. 13.
THINGS SEEN ARE UNREAL. 33
Plato were different from those of Christ, but because

they are not in all things equal to His. And this is true of
others also, Stoics, Poets, and Historians, so far as they dis
cerned what is consonant to that Divine Word from whom
come all the seeds of truth.' 1 For he will believe, with
Clement of Alexandria, that ' Philosophy is a product of
Divine Providence. And Philosophy among the Greeks,
like the Law among the Jews, was a schoolmaster to bring
men to Christ ; since wherever we find anything good,
this good we cannot but trace up to God.'2
Proceeding, then, now from the Metaphysic of the
Bible concerning Nature to that of Ancient Philosophy,
we shall rejoice to observe how the independent thought
of the greatest minds coincides with Holy Scripture in
holding the pure subjectivity of all our knowledge of the
world around us ; the untrustworthiness of this know
ledge through the delusive character of the senses ; and
the consequent necessity of recognising a world of in
visible Realities as the ground of all the transformations
which present themselves to us in the world of Appear
ance. All things seen are unreal, and yet they are the signs
and proofs of Realities unseen to which they owe their
origin.
1. That all things seen are unreal, first began to be
suspected and asserted by the school of the Eleatics.
Xenophanes, whom Mr. Lewes calls 'one of the most re
markable men of antiquity,' was the first who had 'a
vague glimmering of the distinction between Opinion
and Truth, i.e. between the notions derived through our
senses and the ideas revealed to us by Reason.' And
1 Justin Martyr, Apol. ii. 13. 2 Clemens Alex. Stromata, i. 1, 6.

D
this distinction became clear to Parmenides, who tells us

that we must not trust ' rash eyes, and ears with ringing
sounds confused,' but form a rational judgment touching
whatever these report to us. For he maintains that the
perceptions of the understanding (or faculty that judges
according to sense) vary continually as the thoughts of
the individual percipient, ' sensations of the same object
differing according to the senses of different persons, nay,
of the same person at different times.' So that all notions
derived from sense are but seeming (Sofa), and only in
the ideas of Eeason can we have the confidence (mo-ris) of
perfect reality. And hence arose the all-important dis
tinction between a relative knowledge, or Opinion, based
on Physics or the study of phenomena ; and an absolute
knowledge, or Truth, which comes from Meta-physics, or
the study of the realities which lie beneath phenomena.
This distinction was established by Anaxagoras, who
maintained the insufficiency of the senses, seeing that
' while the eye discerns a complex mass which we call a
flower, we see nothing of that which constitutes the flower ;'
thus anticipating, says Mr. Lewes, ' the greatest discovery
of modern psychology, that the senses perceive only phe
nomena, never noumena.' 1 As everyone knows the view
of Plato on this subject, it may suffice to refer to Cud-
1 Lewes, Hist, of Phil, 1st edit. i. 117. To the same effect says Dr.
Tyndall (Belfast Address) : ' When I say, " I see you, and I have not the least
doubt about it," the reply is, that what I am really conscious of is only an
affection of my own retina. And if I urge that I can check my sight of
you by touching you, the retort would be that I am equally by this second
assertion transgressing the limits of Fact ; for what I am really conscious of
is, that the nerves of my hand have undergone a change. All we hear and
see, and touch and taste, and smell, are, it would be urged, mere variations of
our own condition. That anything answering to our impressions exists out
side of ourselves is not a fact, but an inference.'
SENSE IS ONLY SEEMING. 35
worth's presentation of it from the Thecetetus : ' We can

have no true knowledge of what we perceive by the
senses, but only of the conclusions which the mind derives
from these ; for in this way only can we reach to the real
being of things. We ought not, therefore, to seek for
knowledge in sensation, but in that intuition which the
soul obtains, by itself alone, when it occupies itself with
things as they are.' 1 And the appeal to experience in
proof of this view is made (among others) by Cicero,
when he asks, ' Who can tell what the moon really is
when its phases are so incessantly changing ? ' And again,
' You call the sea blue, yet its waves when struck by the
oars become purple. Nor need I mention the curved ap
pearance of an oar in water, or the varying colours of
the dove's bosom ; for there is nothing of which I could
say, It is what it seems to be.' 2 So also Cudworth, some
what quaintly : ' Though men are commonly said to know
things when they see and feel them, yet in truth by their
bodily senses they perceive nothing but their outsides and
external induments. Just as when a man looking down
out of a window into the streets is said to see men walk
ing in the streets, when indeed he perceives nothing but
hats and clothes under which, for aught he knows, there
may be Daedalean statues moving up and down.' 3 ' For '
(he adds, p. 571) ' sense cannot be knowledge, nor the
certainty of all things ultimately resolvable into sense ;
because the nature of sense consists in nothing else but
mere seeming or appearance.' To prove this, Fichte has
1 Plato, Thetetetus, in Cudworth, Int. Syst. iii. 568.

2 See the Academica, Heed's edition, p. 19.
3 Cudworth, Works, iii. 565. Was this passage the germ of Carlyle's
Philosophy of Clothes ?
d 2
devoted many chapters of his Destiny of Man,1 and

Fiske many pages of his Cosmic Philosophy.2 And
Coleridge thus illustrates it : ' Suppose a body floating at
a certain height in the air, and receiving the light so
equally on all sides as not to occasion the eye to con
jecture any solid contents. And let six or seven persons
see it at different distances and from different points of
view. For A it will be a square, for B a triangle, for 0
two right-angled triangles attached to each other, for D
two unequal triangles, for E a triangle with a trapezium
hung on to it, for F a square with a cross in it, for G an
oblong quadrangle with three triangles in it, and for H
three unequal triangles. Now it is evident that neither
of all these is the figure itself (which is a four-sided py
ramid), but the contingent relations of the figure. Transfer
this from Geometry to the subjects of the real sciences,
the materia subjecta of the Chemist, Physiologist, and
Naturalist, and you will gradually acquire the power of
distinguishing that which alone is and abides from the
accidental and impermanent relations arising out of its co
existence with other things.' 3 To which add the very
similar testimony of Herbart : ' The qualities of things
depend on their external relations. Bodies have colour,
but colour is nothing without light and without eyes.
They have sound, but only in a vibrating medium and for
healthy ears. Colour and sound present the appearance
of inherent qualities, but examination shows that these
do not really dwell in things, but result from the correla
tion of one thing with another. This appearance of in-
1 G. H. Fichte, Destiny of Man, ch. v. to ix.

* Fiske, Cosmic Philosophy, i. 4-21.
3 Coleridge, Church and State, p. 217.
MATTER IS BUT MANIFESTATION. 37
herent qualities is, in all cases, simply an indication of

the co-presence of many real entities, the combination
of at least two, but generally more underlying sub
stances.' 1
And hence we see the utter unreality of that preten
tious, omnipotent ' Matter,' which some regard as ' the
promise and potency of all terrestrial life.' For ' Matter,'
in the sense in which the term is usually employed, is but
an appearance, or an attribution, of qualities. From the
grossest ' bodies ' to the fmest ' ethereal atoms ' it is but a
figment of sensuous perception, or notional imagination.
We cannot bring together too many testimonies to this
point, from naturalists as well as metaphysicians.
' Matter and force,' says Huxley, ' are mere names for
certain forms of consciousness. What we call the ma
terial world is known to us only under the forms of the
ideal world.' 2 ' Our conception of matter,' says Spencer,
' reduced to its simplest shape, is that of co-existent posi
tions which offer resistance.' 3 ' To the scientific inquirer,'
says Fiske, ' the terms " matter " and " force " are mere
symbols, which stand tant Men que mal for certain gene
ralised modes of manifestation. They are no more real
existences than the x and y of the algebraist.' And again :
' The trees and mountains supposed to exist away from any
perceiving mind do not really exist as trees and mountains
1 Herbart, Metaph. ii. 121. Cf. Epictetus, Diss. i. 6 : 'If God had
made colours without giving us the power of perceiving them, of what use
would they have been to us ? Or, again, if He had given us the power of
vision, but not made anything capable of being perceived ? Nay, more ; what
if He had given both vision and objects suited to it, but had not vouchsafed
light to make them visible to us, what would this have availed us ? Who
then is He who has fitted each thing to each, like the sword-case to the
sword ? '
2 Huxley, Lay Sermons, 373. 3 Spencer, First Principles, 232.
except in relation to some perceiving mind. Matter does

not exist as matter save in relation to our intelligence ;
since what we mean by matter is only a congeries of
qualities—weight, resistance, extension, colour, &c. —
which have been severally proved to be merely names for
divers ways in which our consciousness is affected by an
unknown external agency. Take away all these qualities
and the matter is gone ; for by matter we mean the phe
nomenal thing which is seen, tasted, and felt.' 1
And so equally the great continental philosophers.
Herbart says, ' The doctrine of space and motion leads to
the assumption of an incomplete conjunction of simple
Entities, whence springs an apparent attraction and
repulsion ; and from the equilibrium of the two a some
thing which the observer may call Matter, having force
in space (init rdumlichen Krdften), though such Matter
cannot really exist.' And again : ' As to spirit and matter,
understanding by this latter what a coarse Materialism
treats as extended Eeality (ein ra'umliches Reales), neither
physicists nor idealists can ever, either by bringing spirit
under the category of matter, or matter under the cate
gory of spirit, end the strife. Neither living matter nor
dead matter can be made up of extended realities. Ex
tension is nothing but a form of conception in the mind
of the observer.' 2 I. H. Fichte again says : ' Matter
vanishes as a reality, because it is solely an appearance
presented to us by means of the senses. It does not reach
1 Fiske, Cosmic Philosophy, i. 80.

2 Herbart, Lehrb. d. Philosophie, § 131. Add Blasche (Das Bbse, p. 373) :
' Was ist dann Naturwissenschaft ? Was kann sie mehr seyn als ein
Wissen von den Erscheinungen der Oberflache der Dinge, mithin selbst ein
oberflachliches Wissen, das nie in die Tiefe zu bringen wagt und den Kern
nicht beriihrt, weil dieser fur schlechthin unerkennbar gehalten wird ? '
THE UNHEAL IMPLIES THE HEAL. 39
down at all into the region of realities.' 1 And so Lotze :

' Its quality of infinitely divisible extension is only an
appearance, at the base of which lie a multitude of
realities that possess no properties but unextended ones.
Extension is not the property of any single element of
being by itself, but is the result of a system of elements
taken together. Extension can be no more predicated of
any single element of being by itself than a whirlpool
can be the mode of action of a single drop of water.
Both can be conceived only as forms of relation of many
elements of being among each other. So that extended
matter is only the sign and manifestation of unextended
realities, which, by means of the force they are endowed
with, trace out for themselves relative position in space ;
and by resisting the encroachments of each on each give
rise to the appearance of impenetrability, and of con
tinuous occupation of space.'2 'Whence,' says Von
Hartmann, ' the notion of Matter resolves itself at last
into the notion of Force ; which thus becomes, as Leib
nitz has said, the only real Substance. And if you
object that Force without Matter is a pure abstraction,
you forget that this Matter itself is only the appearance
produced by the action of one or more forces—the re
sultant of their attraction and repulsion.' 3
2. But while we thus affirm the unreal character of

all that is presented to us through the senses, we must
not the less maintain that these presentments of sense are
signs and proofs of Realities underlying them, beyond
1 I. H. Fichte, Psychologie, 35. 8 Lotze, Mikrokosmos, 386.

3 Von Hartmann, in Beville, Reme d. d. M., Oct. 1, 1874.
THE REALITIES IN NATURE.
the region of sense. And to these Realities, rather than

to the appearances which result from them, this much-
abused term ' Matter ' was originally and properly applied.
For ' Matter,' by its very etymology, indicates the mother-
substances,1 or Materials out of which all appearances of
extension and impenetrability spring ; it denotes what
Coleridge has called ' the Materia subjecta ' (or underlying
elements) ' of Chemistry, Physiology, and Nature.' And
such ' Materia ' is and abides in the realm of being quite
independently of our perception of its sensible phenomena.
' If,' says Mr. Fiske, ' we would consistently refrain from
violating the doctrine of Eelativity, we must state the
Idealist's premiss, but avoid his conclusion. We admit
that the trees and mountains, imagined to exist away
from any perceiving mind, do not really exist as trees and
mountains except in relation to some perceiving mind.
We admit that Matter ' (in the common sense) ' does not
exist as Matter, save in relation to our intelligence ; since
what we mean ' (in common parlance) ' by Matter is a
congeries of qualities—weight, resistance, extension, colour,
and so on—which have been severally proved to be merely
names for divers ways in which our consciousness is affected
by an unknown external agency. Take away all these
qualities and the Matter is gone ; for by Matter we mean '
(in the ordinary sense) ' the phenomenal thing which is
seen, tasted, and felt. But nevertheless ' (when all these
phenomenal qualities are gone) ' something is still there
which to some possible mode of impressibility quite dif
ferent from our intelligence might manifest itself as wholly
1 ' Materia (quasi a Mater ; quod in corporum generatione habeat se

instar Matris), stuff whereof anything is made ; materials as opposed to
form.'—Ainsworth,
SHOW IMPLIES SUBSTANCE. 41
different from Matter. The doctrine of Eelativity cannot

even be intelligently stated without postulating the exis
tence of unknown Reality ' (the real Material) ' indepen
dent of us.'
And this ' unknown Eeality ' is postulated in the very
terms which men are compelled to use when speaking of
the phenomena of thought. Take the sentence of Mr.
Huxley already quoted, ' Matter and Force are mere
names for certain forms of consciousness.' That very
word ' Form ' comes from nop(j>7j (appearance), which is
synonymous with the Latin ' species.' And ' species '
denotes appearance as contrasted with reality. Thus
Cicero says, ' Securitas, specie blanda, re ipsa repudianda.'
And again, ' moveri falsa visione et specie doloris.' This
very term ' Forms,' therefore, as meaning appearances in
contrast with reality, obliges us, by 'the association of con
trast, to think of corresponding Realities at the base of
these appearances. For it is an axiom, If nothing were,
nothing could appear : visible existences imply invisible
essences out of which they spring to view. And such
essences must be out of the region of our own mind,
because the ' forms ' to which they give rise are not
in our own power. ' Our sensations ' (as Mr. Mill says)
' occur in groups which come and go independently of our
volitions or mental processes.' We do not by our inde
pendent force originate them ; we find them originated in
us by external forces. They are thrown upon our mind
as the images of outside objects are thrown upon a screen
by means of the oxyhydrogen microscope ; or as the
forms in a mirror, or on a photographic plate, are pro
jected by objects independent of these receptive subjects.
Such forms, it is true, are modified by the state of the
screen, or of the mirror, or of the plate, but are not

caused by these—would never have sprung independently
from these. As unavoidably, therefore, as we infer, from
those several presentments, things external to which their
appearance is due, so unavoidably must we, from the
' forms of consciousness ' in our minds, infer the indepen
dent being of things external to our minds. ' We cannot '
(says Herbart), ' from the Soul taken by itself alone, ex
plain the slightest phenomena of mind. We are obliged,
therefore, to argue onward from Seeming to Substance,
not only within ourselves, ascribing to one simple Entity
the manifold thoughts which stream into our conscious
ness ; but also without ourselves, recognising other simple
Entities besides the Soul. For the groups of common
marks within our mind, and their variations, can be ex
plained by nothing but the assumption of such distinct
Substances external to our mind ; or at least by the
assumption of distinct relations among certain substances
which we grant to be in all other respects unknown
to us.' 1
And this view of invisible Eealities, necessarily postu

lated by the visible unrealities which our senses bring
before us, is fully established by the investigations which
have been made of the leading phenomena of Nature,
Co-existence and Sequence, or Extension in space, and
Succession in time.
1. As to the phenomena of Co-existence or Extension
in space, Spencer shows that 'our conception of Matter,
reduced to its simplest shape, is that of co-existent posi-

MOTION IMPLIES FORCE. 43
Hons which offer resistance. We represent to ourselves

Matter as a somewhat, at once extended and resistant; and
of these two elements the resistance is primary, the
extension only secondary.'1 But resistance is the result
and manifestation of Force—Force external to us and in
opposition to the Force internal in us. 'Forces, there
fore, standing in certain correlations form the whole
content of our idea of matter.'2
2. So equally, as to the phenomena of Sequence, or
Succession in time, Spencer shows how the idea of
Force lies at the base of all those changes in our con
sciousness which we call Motion. ' A something that
moves ; a series of positions occupied in succession ; and
a group of co-existent positions united in thought with the
successive ones—these are the constituents of the idea.
Motion is traceable, in common with the other ulti
mate scientific ideas, to experiences of Force. Matter,
therefore, and Motion, are but differently conditioned
manifestations of Force. Force is the ultimate of ulti-
mates.'3
And this is just the point which has been very fully
worked out by M. Magy in a course of reasoning of
which the following is a summary : 4
The two component elements of all that is presented
to our consciousness are Extension and Eesistance. But
Besistance is a manifestation of Force ; and Force is the
result of interaction between the elementary substances in
Nature and that elementary substance which we call our
Self.
1 Spencer, First Principles, § 63, p. 232. 2 Ibid. p. 233.

* Ibid. pp. 234, 235. * See Magy, Be la Science, 179.
THE REALITIES IN NATURE.
Now, of these two qualities we find that they cannot

both belong to one and the same subject. Force is
not expressible in terms of Extension, for its properties
are the direct contrary to those of Extension. Exten
sion has form, but Force has no form. Extension has
the three dimensions of length, breadth, and thickness ;
but Force, though acting along certain lines, is altogether
different from these lines. Extension is divisible with
out end, Force is indivisible. Extension is inert, Force
is essentially active. Wherever we perceive movement,
we attribute this to some actuating Force; and Force
we conceive as always active, even when, through an
equivalent counterpoise, there seems to be equilibrium
and rest. Action is of the essence of Force; cessation of
activity would be cessation of being.
Extension, then, and Force are in direct contradiction
to each other. But contradictions cannot exist together
in one and the same subject. Consequently, if Force
be an essential property of things in themselves, inde
pendent of our perceptions of these things, Extension,
as its contrary, must be not a property of things in them
selves, but only of our perceptions of these things; i.e.
it is simply a form of thought produced in our own
subjective Eeality (Self) by the action on this of objective
Eealities, which are not Self.
But that Force is an essential property of things in
themselves, we know from actual experience of our own
Self. This Self, our subjective Eeality, we find always
active (in greater or less degrees) as Thought, as Feeling
(which is not mere passivity, but reaction against ac
tion), and as Will. This is conceded even by Descartes
when he says: 'The Force by which we become ac
THOUGHTS ARE ACTS OF SOUL. 45
quainted with external objects is purely spiritual; distinct

from the body in which it operates. And it is, more
over, one and the same Force, whether it exert itself
as perception, or memory, or imagination, or will. In
every case, too, this Force is originative as well as re
ceptive ; is the seal as well as the wax ; 1 a comparison,
be it noted, which is not mere analogy, for nothing like
it exists throughout all matter.' And Locke, when he
affirms (ii. 21. 5) that 'we find in ourselves a power to
begin or forbear, continue or end, several actions of
our minds, and motions of our bodies, barely by the
thought or preference of the mind, ordering, or as it
were commanding, the doing or not doing of such a
particular action,' acknowledges at once the most eminent
of all the dynamic qualities of the soul,—its ability to
act by its own initiative, or what Locke afterwards terms
(ii. 21. 73) its ' Motivity.' Whence, he maintains in
another place, against Descartes, that thought is not the
soul itself, but simply a mode of action of the soul; for
he says (ii. 19. 4), ' Since the mind can sensibly put
on, at several times, several degrees of thinking, I ask
whether it be not probable that thinking is the action,
and not the essence, of the soul; since the operations of
agents will easily admit of intention and remission, but
1 Comp. Blasehe {Das Bose, p. 136) : ' The word " Impression " seems to
indicate that in Sensation something from without impi-esses itself on the
soul, like as a seal stamps itself on the yielding wax. But the wax itself is
by no means purely passive, but exercises towards the impressing seal a
counteraction, without which no impression would take place. How little,
therefore, are we entitled to speak of the sensitive living organs of the
soul as purely passive! The fact is, that the sensitive Factor is the
most peculiarly (tctive one, for the living organs of perception exert them
selves to copy the things which impress them, and reproduce them in them
selves.'
the essences of things are not conceived capable of any-

such variation.'
We have therefore in our own experience a proof of
Force in the" sense of Motivity. And the Force which
we thus first make acquaintance with in our own Self we
cannot but regard as an instance of many Forces operating
in the world without us. For, in the first place, we are
so closely connected with all other Things that the law of
their interaction must be assumed to be like our own.
And next, this law of interaction obliges us to admit, for
them as for our Self, a continuous Resistance to what
ever invades, or checks their life. And such Eesis-
tance is a putting forth of Force. Whence our conception
of the Universe must be that of a vast system of Forces
(or Eealities which put forth Force) in perpetual action
and reaction.
Such then is the universality of Force, as really
existing in the world without us, independent of us. But
Extension has no such proofs of being really existent in
the world without us, and independent of us. Just the
contrary. All experience proves it to be pure appearance,
having its seat in our own minds ; produced, indeed, in us
by the interaction of Forces external to us, but not itself
external to us.1
Take, for instance, the phenomena of Touch. These
will be found conditioned by three causes. 1. A. physical
cause ; the action of some external elements on the nerves
of Touch. 2. A physiological ; the transmission of the
1 Cf. Herbart, Lehrb. d. Psych. § 114 : ' There is no such thing as

Matter extended, either in the sphere of Being, or in that of Becoming. Such
extension is a mere appearance. Matter is the sum total of the simple
Essences, among which there takes place a something that is followed by the
appearance to our minds of extension.'
SENSATION IS AN ACT OF SOUL. 47
tremors thus excited to the brain. 3. A psychological

cause ; the reaction on these tremors in the brain by our
Self, or Soul, in the way of sensation—sensation, be it
carefully observed, not of these tremors themselves, but
of certain conceptions associated with the occurrence of
these tremors. But such conceptions can do no other
wise than arrange themselves under the relations of
time and place, i e. of extension and duration. For the
nerves of touch convey to us a notice, not of some single
isolated point in external nature, resisting us, but of
several complex points of resistance ; and thus it is
that we become conscious of the contiguity to each other
of these points (which begets the notion of Space),
and of their consecutiveness (which begets the notion
of Time).
In like manner, all Sensation, whether of touch, or
savour, or smell, or light, or sound, is essentially a reac
tion of the sentient Being whom we call our Self,1 on the
nervous vibrations in the brain. In each case there takes
place simply a modification of the internal Reality that we
call Self, produced, indeed, by contact with external vi
brations propagated by surrounding things to nerves and
brain, but having no sort of resemblance to these vibra
tions. Light, e.g., results from the vibrations of the ether,
the intensity of it from their amplitude, the colour of it
from their length ; but the physical particles of this ether
are no more luminous or coloured, in themselves, than
are the particles of the retina which vibrate in unison with
them. It is the Self alone which begets light by reacting
on that nervous centre in the brain which corresponds to
1 ' The living Being whom we call our Self.' (Butler.)

the optic nerve. Take the phenomenon of ' Interference,'

which consists in two rays of light meeting under certain
circumstances, so as to destroy each other and produce
darkness. This phenomenon would be utterly inexpli
cable if the air were luminous in itself, independently
of the percipient Soul. But, to admit the subjectivity
of Light is to admit therewith the subjectivity of that
concomitant Extension which serves as its base ; for Light
cannot shine upon us otherwise than in the form of
Extension.
Nor let it be objected that experience is contrary to
this conclusion. For though it is a fact of experience
that our sight and touch produce in us the appearance of
extension in the things seen and touched, it is no fact of
experience that this extension is a quality of the things
themselves. We should as much delude ourselves in con
cluding from appearance to reality in this case, as in con
cluding from the sun's appearing to travel round the
earth that it really does so.
Extension , then, is pure appearance, produced in our own
minds by certain changes in the relations of Force among
Realities external to our own minds. The bodies which
appear to us in our consciousness are made up of simple
Elements (real substances) in constant interaction ; and
the changes in these bodies resulting from this inter
action make themselves known to us in the forms of Ex
tension and Duration (Space and Time). But these forms
are no realities like the forces which occasion them ; they
are but modifications of that ' living Being which we
call our Self.' This Self is an unknown and unknowable
Eeality, in intimate interaction with all the other unknown
and unknowable Eealities of the universe ; and by their
ALL REALITIES INTERACTIVE. 49
acts it is modified, as by its own acts it modifies them.

All these elementary substances, our Self included, are
alike unextended, alike uncompounded, alike invisible,
yet alike self-manifestive by the Force which they inces
santly exert.
E
PAET III.
THE REALITY M MM.
E2
• What a marvel is man, that Thou hast made him hut little lower than
the angels ! '—Psalm viii. 4, 5.
' What were all the wonders of matter without a spectator mind that
could intelligently view, and that could tastefully admire them ? One living
intelligent spirit is of higher reckoning and mightier import than a dead
universe.'—Chalmers, Works, i. 305.
CHAPTER I.
The Scripture doctrine concerning Man is to that concern

ing Nature, only as the particular to the general. The
same distinction between things seen and things unseen,
which pervades the Bible view of Nature, pervades also
its view of Man. Just as, in Nature, it regards the phe
nomena brought before us through the medium of the
senses as manifestations of Realities beyond sense, so in
Man it regards the phenomena of the visible body as but
manifestations of an invisible Reality residing in this body
which it calls our Self.
And herein it decides that one fundamental question
concerning human Beings, on which hangs all right concep
tion of them. The ' articulus stantis aut cadentis Hominis '
is the doctrine that ' Man ' is no mere abstract term for the
molecular action of the brain, or the vibrations of the
nervous substance ; no compound of physical or chemical
atoms, working out by their interaction the phenomena
of thought, feeling, and will ; but a One, single, uncom-
pounded, individual elementary Substance ; self-subsisting,
self-moving, and self- asserting, amidst the concourse of
those other elementary Substances which together make
up the Universe or organic Whole of Being.
54 THE REALITY IN MAN.
This doctrine concerning Man, whether expressly de

clared or tacitly assumed, runs through the whole of
Scripture. It comes before us in that early account of
his formation, in Genesis ii. 7, where God is described as
having first moulded 1 an image as of plastic clay from
the dust of the ground—an Adam from the Adamah —
and then, by breathing into this image his own vital
breath, to have made it into ' a living Soul,' an animated
Being,2 what, in Genesis vii. 23, is called ' a living Sub
stance ' (Dip*,3 dvdcrTr]pa) : ' All in whose nostrils was the
breath of life—every living substance—was destroyed.'
Where mark, however, that in Genesis ii. 7 it is simply the
self-sameness, or Individuality, of the animated Substance
thus produced which is affirmed ; without any hint of the
peculiar qualities that distinguish the human Individuality
in particular. For that term ' a living soul, in which is
the breath of life,' is used equally of the inferior animals ;
Genesis i. 20, 'Let the waters bring forth the living soid'
(n*n CPfiJ, ^vx&v £wow), and Genesis i. 24, ' Let the
earth bring forth the living soul' (n*H t£>£)J, tyvxqv tjacrav),
T- VV
1 en-Xao-ev, from ir\do-o-ar L to mould like a statuary who works in earth
and clay ; ' ' to mould as a potter dtoes his earthen vessels.'
s ' The man was made into a living Individuality.' njn B>B}^>, ds faxrfv
£a>o-av : where K'S? and i/'vxt are from their respective roots, ' to breathe,'
because the breathing is the sign of life. Then, from a peculiar Hebrew
idiom, these two words and their cognates 0-11 and irvevpa are used in
place of the personal pronouns, to indicate the breathing Individual, in all
his thoughts, feelings, and acts ; as ' My soul hungers ' for ' I am hungry ; '
' My soul is cold ' for- ' I am cold.' And thence, still further, they are used
as a periphrasis for Self, Person, an Individual Being : e.g. Levit. iv. 2 :
' If any individual (a soul) sin.' Exod. i. 5 : ' Seventy persons (souls).'
Job ix. 21 : ' Though I were perfect, yet would I not defend myself (my
soul).' Cf. 1 Cor. iv. 4: 'I know nothing against myself, yet am I not
hereby justified.'
' From D-1p, ' to stand, endure, be ever the same.' It is similar, there
fore, to our English ' Self '—the same.
MAN A LIVING SUBSTANCE. 55
and Genesis vi. 17, ' I will destroy all flesh wherein is the
breath of life ' (irveu/Aa {cotjs). We owe to Philo the in
trusion into Gen. ii. 7 of the notion of something peculiar
breathed into man to contradistinguish him from the
other animals ; though this notion has been caught up
by Josephus, and by fathers and commentators to the
present day.1
Man, then, the Individual whom each one calls My
Self, is not the Body moulded of plastic clay, ' of the
earth, earthy,' dust of dust; but a ' living substance.' No
counter-assumption can move a step without (however
unintentionally) recognising this living Substance. It
remains irrepressible. It refuses to be ignored.2 The
very terms Body, Flesh, Soul, Spirit, Mind, which are so
often, in Scripture, circumlocutions for it, have no mean
ing without the possessive pronouns which indicate a
Person, and possessor of them, to whom they belong. You
see this in Bornans vii. 18 to viii. 4 : 'I know that in
my flesh dwelleth no good thing ; for while I delight in
the law of God after the inward man, I find another law
in my members,3 warring against this law of my mind.
1 See Philo, Leg. Alleg. iii. 336 : ' The soul is ethereal, a something
severed off (airoo-irao-pa) from God. For it is said, " He breathed into his
face the Spirit of life." ' And De opif. Mundi, 90 1 ' This Spirit proceeding
from the very being ((j>vo-ea>s) of God, took up its abode (JmoixLav) in man.'
Whence Josephus interpolates in the text, ' God made the body of dust, and
breathed into it spirit and soul ' (iriieipa KoI tyvxrjv) ; to which even Eosen-
miiller clings, comparing Juvenal's distinction—
* Mundi
Principio indulsit communis conditor illis
Tantum animas, nobis animum quoque.'
3 See my Fundamentals, 13-30.
5 Where by ' members ' are meant ' members of the body,' and so ' the
body.' See 1 Cor. xii. 12 : ' The body hath many members, and these many
members constitute together one body.'
Thus, therefore, I myself, that same individual Person

whom I have been depicting throughout (auTos eyw), with
my mind, indeed, serve the law of God, but with my flesh
the law of sin. Yet, thank God, there is no condemna
tion awaiting those who walk not after this flesh, but after
its contradictory, the spirit.' Now here we have five
several things—on the one side the flesh, the body, the
members of this body ; on the other side the spirit, the
mind—all spoken of as belonging to the ' Me myself,' the
one same Man ; and throughout it is this one same man,
this I Myself, who is the centre to which they have rela
tion, the Substance in which they inhere. One and the
same individual Reality is assumed as the Subject of these
various contradictory qualities and actings, expressed by
the terms Body, Flesh, Members on the one hand, and
Mind, Spirit, on the other.
Hence we see how mistaken are those who gather
from 1 Thess. v. 23 that Man is not a single but a tri
partite being, made up of 'spirit, soul, and body.' For
they overlook the important fact, that in this passage also,
St. Paul uses these words not of the Man, but of the
belongings of the Man. He does not say, ' I pray God
that you (u/xeis), made up of spirit, soul, and body, may be
preserved ; ' but ' I pray God that the spirit, soul, and
body of you ' (v/aw), i.e. belonging to you, ' may be pre
served.' He regards, therefore, all three equally, spirit,
soul, and body, not as different portions of a triplex com
pounded Being, but as different possessions of a single un-
compounded Being, the / myself. So that to infer from
this text that man has three parts would be as rash as to
reckon, with the Eabbin and the Cabbalists, that he has
five or six parts ; or to deduce from such passages as
MAN NOT BIPARTITE. 57
Mark xii. 30 that he is made up of ' heart and mind and

strength ' along with ' body, soul, and spirit ; ' or (since
' body ' is otherwise called ' flesh,' and ' flesh and blood,'
and ' flesh and bones ') to affirm that man is compounded
of nine parts—body, flesh, blood, bones, soul, spirit, heart,
mind, strength.
Nor has a duplex division of Man any better ground
than the triplex. He is no more bipartite than tripartite.
For though we find four terms in frequent use, ' body '
and ' flesh ' on the one side as contrasted with ' soul '
and ' spirit ' on the other, yet they are thus contrasted
not as different parts of a duplex Being, but as dif
ferent aspects, and modes of manifestation, of a single
Being. This is clear, first, from (what has already been
noted) the employment with them of the possessive pro
nouns, which indicate that these terms denote, not the
Man, nor portions of the Man, but possessions, instruments,
of the Man.1 And secondly, from the employment of
them, each one by itself, to denote Man, only under some
particular aspect, in which at a particular moment, and
from a particular point of view, he becomes present to
our thoughts. The relations, bearings, characteristics of
a Being are no parts of that Being, but only modes of his
existence and self-manifestation.
Thus, to begin with the term ' Body.' When men
are looked at, exclusively or mainly, in relation to their
corporeal power, they are often designated by the term
which most directly brings into our mind this power, and
are spoken of as simply 'Bodies.' As when the swift-
1 This is well put by Sallust, when he says, ' The mind possesses all
things, but is possessed by none : ' ' Animus incorruptus, seternus, rector
humani generis, agit atque habet cuncta, neque ipse habetur.' {Jug. 2.)
footed Nisus is said to distance all his competitors in the

race, Virgil's phrase is, ' He outshone all the other bodies
(meaning ' men ' ) engaged in it.' 1 And slaves, whose
corporeal powers are the main thing thought of by pur
chasers, are thence called, characteristically, ' bodies ' in
stead of men. As in 2 Mace. viii. 11, 'Nicanor pro
claimed a sale for the captive Jews, and promised that
buyers should have fourscore and ten bodies (crw/xaTa) for
one talent.' And Eev. xviii. 13, 'In Eome was found
the merchandise of beasts, and horses, and bodies ' (i.e.
slaves).2
But, next, when men are looked at more with re
ference to the corporeal life, by means of which they
manifest themselves in this present world, they are often
designated by the term which is the most intimately con
nected with this life, ' flesh.' For flesh is more than
body ; it is bodily life, with all its throbbings, tremors,
sensations, and desires. And seeing that such ' life of the
flesh is the blood,' men are (more complexly) in this
aspect termed ' flesh and blood ; ' the points raised into
prominence by this phrase being the weakness, the
transitoriness, the dulness, and the unruliness of this
merely corporeal life. Its weakness, as when Isaiah says
(2 Chron. xxxii. 8), ' With Assyria there is but an arm of
flesh (mere feeble men), but with us is the Lord our God.'
1 A?neid, v. 318 :
' Longeque ante omnia corpora Nisus
Emicat.'
• For the same reason slaves are directly after called ' souls ' ((f>vxa[),
where the reference is to their corporeal life and force. Cf. Ezek. xxvii. 13 :
' They traded with the persons (souls, ijrvxats, vital force) of men in thy
market.' Gen. xii. 5 : ' Abram took the souls (iraa-av tyvxqv) they had
acquired (eVnjo-an-o) in Haran.' We have the same idiom when we call
-working men ' our hands '—the ' hands ' constituting their value in that
relation.
THE SOUL. 59
Its transitoriness, as when the Psalmist says (lxxviii. 39),

' God remembered that the objects of his anger were but
flesh ; a wind that passeth away and cometh not again.'
Its' dulness, as when Jesus said to Peter (Matt. xvi. 17),
' Flesh and blood has not revealed this divine truth to
you, but my heavenly Father.' And its unruliness, as
when God, seeing the wickedness of man, declared, ' My
spirit shall no longer strive with man, for he is flesh '
(Gen. vi. 3).
But now take the terms contrasted with body and
flesh—namely, Soul and Spirit. ' Soul ' is used in two
senses, a lower and a higher one. In its lower meaning
it is nearly equivalent to flesh, denoting the organic life
of the body, and in this sense Paul says, 'The first
Adam was made simply a living soul ' (as contrasted
with a lifegiving spirit). Whence in Prov. xxvii. 7,
' the full soul ' is put for the man who is replenished
with food, and ' the hungry soul ' for a hungry man.
But in its higher sense ' Soul ' becomes equivalent to
' Spirit,' and denotes the life of the inner man, with all
its thoughts, feelings, and volitions, and so* becomes iden
tical with the seat and subject of this life, the Man him
self. Hence, while Matthew and Mark report the words
of Jesus as having been, ' What is a man advantaged
if he gain the whole world and lose his soul ? ' Luke
renders them, ' What is a man advantaged if he lose
himself? ' 1 And when John says of the martyrs who
survived their bodies, 'I saw the souls of those who
had been slain for the word of God ; and white robes
were given to every one of them,' he, in the next chapter,
1 Matt. xvi. 26 ; Mark viii. 37 ; compared with Luke ix. 25.

substitutes for this word the personal pronouns which

refer to the men themselves. ' These in white robes are
they who have washed their robes in the blood of the
Lamb ; therefore are they before the throne of God, and
God shall wipe away all tears from their eyes.' 1
But this higher life, and Man as endowed with it, is
most generally indicated by that other term, ' Spirit ; '
this being the strongest possible contradistinction to
' body ' and ' flesh.' As when Paul says to the Hebrews,
' We have reverenced the authors of our bodily form
(' flesh,' crdp£) " how much more should we reverence
the Author of our spiritual essence' ('spirit,' m>cu/Aa).2
And in the same epistle, instead of saying ' Ye are come
to "the just,"' he expresses the same meaning more
emphatically by referring to these men in their higher
relation and aspect as released from their temporary
bodily vesture, ' Ye have come to the spirits of the just,
who have reached their goal in the heavenly Jerusalem.' 8
A distinction which he puts still more vividly when he
assures the Eoman Christians, ' The body indeed must
die because of sin, but the spirit (ye yourselves contem
plated as spirit, distinct from this body) shall live, because
of righteousness.' As he adds directly after, 'If Ye
through the Spirit do mortify the deeds of the body, Ye
shall live.' 4
Thus, then, the very variety of the terms employed
to indicate Man shows that these terms do not denote
component parts of a complex Being, but only different
aspects, from different points of view, of an incomplex
Being whom each one calls ' I myself ; ' which incomplex
1 Rev. vi. 9; vii. 14, 15, 17. s Heb. xii. 9.

s Heb. xii. 23. * Rom. viii. 10, 13.
THE OUTER MAN COMPLEX. 61
Being is an elementary Substance, similar in its simplicity

to the other elementary substances of the universe, but
distinguished from them by its prerogative of Intelligence
(i>ous). And this intellective elementary Substance the
Bible calls emphatically ' the inner Man ' (6 ecrw dv9pco-
iros),1 as being removed from human sight ; in contradis
tinction to the ' outer man ' (6 Ifeu dvdpaiiros), which is
all that we can perceive. This ' outer man,' called also
' Body,' ' Flesh,' ' Flesh and blood,' is but a compound
phenomenon made up of earthly particles ; destructible
by earthly force ; nay, falling to pieces by its own frail
nature. But that ' inner Man,' called also ' Mind,' 4 Soul,'
' Spirit,' is an individual Reality, distinct from the outer
man, and dwelling therein as but its temporary occupant ;
for he springs immediately from God ; partakes of like
ness to God; is capable of intercourse with God ; returns,
when the body is dissolved, into the presence of God ;
and has his future determined by what he has done now
to realise the purpose of God.
I. 1. First then let us look at the*' Outer man.' This
is contemplated in Scripture as but a compound phe
nomenon, made vp of earthly particles. It is called ' the
outer man' (2 Cor. iv. 16) because it is the cast, masque,
visible ' utterance ' of the inner Entity who by means of
it receives and reciprocates the influences of the outer
world. And hence it is not inaptly compared by Plato
to the shell of the oyster, for like this shell it is fashioned
by the life that dwells within it ; 2 yet at the same time it
1 Rom. vii. 22; Eph. iii. 16; 2 Cor. iv. 16. ' Hse autem pervulgataa
sunt Platonis et Platonicorum formulae ; 6 ?£ta avdpumos, 6 ivrbs "ivdpamos,
6 e"o-o> avdpairos, 6 aXridrfs avOpairos. Nam " mens cuique," ut ait Cicero, is
est quisque ; non ea figura, quae digito demonstrari potest.'— Knapp,
Opuac. ii. 442.
2 Whence Kimchi renders Isaiah Ivii. 16, 'Spiritus a me prodiit et
is so distinct from the man himself that it may be laid

aside when done with. In which case the word for it
(crw/xa) denotes more specifically ' corpse ' or ' carcase.' 1
But this outer Man, when alive, is more often called
' flesh ' (crdpg) ; and since ' the life of the flesh is in the
blood,' men are termed, with reference to their existence
in this body, ' flesh and blood,' in distinction from beings
incorporeal, such as Angels and God.
Further, as the Heart is that organ of the flesh, or
living body, wherein the blood, or life of this body, is
most gathered up and active, the term * Heart ' is con
stantly used, first of the very centre of Man, as contrasted
with all outward manifestations of him ; and next, as the
seat, not only of the sensuous impulses, feelings, and
' affections, by which the blood is quickened ; 2 but also of
the milder movements of thought, and understanding,8
and will.4
ipse induet et tanquam vestem sibi aptabit corpus.' And I. H. Fichte,

Anthrop. 262 : ' The organised body is no other than the product and visible
expression of the living befng who inhabits it.'
1 See Matt. xiv. 12: 'John's disciples took up the corpse (o-Zpa) and
buried it.' Luke xvii. 37 : 'Wheresoever the carcase (o-cl/xa) is, there will the
eagles be gathered together.' So in Homer, a-5>fm is the carcase of men,
while the living body is called Sepas.
2 As, for instance, the movements of Desire: 'Thou shalt reign over all
that thy heart desireth,' 2 Sam. iii. 21 ; of Feeling, whether Joy (' My ser
vants shall sing for joy of heart,' Isa. lxv. 14), or Sorrow (' I have sorrow in
my heart,' Rom. ix. 2) ; of Affection, whether Love (' Thou shalt love the
Lord with all thine heart,' Matt. xxii. 37), or Hatred (' Thou shalt not hate
thy brother in thine heart,' Levit. xix. 17).
5 e.g. Luke xxiv. 38 : ' Why do thoughts arise in your hearts ? ' Prov. ii.
2 : ' Apply thine heart to understanding.' This view of the heart as the seat
of intellect is common to the Orientals. ' A Chinese,' says Sir G. Staun
ton, ' speaking of the qualities of the heart, generally means those of what we
should term the mind.' There are some remains of this in our phrase, ' To
get by heart.'
4 Eph. vi. 6 : ' Doing the will of God from the heart.' As we also say
' He has no heart to it ' = no will for it.
THE OUTER MAN EARTHLY. 63
Then, since this ' flesh ' or animated body is ' trem
blingly alive all o'er ' to the nervous vibrations roused by
the corporeal atoms, and since such vibrations are con
stantly being excited into undue action, this term, ' the
flesh,' is further used for such undue action and the im
pulses which occasion it ; as, e.g., in Gal. v. 17, ' The flesh
struggles against the spirit,' and Gal. v. 24, ' the flesh,
with its sensations (iradrniacri) and desires ' (eiri#u/uais) ;
and Eph. ii. 3, ' the volitions (deX-qpara) of the flesh.'
Whence also the heart, as the supposed seat of all move
ment, is spoken of more specifically as the spring, also, of
these abnormal movements : ' The heart is deceitful above
all things, and desperately wicked,' Jer. xvii. 9. ' Out
of the heart proceed evil thoughts, murders, adulteries,
and so on,' Matt. xv. 19.
And this ' outer man,' with its ever-varying move
ments, regular and irregular, under the impulses of ex
ternal Nature, is that which God is said to have ' formed
of the dust of the earth ; ' 1 and which Paul, therefore,
speaks of as being ' of the earth, earthy,' 2 and as but the
' earthly house '3 of the true man ; a merely ' natural body
(\\>v-)(ik6v),' 4 or portion of surrounding Nature, as con
trasted with the substances which are above Nature
(to. iiT£u/iaTiKa). Hence the contemptuous epithets he
applies to the body : ' weak,' ' corruptible,' ' of which
1 Gen. ii. 7, where "IV* is ' to mould,' as a potter moulds his clay. Cf.
Lament, iv. 2 : ' They are earthen pitchers, the work of the hands of the
potter' ("itf')- Eccl. iii. 20 : ' All are of the dust, and all turn to dust again.'
Ps. ciii. 14: 'He knoweth our frame, he remembereth that we are but
dust.'
* 1 Cor. xv. 47, where the Apostle has in mind the Greek version of
Gen. ii. 7 > for Ms expression ex yrjs xoiKt>f corresponds with the words of
that version xovv dirb Trjs yrjs,
5 2 Cor. v. 1. * 1 Cor. xv. 44.
we are ashamed ; ' 1 ' into which we have been de

graded.' 2
2. But next, this 'Outer man' being thus but a
portion of Nature, made up of earthly particles, is (like
all such compounds) destructible by earthly force. For of
this Jesus declares, in emphatic contrast with the Inner
Man, whom he calls ' the soul,' that ' Men are able to kill
the body.'3
3. Nay more, irrespective of outward force, such a
structure falls to pieces of its own frail nature. It under
goes continual changes of composition, and at last breaks
into entire decomposition. The particles gathered together
from nature must into the general mass of nature return.
Whence St. Paul says, ' Our earthly house shall be dis
solved' (broken up into its component particles, KaTa\vdfj).i
And he calls the body ' corruption ' (<f>dopd, that which of
itself wastes away), and ' this corruptible' (to t£0aproV); 5
and asserts that what is thus of its own nature perishable
cannot be prolonged into a state where everything is im
perishable ; and consequently that for our existence in
such a state we must exchange our present vestment,
made of earth, for one that is derived from heaven ; we
must be ' clothed upon with a house coming to us from
heaven (i.e. a supernatural one),6 a building from God,
not made of earthly particles, and therefore not breaking
up like all earthly things ; but eternal in the heavens.
1 1 Cor. xv. 42, 43 : 'It is put into the ground iv (j>dopa, a corruptible
thing ; iv aripia, a despicable thing ; iv ao-deveia, a helpless thing.'
2 Phil. iii. 21, where the body rtjs Taireivao-eas in which we are humi
liated is contrasted with the body Ttjs 8ti£i)s in which Christ is exalted. Dio-
dorua states the Queen of the Amazons to have reduced her male subjects
' into humiliation and servitude, Taireivmriv Kai Sov\eiav.'
s Matt. x. 28. * 2 Cor. v. 1. 6 1 Cor. xv. 50, 53.
8 Comp. John vi. 31, 51 ; Ps. Ixxviii. 24, where ' from heaven ' means of
supernatural origin.
MAN DISTINCT FROM HIS BODY. 65
For this ' mortality will be swallowed up of life,' our

perishing dwelling will be superseded by one imperish
able.1
II. 1 . But now, the Liner Man, the individual Reality

who inhabits for a time this perishable dwelling, is dis
tinct from that ' Outer Man ' through which he displays
himself to sense.2 So distinct that while ' the Outer
Man ' wastes away, the Inner Man may gain new strength
from day to day.3 So distinct that St. Paul conceives
the possibility of being separated from the body, for a
time, even in this present life, and withdrawn into regions
beyond this world.4 So distinct, that it may altogether
desert the body when this dies, and then come back
again to renew its life.5 So distinct, that from this body,
' which men can kill,' Jesus emphatically contradistin
guishes the soul, ' which they cannot kill ; ' 6 and Peter
1 2 Cor. v. 1-4.
2 This distinctness is maintained also by Cicero, Tusc. i. 26 : ' Swgularit
est queedam natura atque vis animi, sejuncta ab his usitatis notisque naturis.'
3 2 Cor. iv. 16.
4 2 Cor. xii. 2 : ' I knew a man in Christ, whether in the body or out of
the lody I cannot tell, such a man caught up into Paradise.' And in accord
ance with this view we find some modern thinkers. ' The soul possesses a
latent clairvoyance, even in this present life ; and many analogous facts
make it probable that the condition under which this power comes into play
is an actual liberation from the body.' (I. H. Fichte, Anthrop. 347.) ' Mr. T.
Everett contended that we exist concurrently in two planes of life—the spi
ritual and the natural—and that the spiritual essence might visit another
sphere whilst the natural body was at rest. And he related some extraordi
nary experiences of his own in support of this contention.' {Record, Nov. 10,
1875.) Cf. Cornhill Magazine, Jan. 1876 : ' He prayed with such intensity of
earnestness that it seemed to him sometimes as if his soul had left his body
and had gone up to the Most High.'
5 For, when Elijah prayed, ' Let this child's soul come into him again,'
' the soul of the child came into him again, and he lived anew.' 1 Kings xvii.
21, 22.
6 Matt. x. 28. Of. 1 Oor. v. 5. When the body is destroyed the spirit is
saved alive.
F
represents our Lord as having, when put to death as to

his flesh, gone on in his spirit to preach in the unseen
world ; and says of the early martyrs who died for this
Lord, ' As regards their flesh men destroyed that, but as
regards their spirit, this lives on with God.' 1
This ' inner Man,' as being the centre of our person
ality, is also called ' the inward parts,' 2 ' the Heart,' 8 ' the
Spirit;'4 and is regarded as the seat of Thought,5 of
Feeling,6 of self- consciousness,7 of the moral sense,8 and
of Will, for good 9 or for evil ; 10 the bodily members
being regarded as but the instruments by means of which
these inner workings are occasioned and brought out to
view. It is, therefore, no more the brain that thinks ; or
the nerves which feel ; or the ' organs ' which perceive,
remember, fancy, or will, than it is the electric wire which
1 1 Peter iii. 18 : ' Jesus, put to death as to his flesh, but kept alive as
to his spirit, went and preached to the spirits in prison.' 2 Cor. xiii. 4 : ' He
was crucified through human weakness, but still lives through divine power.'
Luke xxiii. 43 : ' This day shalt thou be with me, in Paradise,' the ' thou '
here and the ' me ' indicating the ' inner men,' while their ' outward men ' re
mained upon the cross.
* Job xxxviii. 36 : ' Who hath put wisdom in our inward parts ? or
who hath given understanding to the heart ? '
s Prov. xxiii. 7 : ' As a man thinketh in his heart, so is he.' The heart
constitutes his real self.
4 1 Cor. ii. 11.
5 Luke ii. 25 : ' The thoughts of many hearts shall be disclosed.' xxiv.
38 : ' Why do thoughts arise in your hearts ? '
6 Prov. xiv. 10 : ' The heart knoweth its own bitterness, and a stranger
intermeddleth not with its joy.'
7 1 Cor. ii. 11 : ' What man knoweth the things going on in a man but
the spirit of the man within him ? '
8 Rom. ii. 15 : ' They show the substance of the law to be written in
their hearts.' Rom. vii. 22 : 'I delight in the law of God in the inward
man.' Jer. xxxi. 33 : 'I will put my law in their inward parts and write it
in their hearts'
9 Psalm cxix. 34 : ' Give me understanding, and I will keep thy law, yea
I will observe it with my whole heart.'
10 Psalm v. 9 : ' Their inioard pari is given to wickedness.' Luke xi. 39 :
' Your inward part is full of ravening and wickedness.'
MAN ONLY A SOJOURNER IN HIS BODY. G7
originates the message it conveys ; or the conducting rods,

in Mr. Pepper's beautiful experiments on sound, which
make or feel the harmonies they transmit along their
fibres. The eye itself, with all its delicate organisation, is
nothing but an optical instrument for the use of the Inner
Man. ' Our gross organised bodies, with which we per
ceive the objects of sense, and with which we act, are no
part of ourselves.' ' We see with our eyes in the same
sense as we see with glasses. The eye itself is not per
cipient. . . . And that we have no reason to think that
our organs of sense are percipients, is confirmed by in
stances of persons losing some of these organs, while the
living beings themselves, their former occupiers, remain
unimpaired.' 1
2. But this ' Inner Man ' is not only thus distinct from
the outer man ; he is, moreover, only a temporary occu
pant thereof. Of this, the Bible never loses sight. ' We
are strangers with thee and sojourners' (irdpoiKoi koi
irapoiKovvTes, exiles in a foreign land and living far from
home) ' as all our fathers were ; our days on the earth
are as a shadow, and there is none abiding.' 2 ' I am a
stranger and a sojourner as all my fathers were.' ' These
all confessed that they were strangers and pilgrims upon
the earth.' 3 And the relation in which Man, as thus but
1 Butler, Analogy, chap. i. The ' confusion worse confounded ' of the
tripartite view of man, may be seen in Mr. Greg's essay on human develop
ment, p. 140. The body is both ' the organ of our being,' and also ' the Beat of
the senses ; ' i.e. a sentient being ! Nay, but it is no more ' the seat of the
senses ' than the lens of a telescope is the seat of vision, or the stethoscope
the seat of hearing, or a stick the seat of touch. They all, respectively, are
organs, instruments, by means of which we see, and hear, and touch.
s 1 Chron. xxix. 15. Cf. Êschines : ' Life is but the temporary sojourn
(irapmi^ripia) of a stranger in a foreign land.' And Seneca : ' PeregrinatU
est vita ; multum cum deambulaveris domum redeundiun est.'
3 Psalm xxxix. 12; Heb. xi. 13. Oorap. Oarlyle, Sartor, i. 3: ' Knowe&t
V 2
the casual occupant of his outer form, stands to this form,

is expressed by a great variety of comparisons. It is that
of a light to the fragile vase which shelters and diffuses it
(2 Cor. iv. 7 : ' We have the heavenly light in earthen
vessels');1 of a sword to its scabbard (Daniel vii. 15:
' I was grieved in my spirit in the midst of my sheath ') ; 2
of a man to his clothing (Job x. 11 : 'Thou hast clothed
me with skin and flesh ; ' xxx. 18 : ' By the great power
of my disease is my garment changed ') ;3 of a tenant to
his house (Job iv. 19 : ' We dwell in houses of clay ') ; 4 of
a traveller to his tent (2 Peter i. 13 : 'As long as I am in
thou not whence the living flood is coming and whither it is going ? From
eternity onwards to eternity. These are apparitions ; what else P Are they
not souls rendered visible ; in bodies that take shape, and will lose it, melting
into air ? ' And Tennyson, In Mem. :
' A soul shall draw from out the vast,
And strike his being into bounds,
And, moved through life of lower phase,
Result in man, be born and think
And act and love.'
And I. H. Fichte, Anthrop. 399 : ' The soul shapes for itself its own
body ; and its connection with existing matter is only one of its possible
phases of being, from which emerging it remains itself unchanged.'
1 Where the body is compared to a vase (o-Kevos) in which a lamp is
sheltered, and yet through which it shines. Cf. Ep. Barnabas : ' While you
are in this beautiful vessel (o-mOoj), be wanting in nothing that is good.'
1 Thess. iv. 4: ' Let everyone know how to possess his vessel in sanctification
and honour.' Cicero, Tusc. i. 22: 'Corpus quasi vas est, aut aliquid animi
receptaculum.' Philo: To rrjs V,ux6s dyyelov, To o-wfui.
2 So the Vedanta : ' The soul in the body is like a sword in its scabbard ;
nay, in a succession of scabbards.'
* So 2 Cor. v. 4 : ' Not that we would be unclothed.' 2 Esdras ii. 56 :
' These are they who have put off the mortal clothing.' Plato, Phcedo, 80 :
' Carrying about us a body, by which we are confined (SeSeo-pevonevoi) like
an oyster in its shell.' So Cudworth calls our bodies 'nothing but our out-
sides and external indumenta,' iii. 665.
* Cf. Waller:
' The soul's dark cottage, battered and decayed,
Lets in new light through chinks that time has made.'
MAN AFFECTS HIS BODY. 69
this tent ; ' i. 14 : ' Shortly I must lay aside (diroTi'<fy/u)

this my tent') ; of a slave to his bonds (Phil. i. 23 : ' I
desire to be unloosed (avakvcrai) ' i.e. from the bonds of
the body) j1 of a prisoner to his dungeon (Eom. vii. 24 :
' Who shall emancipate me (pvcrerai) from this body of
death ? ').2 And the release of the Man from these sur
roundings is compared to the calling in a loan which God
has for a time lent out (Luke xii. 20 : ' This night thy
soul shall be reclaimed from thee, airaiTovcriv diro crov ') ;3
the taking down a tent (2 Peter i. 14 : ' The time for the
putting away from me (airodeo-is) my tent is at hand');
and the departure of an emigrant to another land (2 Peter
i. 15 : 'After my departure, iôZov').
Yet in no way do we claim for Man (as some most
And again :
' And as pale sickness does invade
Your frailer part, the breaches made
In that fair lodging, still more clear
Make the bright guest, your soul, appear.'
1 Cf. Plato, PJuedo, 64 c : 'What is death but simply a getting free
(cmaX\ayrf) from the bonds of the body ? '
2 Cf. Wisdom ix. 15: 'The corruptible body presseth down (Papvvei)
the soul ; and the earthly tabernacle weigheth down (fiplOei) the much-
thinking mind.' Philo : ' The soul finds itself in the body as in a prison or
a tomb.' Êschines : ' We are souls, immortal beings, imprisoned in a mortal
guard-house.' Arnobius : ' Audetis ridere quod animarum nostrarum provi-
deamus saluti, id est ipsi nobit? Quid enim sumus homines nisi animaa
corporibus clavscB ? ' King John, iii. 4, 18 :
' Holding the eternal spirit, against his will,
In the vile prison of afflicted breath.'
Waller :
' The soul, contending to that light to flie
From her dark cell, we practise how to die.'
3 Cf. Wisdom xv. 16: 'He who holds his own spirit only as a loan
from God, presumes to make gods.' Epict. Fnchirid. : ' Is your wife dead ?
She has only been given back (direSoffri) ; he who gave her to you has re
claimed her (mrtjrqo-ev).'
strangely assert)1 a perfect independence of the body

while he sojourns in it. On the contrary he is in most
intimate correlation and reciprocity of action with it. For,
on the one hand, all the variations of the Inner Man
make for themselves expression by corresponding changes
of look and gesture in the outer man. This is, as it were,
the Mimic, the Semaphore and Telegraph of that. It
takes on new aspects of joy or sorrow, of animation or
depression, of hope or dread as the Man himself is moved.
Thus of Jesus it is said, ' As He was praying, the fashion of
his countenance became altered.'2 And of Stephen, ' All
who sat in the council saw his face as it had been the
face of an angel.'3 And Jeremiah connects with inward
' faintness of heart,' the outward sign of ' eyes becoming
dim.'4 Nay more, the moral health or sickness of the
> Dr. Carpenter (e.g.) says that ' on the hypothesis of spiritualism the
operations of the mind have no dependence whatever on those of matter, and
are never affected by conditions of the bodily organs ' (Mental Physiology,
p. 7). 3 Luke ix. 29.
3 Acts vi. 15. Cf. Cicero, De Oral,, iii. 59: ' Auimi est omnis actio, et
imayo animi vultus, indices oculi., And Macbeth :
' Your face, my thane, is as a book, where men
May read strange matters.'
An 1 Tennyson, In Mem. 86 :
' Who but hung to hear
The rapt oration flowing free
From point to point, with power and grace
And music in the bounds of law,
To those conclusions, when he saw
The God tcithin him liyht his face ? '
* Lam. v. 17 ; cf. Richard II. iii. 2 :
' Men judge by the complexion of the sky
The state and inclination of the day ;
So may you by my dull and heavy eye,
My tongue hath but a heavier tale to say.'
Macbeth :
' What a haste looks through his eyes ; so should he look
That scorns to speak things strange.'
MAN IS AFFECTED BY HIS BODY. 71
Inner Man often leads to the physical health or sickness

of the" Outer Man. It was from spiritual disorder among
the Corinthians that ' many became weak and sickly, and
many died.'1 And it was from new life infused into the
Inner Man by the cheering words of Jesus (' Thy sins be
forgiven thee') that the palsied sufferer recovered his
bodily strength, and ' arose and went to his house.'2
And similarly, on the other hand, the variations of
the bodily condition affect the Inner Man. So much so
that our temperaments, dispositions, and humours, have
got to be characterised by names derived from the states
of body supposed to occasion them. To be ' melancholy '
in our feelings means to suffer from black bile ; to be
' jaundiced ' in our perceptions, is to have them discoloured
by yellow bile ; to be ' choleric ' is to have too much
bile ; to be ' splenetic,' means to be disordered in the
spleen ; to be ' sanguine,' is to have the blood dance
in our veins ; an ' intense ' person is one whose nerves are
on the stretch ; and to be ' nervous ' was formerly to have
these nerves well-strung ; though now, through degenera
tion of the nervous system by overwork, it has come to
mean the being unstrung? But specially are the irregu
larities of inordinate Desire characterised in Scripture as
' the motions of sins in our members,' and as ' lusts of the
flesh ; ' because here the balance of the Inward Man is
disturbed by the impulses and appetites of the animal
organism. Whence St. Paul complains that though he
1 1 Cor. xi. 30. 8 Matt. ix. 3-7.

3 So the word ' strong ' is from the preterite ' strung ' of stringen, to
string, string up, make tense. See Home Tooke, ii. 128 : ' A strong man is
a man well strung.' Dryden :
' But inborn wrath, that future can control,
Neio strung and differ bent her softer soul.'
' delighted in the law of God with his Inward Man ' (his
real, proper Self), yet he ' found another law (or stimulus
to action) in his members, warring against the law of his
mind, and bringing him into captivity to the law of sin
which was in his members.' And when he exhorts his
readers to put down these sins, he clothes his meaning in
words derived from this same source : ' Put to death your
earthly members ;' ' crucify the flesh with its affections and
lusts ;' ' mortify the deeds of the body, if ye yourselves (as
distinct from the body) would live.' 1 And again, ' the
flesh ' (or outer man) is said to struggle against ' the
spirit' (or Inner man) ; the weakness of the flesh en
feebles the spirit ; and to save our Self from becoming a
cast-away we must buffet down the -body in which it
dwells.2
3. Next, the Inner Man, thus but a temporary occu
pant of his outer domicile, is still more distinguished
therefrom as springing directly from the Divine Spirit.
This is intimated in the Epistle to the Hebrews, xii. 9,
where a contrast is declared between the ' fathers of our
flesh,' the authors of our outward man, and ' the Father
of spirits.' Where note first that the phrase is not, as
the authoiised version gives it, ' the Father of our spirits'
as Christians or saints ; but ' the Father of spirits ' uni
versally ; of that spirit in every man which is distinct
from his earthly dwelling-place and constitutes his very
Self. Just as God is called in Numb. xvi. 22 the ' God
of the spirits of all flesh,' seeing, therefore, not as man
seeth, but able to distinguish the guilty from the in-
1 Rom. vii. 22, 23 ; Eph. iii. 5 ; Gal. v. 24 ; Rom. viii. 13.

a Gal. v. 17 ; Matt. xxvi. 41 ; 1 Cor. ix. 27.
MAN SPRINGS FMOM GOD. 73
nocent,1 and consequently not to be imagined capable of

sacrificing all for the sin of one. And again, in Numb,
xxvii. 16, where He is appealed to as ' the God of the
spirits of all flesh ' with special reference to that intimate
knowledge of the inner man which must belong to Him
from whom it springs, and which can enable God, and
Him alone, to put the right man in the right place ; ' Let
the Lord, the God of the spirits of all flesh, set a man
over the congregation who can lead them out and bring
them in.' And this same feature of special derivation
from God, while it is made a subject of doubt in one
passage of the Book of Ecclesiastes, is fully decided, with
out doubt, in a subsequent one. In Eccles. iii. 18-22,
the mind of the thinker is invaded with doubt as to any
substantial difference between men and beasts, though
even here he affirms the distinction that ' the spirit of man
goeth upward,' while ' the spirit of the beast goeth only
downward.' But in Eccles. xii. 7, the writer emerges
from his sea of doubts, and affirms definitively that while
' the dust (or outer man) returns to the earth as it was,
the spirit (or inner man) returns to God who gave it.'
And it is because of this distinction, and is also a further
proof of this distinction, that nowhere in the Bible is
God called ' the Father ' of the material world, but only
of the immaterial spirit of man. God's relation to the
things of external Nature is that of Creator, his relation to
persons, such as Man, is that of Father. Whence the first
Man, to whom the whole line of his descendants is traced
1 See 1 Samuel xvi. 7, where God's power of searching and knowing the
spirits He has made is similarly asserted : ' The Lord seeth not as man seeth ;
for man looketh only on the outward appearance, but the Lord looketh on
the heart.'
up by St. Luke, is himself called, as the head of this

peculiar race of beings, ' the son of God,' Luke iii. 38.
But this special origination of the human spirit from
the Divine is still more emphatically asserted by the
Apostle Paul. For in his address to the Athenians,
speaking not of himself peculiarly, or his fellow Christians,
or the favoured nation from which he sprang, but of all
before him, and of the whole race they belonged to—
Gentiles as well as Jews, unbelievers as well as believers,
sinners as well as saints, men afar off as well as men nigh
to God—the Apostle says, ' God is not far from any one
of us, for we are his offspring,'' sprung specially from
Him, akin to Him, of like kind with Him.1 And then,
to cap this assertion, and make it the more interesting to
them, he adds, 4 Just as one of your own poets has said,
" We are his offspring." ' To understand the full force of
which reference, and what St. Paul intended by it, we
ought to bear in mind the context of the passage in
Aratus, of which it is part.2 For the course of thought
with the poet is this : ' Let us begin with God, whom,
1 Acts xvii. 28 : Tov yap rai yevos ia-piv, where yevos denotes our affinity
with God as his children (' Divi genus,' Virgil), of his race, after his kind.
Oomp. Gen. i. 11, ' The herb yielding seed after its kind' (KoTo yevos Kai
lcad' opoioTriTa), i.e. like producing like. That Paul is here speaking of all
men, as men, comes out more clearly when we look back to the opening of
his speech, v. 26 : ' God hath made of one kind (alparos, blood, is spurious)
all nations of men, that they might seek Him.' Where e£ ivbs reminds us
of Heb. ii. 11 : ' The Sanctifier and the sanctified are all «'£ ivbs, of one kind ;
wherefore He does not disdain to call them brethren.'
? See the whole passage :
Tov ou8eVor' av8pes iS>pev
"Apprfrov ' peo-Tai 6e Alos irdo-at piv dyvim
Ilao-ai 8' avdpamtov dyopat, pearrf 8e da\ao-o-a,
Kai \tpeves ' iravrji Se Aios Ke\prfpeda iravres,
ToO yap Kai yeVos lo-pev.
MAN MADE IN GOB'S IMA OR 75
being men, we should never forget to make mention of,

because not only are all places full of God—the roads,
the markets, the sea, the shore—but moreover (Se) in all
places we all of us feel our need of God,1 since we are, in
distinction from these things of nature (/ecu), his off
spring, of like kind with Him. His favour, therefore,
must we seek from first to last ; 2 Him must we hail, with
adoring wonder, as our Father ; Him we may reckon on
as the refuge and refreshment of his children ! '3
4. The next point in Scripture concerning Man is that,
as thus sprang directly from the Divine Spirit, he is en
dowed with the Divine Reason. This is the prerogative
which is claimed for him in those declarations that Man
was at the first made in the image of God, and bears, at
all times, the likeness of God. When all the inferior
creatures had been produced by development from the
waters and the earth, then, after a pause which marks a
different method of procedure, ' God said, Now let us
make man ' (the species Man, in contradistinction from the
previous kinds of living beings) ' in our image, after our
likeness.'4 And this image consists in that one capacity
(with all its intellectual, moral, and social results) which
we, from its discernment of relation and proportion, en
title Reason (Eatio). For it is added, as the consequence
of such a prerogative, ' And let him (thus, by this means)
have dominion over all things.' Because Reason is em-
1 Aior Kexpiipeda irdvres. Xpdopsu in the Perfect, with a genitive, is to be

in need of (Liddell).
2 Tt» pe» del irpmrov re >cal vo-Tarov SXdo-Kovrai.
3 Xalpe, irdrep, peya davpa, pey avdp&moifriv oveiap.
* Gen. i. 26. Mark that the expressions denote similarity only, not same
ness. The spirit of man is not of the same nature (apoov(iios), hut only of
like nature (ctpaiovo-ios) with God.
piratically to r]-yefioviKov, the princely faculty in man, by

which he is enabled to govern, first himself, and so all
other things.1 This is that one endowment for lack of
which the lower animals, with all their strength, fail to
govern, and are subject to government. ' The horse and
the mule have no understanding (crwecris), and therefore
their mouth is held by bit and bridle.'2 This, con
sequently, is the endowment, through possessing which
man is exalted above them : ' God teacheth us more than
the beasts of the earth, and maketh us wiser than the
birds of heaven.'3 And this contains in its very essence
a native tendency in man, as participant of the reason of
God, to approve the law of God. For Eeason is identical
with law, and law the expression of reason ;4 and there
fore to have any reflex of Divine reason is to have there
with some reflex of Divine law. This is what Cudworth
means when he says, ' The anticipations of morality
spring, not merely from forms and natural ideas in the
mind, or from certain rules and proportions arbitrarily
1 See Psalm li. 12 : ' Uphold me with thy princely (governing) Spirit '
(irvevpaTi ifyepoviKw). This connexion between Reason and Rule is
brought out more clearly in Ecclesiasticus xvii. 2-4: 'He endued them
with strength in themselves, and (so) with power over the things of earth ;
He made them according to his image (that of Reason), and (so) put thefear
of them on all flesh, and made them have dominion over beasts and birds.'
Comp. Ovid, Met. i. 83 :
' Finxit in effigiem moderantum cuncta deorum.'
2 Psalm xxxii. 0.
s Job xxxv. 11. Cleanthes makes this image of God to consist in the
power of articulate speech ; for he says, ' We are God's offspring, seeing that
we are Iffs nipt^m \axovres povvoi.' But articulate speech is the sign and
sister of articulate thought ; i.e. of Reason.
* Compare the interchanged phrases in the Hymn of Cleanthes :
vopov pira iravra Kvfiepvuv '
Sierff eva ylyveo-dai rtavrwv \oyov ativ iovra '
8iKTfs pera iravra Kv&epvqs '
Koivov del vopov iv Slxrf Vpve'iv.
GOB'S IMAGE PERMANENT IN MAN. 77
printed on the soul as on a book, but from some other

inward and vital principle, in intellectual beings as such,
whereby they have a natural determination in them to do
some things and avoid others.'1 Which 'natural deter
mination ' is what I. H. Fichte calls ' the bent and bias of
human nature,' when he defines Ethics as ' the doctrine
concerning the fundamental tendency (Grundwille) of
human nature—what it distinctively, as such, determines
for and seeks (das Gewolltes und Angestrebtes), and which
inwardly limits and conditions the arbitrary and therefore
conflicting wilfulnesses (Woliungen) of individual men.' 2
But being thus distinctive of human nature, univer
sally, this 'Image of God' is set forth throughout the
Bible as the characteristic, not of this or that favoured
man or family of men, but of all men, as men ; and as,
therefore, remaining their specific mark amidst all varia
tions of culture and character. Thus, it is declared to
continue on from Adam to his posterity, notwithstanding
the moral degradation of his fall. ' In the day when
God created Adam, in the likeness of God made He
him ; and in this likeness, after this image, Adam begat a
son ;' in the same likeness, therefore, after the same
image in which he had himself been made—like begetting
like.3 And hence the prohibition against killing men
1 Cudworth, Int. Syst. iii. 641.
s I. H. Fichte, Ethik. ii. 1. Yet Plato, in one place, makes this law
not inborn, but acquired, Pheedrus, 237 d, where he represents Desire
(emdvpia) as inborn (ep(f>vros), but ' the Judgment which goes after what
is best (8o£a, i(f>iepevri rov apurrov) as acquired from without (eVocr?;rof).'
3 Gen. v. 1-3, where the E. V. translates ' in his own likeness,' as if
this were in contradistinction from the original likeness of God. The only
seeming discrepancy from this statement of the genesis and genealogy of
man occurs in 1 Cor. xv. 45-49, where St. Paul says, referring to Gen. ii.
7, ' The first man is of Ihe earth, earthy ; and as in the earthy, such are
they also that are earthly ; and we have borne the image of the earthy.' But
the whole context there, and specially verse 44, shows that the Apostle is con
(for food, as the context implies) is based on this pecu

liarity in man that he has in him something similar to
God, and that this similarity is transmitted from genera
tion to generation through all the posterity of Adam.
'At the hand of every man's brother will I require the
life of man (will punish the invasion of it), for " in the
image of God made He man." n Again, this image is
recognised by Paul as still existent in the men of his own
time, for he bases on it an argument to the Corinthians :
'A man ought not to cover his head (a sign of subjection),
forasmuch as he is the image and glory of God.'2 And
the presence of this image is referred to by St. James as
enhancing the guilt of unbrotherly anger towards all who
possess it in common with ourselves : 3 ' With the tongue
bless we God, the Father of all men, and yet curse we
these men who bear his image.'4 Plainly, therefore, this
image, being the type of human nature, is as permanent
as the race of which it is a type.s
fining his attention solely to the body and the bodily life—the body formed
' out of the ground,' and the bodily life breathed into it, whereby Adam
became ' a living soul,' like the other animals before him. Gen. i. 20, 24 ;
vi. 17 ; vii. 22. It is the image of the earthly body of the first Adam which
is transformed into the image of the heavenly body of the second Adam
(Phil. iii. 21) by means of his life-giving Spirit (Bom. viii. 11).
1 Gen. ix. 5, 6. Cf. Emerson, Essays, i. 6 : ' It is the universal humanity
which gives worth to particular men. Human life as containing this is
inviolable, and we hedge it round with penalties and laws.'
2 1 Cor. xi. 7 : ' The image and thus the glory (representative) of God.'
Having in himself a ray of the Divine splendour, and so representing some
thing of this splendour.
3 Just the same argument is urged by Antoninus (ii. 1) : ' Shall I, who
acknowledge in one who wrongs me the same efflux from the deity with
myself, be angry with him who is thus my kinsman ? '
4 James iii. 9, where the E. V. rightly renders Tovs yeyovoras in the
present tense, ' which are made after the similitude of God ; ' not ' which
were once made ; ' seeing that each successive individual of the race is made in
the primitive image of it—like God.
5 "Whence St. Bernard says so strongly, ' Imago in Gehenna ipsa, nri^
MAN TO BE DEFINED BY HIS CAPACITY. 79
Consequently, as we distinguish Man from all other

animals by calling him ' a rational creature,' even though
this prerogative of reason emerges, by slow growth only,
out of childhood, and is afterwards in so many instances
stunted or oppressed 1— and as we call all men, with
similar discrimination from all other animals, ' moral
creatures,' even though we find them so often wallowing
in the filth of immorality (for what but this capacity for
goodness marks such out as different from swine ?) 2—so
must we, defining our nature not by its worst but by its
best specimens,3 call men ' godlike creatures,' even when
poterit, non exuri ; ardere, non deleri.' And Augustin, though at one time
declaring that the image of God has been lost by sin, retracts this dogma in
the Revision of his opinions, and concedes ' not as if there were no relic of
the gift, but that it has become so defaced (deformis) as to need renovation.'
And so even Calvin : ' We grant that the image of God has not been alto
gether destroyed and blotted out.' (Instit. i. 15, 4.) It is a superinduced
thought when St. Paul exhorts the Ephesians to pass on from mental resem
blance to God to a moral one ; ' put on that new man which, after the image
of God (Kara Oeov, or, in Coloss. iii. 10, Kot eiKova OeoC), is created in righteous
ness.' Plotinus makes a similar transition when he declares it to be the one
business of man's life ' to nurture the divine in us (To iv ffliiv Qeov) into
similarity with the Divine in all things (n-por r6 iv rep iravrt de7ov).'
1 See Abp. Leighton, Preslect. v. p. 31 : ' Definitis vos communiter
hominem animal rationale ; at plerisque certe hominum re ipsa non convenit
nisi potentia, eaque satis remota.' So also Heraclitus : ' Reason is common
to all men, £vvov imi iraa-i To (ppoveeiv.' And again : ' All men partake of
this prerogative, to know themselves and have a rational mind, av&pimoio-i
irao-i peTeori yivao-Keiv iavrois Kat o-axppoveav.
* ' For, what is a man
If his chief good, and market of his time,
Be but to sleep and feed ? a beast, no more.
Sure He that made us with such large discourse,
Looking before and after, gave us not
That capability and godlike reason
To fust in us unused.'—Hamlet, iv. 4.
' As Leighton requires, Pral. v. p. 38 : ' De vera autem et genuina
animi natura, non ex degenerum ac vilium hominum socordia ac torpore sed
ex optimorum quorumque et sapientissimorum sensu votisque vividis, senten-
tiam omnino ferendam esse, nemo est, ut opinor, qui negare possit.' And
Cicero, Tusc. i. 14 : ' Mud mim dubitas quin specimen natura capi debeat ex
optuma qaaque natura ? '
we see them ' alienated from the life of God through the
ignorance that is in them, enemies to God by wicked
works, and without God in the world.'1 For of this ideal
dignity of human nature in the midst of its actual degra
dation the Bible never loses sight. While on the one
hand it exclaims, with astonishment at our degradation,
' Lord, what is man that Thou takest any notice of him,
or the son of man that Thou visitest him, for man is
like to vanity!' on the other hand it cries, with equal
astonishment at our dignity, ' What is man that Thou art
mindful of him, and the son of man that Thou visitest
him, for Thou hast made him but little lower than the
angels, and hast crowned him with glory and honour ;
giving him dominion over the works of thy hands, and
putting all things under his feet!'2
This capacity for Eeason, then, is that which consti
tutes Man's likeness to God. ' The spirit (or reason) of
man is the candle- of the Lord ' (the lamp which He has lit
up in us from his own light) ' penetrating the innermost
parts.'* And this St. Paul has specially in mind, in his
address to the Athenians, as both the effect and proof of
our derivation from the Spirit of God. For both in
Aratus, whose words he quotes, and in Cleanthes, who
has similar expressions, the context shows that those philo
sophic poets place man's kinship with God in his being
endowed, in contradistinction to the brutes (so called
because destitute of language), with that capacity for
articulate speech which is the sign, as it is the consequence,
of articulate thought. For what is the argument of
1 Eph. iv. 18. * Psalm cxliv. 8, compared with Psalm viii. 4-6.
3 Proverbs xx. 27.
MAN CAN COMMUNE WITH GOD. 81
Aratus? 'We, being men, with such a faculty, ought

never to omit to speak of Him from whom it comes.'
And of Cleanthes ? 1 ' We men are bound to hymn thy
praise because we are thine offspring, the only beings
upon earth endowed with the power of imitating sounds ;
and therefore with this power do I magnify thy name ! '
5. And what follows from this participation of the
likeness of God ? That man is further capable of inter
course with God. Thus only are we enabled to receive
communications from Him ; to send up supplications to
Him ; to enjoy communion with Him. For it is an axiom
that only like can know like ; hold commerce with like ;
sympathise with like ; reciprocate thought and feeling
and will with like. It is so between man and man. We
have no commerce with animals because they are not of
our race. We sympathise, man with man, because we are
of kin. ' What the magnetical virtue is in earthly bodies
such is Eeason in men's minds ; when it is put forth it
draws them one to another.'2 And so, similarly, between
man and God. ' It is through the eye of the soul, that
intellectual faculty, which indeed all have, but few make
use of, that the light of the Divine world falls upon us,
and in God's own light
o we behold Him. Eeason in man
1 See Aratus, in Cudworth, ii. 194 :

'EK Atos apxapeo-da. Tov ov8e'iror' av8pes iwpev
"Apprrrov ' . . . .
ToC yap >cal yevos io-piv.
And Cleanthes, ibid. 117, and Ueberweg. i. 197 :
Xaipe. 2e yap iravreo-cn dlpis dvrfro'uri irpoo-avSav.
'EK o-ov yap yevos la-akv, Irjs ]u.lafpa XaxtWes
Movvoi, Sera £coei re xai Ipirei dvrjf orl ya'tav.
Tc5 o-e KaSvftirrfcrw.
' John Smith.
n
being a light flowing from the fountain of light, and a

participation of the eternal Eeason, He that made our
souls in his own image and likeness can easily find a way
into them.'1 And the whole work of Grace, from the
faintest drawings by God of sinners towards Himself, up
to his fullest descent into the heart of Saints, and Prophets,
and Apostles, is rendered possible by this affinity of the
human spirit with the Divine, and its consequent suscep
tibility of calls from God, communications from God,
communion with God. Hence men can see the visions of
God, hear the voice of God, inhale the breath of God.2
The Father can manifest Himself to the mental eye, speak
to the mental ear, actuate and animate the mental life, of
his children, because He has endowed them with a mental
faculty resembling his own ; and the stream is never
altogether cut off from its source ; the channel is ever ready
for the influx of the breath of life. ' By the spirit that
is in man the inspiration of the Almighty conveys to him
understanding.'3 ' In dreams, in visions of the night, He
openeth the ears of men, and breathes into them instruc-
1 John Smith.
2 This is the grand Idea expressed by Augustin when he says, ' Fecisti
nos ad te, et inquietum est cor nostrum donee requiescat in te.' And by
Abp. Leighton : ' Eetinet tamen mens humana umbram aliquant et confusas
veluti species amissi boni, et cognati semina ceeli, et languidum quendam indi-
gentise sensum, motusque animi in tenebris palpantis et ubique requiem
quseritantis.' And by Cowper :
1 Thou art the source and centre of all minds,
Their only point of rest, eternal Word ! '
s Job xxxii. 8, where Elihu's argument is, ' Though I am young and
ye are old, yet I may teach you something that you know not, because I also
am endowed with that reason which God breathes into the race. His inspi
ration can disclose to me what your age and your traditions may have missed.'
Comp. xxxiii. 3, 4 : ' "Words may flow from my heart, and my lips may
utter knowledge, because the Spirit of the Lord hath made me, and the breath
of the Almighty giveth me life.'
MAN RETURNS TO GOD. 83
tion.'1 'The preparations of the heart in man, and the

answer of his tongue, are from the Lord.'2 Samuel was
taught to recognise these preparations and to answer,
' Speak, Lord, for thy servant heareth.'3 The Apostles
were encouraged by the assurance that it was not they
who should speak, but the Spirit of their Father speaking
in them.4 Of the prophets it is said, ' Holy men of God
spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost.'5 To all
his disciples Jesus promised, ' If a man hold fast my truth,
my Father will love him, and we will come to him and
make our abode with him.'6 And the whole end of his
work is declared to be the establishment of this abiding
of God in man. ' What we have seen and heard declare
we unto you that you may have communion with the
Father through his Son Jesus Christ.'7
6. And Man, thus derived from God, and so made
capable of intercourse with God even when in the body,
is destined to survive this mortal frame and return into
the presence of God. The death of the body is declared
to be the release of the soul from bondage into freedom,
and an emigration from the country of our slavery into a
better land. Peter anticipates his ' exodus ' or marching
forth, like the Israelites from Egypt into Canaan.8 Paul
rejoices that the time of his ' emancipation (avakvcrem)
is at hand.' 9 He tells his friends that he is ' well pleased
1 Job xxxiii. 15, 16. Drip, to inspire. See Schultens.

3 Prov. xvi. 1. 3 1 Sam. iii. 9.
4 Matt. x. 20. Comp. Luke xxi. 15 : 'I will give you a mouth and
wisdom.'
6 2 Peter i. 21. 6 John xiv. 23. 7 1 John i. 3.
8 2 Peter i. 15 : 'I will endeavour that ye may be able after my decease
(e£o8ov) to have these things in remembrance.'
9 2 Tim. iv. 6 : ' The time of my release (avaKvo-eas) from the bonds of
the body is at hand.'
a2
to think of migrating from the body (e/cS^/iijcrcu) and

settling in another region (evS-qurjcrcu) in the presence of
the Lord.'1 And he exclaims concerning himself, 'My
desire is to be loosed from the bonds of the body (avaXv-
crcu) and to be with Christ.'2
Nor have such statements reference to Christians
alone. In the Book of Ecclesiastes we have the more
general, though vague, assurance concerning all men that
' when the dust returns to the earth as it was, the spirit
returns to God who gave it.'3 Whence the exulting con
viction of the Psalmist, ' I shall behold thy face ; I shall
be satisfied, when I awake, with thy likeness!'4 For
' God will redeem my soul from the power of the grave,
and will receive me to Himself.'5 But in our Lord's
controversy with the Sadducees we have a more clear
and express declaration concerning all men, that when
they have disappeared from the eyes of men they still are
living on in the sight of God. In which controversy note
first, that not only did the Sadducees ridicule the Pharisaic
notion of a coming resurrection, when Messiah should
appear, to a new state of things upon this earth ; but they
1 2 Cor. v. 8. With which comp. Plato, Apol. : olov airoS-qprjo-ai 6 dava-

Tos. Plutarch : airofafpup irpoo-eoiKeu 6 ddvaros, Kai rrj ets KoivrfV irarpiSa 7ropeta,
' Death seems to be only a migration, and a travelling back from exile to the
common country of souls.' Tertullian : ' Pi'ofectio est, quam mortem puta-
mus.' Jerome : ' Sic extulit ut eum prqfectum crederes, non amissum ; non
emori sed migrare.'
3 Phil. i. 23.
s Eccl. xii. 7, where the writer speaks not of mere reabsorption of the
individual spirit into the soul of the universe ; but of a return of this spirit,
in its individuality, into the presence of God, for judgment. For this is
expressly added in verse 14, and in xi. 9. The Chaldee paraphrase, therefore,
is right : ' Spiritus animee tuee redit, ut stet in judicio coram Deo.'
4 Psalm xvii. 15, where ' to awake ' is ' to awake from death.' See
2 Kings iv. 31 ; Jer. li. 39 ; Dan. xii. 2. And De Wette in loco.
5 Psalm xlix. 15.
MAN LIVES ON BEFORE GOD. 85
denied the doctrine of a future life altogether ('The

Sadducees say that there is no resurrection '—no emer
gence from the tomb). Jesus, therefore, not only puts
away their objections to the view of the Pharisees by
showing that the two are talking of different forms of
life ; but also refutes their general principle that there is
no other form of life but the present, at all. The resur
rection state which He proves against them, from the very
Pentateuch which they asserted to contain no hint of
survival after death, is not that ' deliverance from the
grave ' which the Jews in general expected at the coming
of the Christ, preparatory for ' the world to come ; ' but
is a state already present in the unseen world, into which
all who have departed from this visible world are intro
duced. ' The dead do rise,' not shall at some future
epoch, but do, now at once, rise. But note secondly, as
still more important, that the ' life of angels,' by which
Jesus characterises this unseen state, is so termed not with
reference to their sanctity but their incorporeality and
consequent exemption from death ; and is a state, there
fore, asserted by our Lord, not concerning risen ' saints '
alone, but concerning every person whatever, in the
ordinary circumstances of this world, who has passed
away from human sight. For the instances by which the
Sadducees thought to make the notion of survival absurd
are drawn from the miscellaneous herd of the common
people ; from anyone whatever who happened to have a
wife and many brethren ; concerning whom their objec
tion is, How can all these people who have become thus
complicated in this world's relationships be brought to
gether again in the same relationships in another sphere
of being ? To which the reply of Jesus is, ' Nevertheless
the dead (clearly referring to the dead concerning whom

his adversaries made their difficulty) are raised ; for those
who have risen from the dead neither marry nor are
given in marriage (so as to create the confusion you mock
at) in that new sphere ; neither can they there die any
more (so as to occasion any further complications), for
they are similar (in this point of never dying more) to
the angels.1 And take as a particular instance of this
universal fact the acknowledgment by God Himself that
the Patriarchs, dead to our ken, were not dead in his
1 The comparison is with the incorporeal, sexless, and undying nature of

the angelic race. See Philo : ' Abraham leaving behind all mortal associa
tions, is numbered with the heavenly assembly, reaping immortality and
made like the ant/els : for the angels are incorporeal.' Beresch. R. : ' Man is like
the brutes as to his body, but like the angels as to his mind.' Rab. ad Deut.
xxxiii. : ' From the moment when Moses went up into Sinai he was
like the beings before God (angels), for the angels neither eat nor drink.'
Luke's version of our Lord's words introduces much confusion into the
argument, and renders it no answer to the Sadducees ; for it glides into the
Pharisaic notion of the just alone being made partakers of the first resurrec
tion at the last day. This has coloured both verse 35 and verse 36. The
former, by substituting for the simple phrase of Mark, ' those who rise,' the
Rabbinical formula, ' those who shall be accounted worthy to obtain the resur
rection.' The latter, by adding to the phrase, ' They are like angels,' one
which introduces the ideas of merit and reward, ' Being the children of the
resurrection ' (entitled by their sanctity to that boon), ' they become) the
children of God,' i.e. are made denizens of his coming kingdom. Thus
making Jesus speak the language of Josephus in a similar passage where he
says, ' Those who sacrifice their lives for God shall live with Him, as do
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and all the Patriarchs.' But the more general
language of Matthew and Mark is that alone which fits into the Sadducean
objection and answers it. For what they denied was the survival, not of
saints in particular, but of any one whatever ; and to prove from Exod. iii. 6
that only such men as the Patriarchs were still alive before God, would not
have solved the difficulty. They affirmed simply and universally, ' There is
no resurrection at all for any one ; ' and this assertion it was, in all its univer
sality, that Jesus undertook to refute. ' The dead ' (universally) ' are raised '
{pi veKpot, all dead persons). And again, ' All live before God.' An affirma
tion like that in Philo (de Joseph, ii. 78) : ' No one has died before me
(redvrfKe 8* oi8eis irap' e/W), but on the contrary (aXXa «ai) lives on for ever,
undecaying (ayifpas) in the immortal nature of a soul no longer held in
by the trammels of the body.'
MAN LIVES ON WITH CONSCIOUSNESS. 87
sight. For He says of these men long passed away to

human apprehension, " I am (still) their God ;" therefore
they themselves must still .be to be regarded by Him as
his people.' This, then, is the argument applied to the
Sadducees' objection, but stated in the most unlimited
terms, ' You see that in the very Pentateuch which your
sect maintains to give no hint of a future life, there is a
passage where God says, "I am the God of the patriarchs; "
but God cannot speak thus of his present relation to
persons non-existent, who merely have been ; therefore we
must conclude from this particular instance that no men,
when they become dead to us, are therefore dead to God.
No ! God cannot be a God of dead persons, but only of
living ones. All, therefore, though seen by us no more,
continue to be living in the sight of God.'1
Nor is there, in this new life, though an escape from
the bodily limitations of earth, any loss of mental asso
ciations, reminiscences, and sympathies. For departed
Christians are called ' the spirits of the just brought home
to the perfectionment of all that has been begun in them
here ' —men who have reached the goal they have been
running for (TeTeXeicD/teVoi).2 And in the visions of Eeve-
1 Luke xx. 38 : irdirer avriS £a>o-iv, ' they are counted by Hhn as alive.'
The phrase is equivalent to that of Paul (Rom. iv. 2) : 'If Abraham were
justified by works, he would have something to boast of ; but we do not find
that God looks on him in this light (ol irpbs rbv &eov), for God's word speaks
of him as justified by faith alone.' And again to that of Peter (1st Ep. iv. 6) :
' Those who have been put to death as to their bodies before the eyes of men
(Koto avdpimovs), live nevertheless as to their spirits before the eyes of God
{Kara Oedv).' Add Philo's phrase : ' No one has ever died as regards my view
of him (irap' epoi).'
* Heb. xii. 23. Cf. Wisdom iv. 10, 11 : 'He pleased God, and was
beloved by Him, so that he was translated (pereredrf), and being made perfect
(i-eXeta>&tV) in a short time, it was the same as if he had completed a long
course.' So that this future life is in fact the only complete life ; whence it
is called emphatically ' Life,' as if no other existence were truly so. ' If thou
latiou John sees ' at the foot of the' altar ' (i.e. at its
base, viroKaTw, prostrate there in prayer) ' the souls of
those who had been slain, crying with a loud voice, How
long, holy and true, dost thou delay to avenge our
blood ? And then there are given to them white robes,'
indicative of their future triumph, 'that they may rest
tranquil for a short time till their brethren join them.'1
Nor is this prolongation of former feelings and associations
into the world unseen affirmed alone of the saints of God:
it is exhibited as experienced by all men in their various
conditions in that world. For in our Lord's parable in
Luke xvi. 19-31, when Lazarus had died and was carried
into Abraham's bosom, the rich man also, having died,
sees (with recognition) Abraham afar off and Lazarus in
his bosom, and cries to their common ancestor, ' Father
Abraham, have mercy upon me, and send Lazarus to dip
the tip of his finger in water and cool my tongue.' Where
we have represented, not only a departure at once, and
wilt enter into Life, keep the commandments,' Matt. xix. 17. ' Thou hast
made known to me the ways of Life,' Acts ii. 28. Cf. Heraclitus, in Sext.
Emp. Hyp. iii. 230 : ' While we are still alive (in this world) our souls are
but dead and buried within us ; it is only when we die (and leave this world)
that our souls wake up to real life (avafiiovv <al £ijv).' And Euripides:
' Who now can tell whether to live may not
Be properly to die P And whether that
Which we do call " to die " may not in truth
Be but the entrance into real life ? '
And Young :
' They live, they greatly live a life, on earth
UnMndled, unconceived ; and from an eye
Of tenderness let heavenly pity fall
On me, more justly numbered with the dead !
This is creation's melancholy vault,
The land of apparitions, empty shades !
All, all on earth, is shadow ; all beyond
Is substance ! '
> Rev. vi. 10, 11.
MAN LIVES FOR JUDGMENT. 89
without waiting for any bodily resurrection, of both

parties into the world of spirits ; but also a prolongation
into this state, of distinctive memories, feelings, associa
tions ; of consciousness of self and recognition of others.
And the same thing comes out from the promise of Jesus
to the dying robber in Luke xxiii. 43. This gives him
the assurance, first that he should be transferred at once,
without waiting for the future kingdom he was thinking
about, from the cross of agony into the garden of bliss ;
and next, that in this place of immediate blessedness he
should be in conscious communion with his now fellow-
sufferer, but then fellow-conqueror, Jesus. ' This day
shalt thou be with me in Paradise ! ' 1
5. Once more, not only when the outward man has
perished, the inward man lives on in the unseen world,
but, moreover, his condition therein is determined by the
use he has made of that outer man while on earth. Judg
ment in the unseen state—discrimination, assignment of a
just award there—is as constantly affirmed throughout the
Bible as is survival into such a state. It is not a mere
1 This retention of consciousness and character in the unseen world is

equally insisted on by Justin Martyr, Apol. i. 18 : ' If death went on into
unconsciousness («r avaurdrfo-iav), it would be a gain to the wicked (eppaiov
&v rjv). But consciousness remains uninterrupted (nevei) to all.' And
Plato has just the same sentiment (Phcedo, 107) : ' If death were a deliver
ance from all things, it would be a gain to the wicked (Hppaiov av rjv, the
same phrase as that of Justin), since they would at the same time be delivered
from the body and from their wickedness.' See further in the Oorgim :
' Death is simply the separation (8ia\vo-is) of the soul from the body ; so
that after these are separated men retain their several characteristics (Tijv
e£tf T)fv avrov), which are much the same as in their previous life. For when
a man is stripped (yvpviodrj) of his body, all the natural and acquired affec
tions (iradqpara) of the soul are laid open to view.' For, as Herbart truly
says, ' No inward states whatever which any being has once acquired can
cease to exist ' (Entry, d. Ph. 220). And so Smith of Cambridge : ' The soul
is apt, of its own nature, to remain to eternity, and so will do except the
decrees of heaven should abandon it from being.'
metaphysical immortality, with no moral consequences,

such as philosophers might assert of never-dying things—
particles, atoms, forces ; but it is an immortality of per
sons in the fulness of their personality, reaping from that
personality the fruits which in that personality they have
sown. ' When the dust has returned to the earth as it
was, and the spirit has returned to God who gave it,
it is that God may bring every work of that spirit into
judgment, with every hidden thing done in the days of
the flesh, whether it be good, or whether it be evil.'1
And so the angel declares to Daniel, not only ' the mul
titude of them who sleep in the dust of the earth shall
awake, but some to everlasting life, and some to everlast
ing contempt.'2 And St. Paul says, 'We labour that
whether present with the Lord or absent from Him, we
may find acceptance in his sight, for we must all appear
before the judgment seat of Christ, that every one may
have repaid to him (/co/uo-ijTai) the things which he has
done by the instrumentality (Sia) of his body, whether
they have been good or bad.'3 We are sent into this
body with a capacity for knowing right and wrong, and
acting according to our knowledge : we have this body
given to us as our instrument for working out the right in
antagonism to the wrong amidst bur fellow- creatures in
the world : our members are to be made servants to
righteousness for the accomplishment of holiness : in this
way, through this mortal life, the idea of the Divine image
impressed upon us is to be actualised into the reality of
that image—the creature reasonable in capacity is to make
1 Eccl. xii. 7, 14.

2 Daniel xii. 2. ' " MultV denotat omnem eorum qui mortui sunt multi-
tudinem.' (Rosenm.)
3 2 Cor. v. 10.
M.iy HEAPS AS HE sows. 91
himself reasonable in character and then, when we drop

the temporary instrument vouchsafed to us for these ends,
our state in the new world that we rise to will be as the
use we have made of it for such ends. ' Whatsoever a
man soweth that shall he also reap. He that soweth to
his flesh shall of the flesh reap corruption ; he that soweth
to his spirit shall of the spirit reap life everlasting. ' 2
1 2 Peter i. 4 : ' That ye may becomo partakers of the Divine nature.'

3 Gal. vi. 7, 8.
CHAPTER II.
The opinion of Ancient Philosophy has, through many

ages, and in many countries, with few exceptions, coin
cided with the doctrine of Scripture concerning the
exceptional nature, the dignity, and the destiny of Man.
Those who have most observed him in common life, and
brooded over him in the study—poets, orators, moralists,
metaphysicians—while recognising, like the Bible, his
humiliating contradictions, have nevertheless shown a firm
conviction of his superiority to all other creatures upon
earth, and his survival of its vicissitudes into another state
of being.
1. They recognise, indeed, in man the most humiliating
contradictions. Just as the Psalmist in the 144th Psalm
bewails the meanness of humanity, and yet, in the 8th
Psalm, extols its grandeur, so we find Seneca complaining
in one place, 'We are told to become acquainted with
ourselves ; but what is this Man whom we are to know ?
A broken vessel ; the most fragile thing you can imagine,
go where he will made conscious by his very first move
ments of his weakness, and while revolving in his mind
immortal doings, and disposing of the long-drawn future,
MAN IS SELF- CONTRADICTORY. 93
struck down, in the midst of all his schemes, by death.'1

And yet, in another place, the same writer equally exults in
the conviction that man is ' of a divine spirit, in whom a por
tion, as it were some sparks, of deity itself has leapt down
to earth, and adhered to a place that is alien from it.'2
Cicero, again, can console himself at the sight of man as
' a celestial mind thrust down from the highest abodes
and, as it were, plunged and drowned in a medium alto
gether alien to it,' only by the thought that 'in this state
the work is assigned him of contemplating the harmonies
of heaven, and conforming himself thereto.'3 Though
still, in other places, he complains most bitterly that 'no
one can be found who has duly fulfilled this work, and
fashioned his mind and conduct in harmony with the
reason imparted to him from above.'4 Whence the sym
pathising wail of Homer, that ' earth nourishes no being
so helpless and so pitiable as man ; ' 5 and the sarcastic
taunt of the Satirist when he ridicules the men who make
pretension to such harmony with their nature, and claim
1 Seneca, Consol. ad Marc. xi. : ' Quid est homo ? quodlibet quassum vas,
et quodlibet fragile ; quocumque se movet, infirmitatis sure statim conscius.
Immortalia volutat animo et in nepotes pronepotesque disponit ; quum
interim longa conantem eum mors opprimit.'
2 De Otio Sap. xxxii. 5 : ' An illud verum sit, quo maxime probatur
hominem divini spiritus esse, partem ac veluti scintillas quasdam sacrorum in
terras desiluisse atque alieno loco hsesisse ? '
5 Cicero, de Senect. xxi. : ' Est enim animus cselestis ex altissimo domi-
cilio depressus, et quasi demersus in terram, locum divines naturae eeternita-
tique contrarium. Sed credo Deos immortales sparsisse animos in corpora
humana ut essent qui terras tuerentur, quique ceelestium ordinem contem-
plantes imitarentur eum vitss modo atque constantia.'
* Cicero, Tuse. ii. 4 : ' Quotus enim quisque philosophorum invenitur qui
sititamoratus, ita animo ac vita constitutus, ut ratio postulat ? qui obtemperet
ipse sibi et decretis suis pareat ? '
4 Homer, Iliad, xvii. 446 :
oif pev yap T'i ttov iariv ul^vparepov dvSpos
iravT(ov, oo-tra Te yaiav eVrt irvetei re Kcu epirei.
to be monarchs of themselves, and gods, as flung down

from their pedestal of pride, by a troublesome cold!1
Nor do modern observers less bewail this contradictori-
ness, and wonder at the double-sided nature of their
species. Every one knows the words of Shakespeare,
' What a piece of work is a man ! How noble in reason ;
how infinite in faculty ; in form and moving how express
and admirable ; in action, how like an angel ; in apprehen
sion, how like a god ; the beauty of the world ; the paragon
of animals; and yet—the quintessence of dust V"z How
eloquent, again, is the description of Mr. Greg: 'Grand
capacities which seem adequate to the mightiest achieve
ments ; inwoven weaknesses which dishonour those capa
cities, and render those achievements hopeless and un
attainable ; germs and specimens of virtues approaching
the divine, and promising a glorious future, yet dashed
with imperfections and impurities which seem to hint of
a low origin and a still lower destiny ; vast steps forward
to a lofty goal —recreant backslidings towards the bot
tomless abyss ; ages of progress and enlightenment, fol
lowed by ages of darkness and retrogression ; unmistakable
indications of a mighty purpose and an ulterior career—
undeniable facts which make these indications seem a silly
mockery ; much to excite the fondest hopes—much to
warrant the uttermost despair ; beautiful affections, noble
aspirations, pure tastes, fine intellects, measureless delights,
all the elements of paradise—.
' But the trail of the Serpent still over them all.' 5
1 Horace, Ep. I. i. 105:
' Ad Bummam, sapiens uno minor est Jove, dives,
Liber, honoratus, pulcher, rex denique regum ;
Prsecipue saniis, nisi quum pituita molesta est.'
" Hamlet, ii. 2. 3 Greg, Enigmas of Life, 137.
MAN IS DIVINELY ENDOWED. 95
Well, therefore, may we conclude with the hues of

Young :—
How poor, how rich, how abject, how august,
How complicate, how wonderful, is man !
A beam ethereal, sullied and absorbed ;
Though sullied and dishonoured, still divine !
Dim miniature 1 of greatness absolute,
An heir of glory, a frail child of dust ! 2
2. Yet in the midst of all these testimonies from sad

experience to the contradictions which go to humble man,
there is ever manifest an overpowering conviction of his
essential superiority to all other earthly creatures, as one
endowed with the Divine reason, akin to the Divine nature,
sprung from the Divine essence, and so capable of the
Divine inspiration.
(1) That the reason which distinguishes man must
be a Divine endowment, was seen so early as the time of
Hesiod. For while he imagines, like the Mosaic record,
that God made the bodies of men of earth (yaiav), he
adds that into them their Divine Father infused the
power of speech (av8ijv), and (that of which such power
is the consequence and proof) a reasoning mind (voov).3
Plato says, ' The distinctive excellence of the human mind
is wisdom (o-o<£itx). If, therefore, there be anything Divine
in man, it must be this capacity for knowledge and con
sideration (to eiSeVcu Te /ecu <f>povelv). In this Divine part,
1 Cf. Manilius, Astr. iv. 884:

' Exemplumque Dei quisque est in imagine parva.'
s Young, Night Thoughts, i.
3 Hesiod, Op. et. Z>. 49 :
irart]p avSpiav re dea>v re
"Htpaurrov eKe\eva-e irepiK\vrov oTTi Taxwro
yaiav vSei (pvpeiv, iv 8' avdpimov dipev avSijv
Kai voov.
then, does man resemble God ; and if we look into this,

and recognise the Divine wisdom which it manifests,
then shall we best know what constitutes our very self.' 1
And Cicero makes the same deduction from the same
premiss. ' I call the mind of man Divine ; for that which
thinks, feels, lives, has active force, must of necessity be
both heavenly and Divine.'2 And again: ' This being, so
foreseeing, sagacious, versatile, acute, with such a memory,
so full of reason and consideration, whom we call man,
must surely be begotten in some wondrous manner from
the Great Supreme. For man alone, amidst the countless
species of animals, is participant of reason and thought ;
and there can be nothing in the universe more Divine
than reason and thought.'3 And again: 'The human
mind, an efflux from the Divine mind, can be likened to
nothing less (with reverence I say it) than to God Him
self. If, then, you cultivate this mind, if you clear its
visual power from the mists of error, it will become to
you the very reason of God (absoluta ratio).'*
(2) On account of this Eeason, therefore, as a Divine
endowment, reflecting the Divine mind, do these thinkers,
like the sacred writers, call man ' the image of God,' and
- 1 Plato, 1 Alcib. 133 6, c.

2 Cicero, Tusc. i. 26, 27 : ' Prorsus hsec divina mihi videtur vis. . . Ita
quicquid est illud quod sentit, quod sapit, quod vivit, quod viget, cseleste et
divinum.'
5 Cicero, de Leg. i. 7 : ' Animal hoc providum, sagax, multiplex, acuturn,
memor, plenum rationia et consilii, quern vocamus Hominem prseclara quadam
conditione generatum esse a summo Deo : solum est enim ex tot animantium
generibus atque naturis particeps rationia et cogitationis. Quid est autem, non
dicam in homine sed in omni caelo atque terra ratione diviniut ? '
4 Cicero, Tusc. v. 13 : ' Humanus autem animus decerptus ex mente
divina, cum alio nullo nisi cum ipso Deo (si hoc fas est dictu) comparari
potest. Hie igitur, si est excultus, et si ejus acies ita curata est ut ne
csecetur erroribus, fit perfecta mens, id est absoluta ratio.'
MAN AKIN TO GOD. 97
speak of him as akin to the Divine nature. ' The mind,'

says Cicero, 'is a sort of image and likeness of God.'1
4 Each man,' says Manilius, ' is a copy of the Divine in
little.'2 And hence the assertion of Pythagoras, that men
have affinity (o-vyyiveiav) with God.3 And of Pindar,
that ' Man and God are of the same race.'4 And of
Cicero, ' As, in the kingdoms of this world, the patrician
is distinguished from the plebeian by his descent, so, in the
kingdom of nature, the most noble and magnificent dis
tinction is that men are descended in race and family
from God. For, while we derive from our earthly parents
all that is frail and fleeting, our souls come by direct
descent from a heavenly Father ; with whom, therefore,
we may venture to claim relationship, and count ourselves
of the same stock with Him.'5 A.nd this is the sense in
which Cleanthes, whom, as well as Aratus, St. Paul had
probably in mind at Athens, calls men the offspring of
God. For his argument is, ' The fittest possible thing for
all men is to sing thy praise, 0 God, since we alone of
all the dwellers upon earth have been endowed by Thee
with that peculiar gift of articulate speech which ' (as
the sign and utterance of articulate thought or reason)
' proves our descent from Thee, our kinship with Thee ! ' 6
1 ' Dei imago qusedam animus est.'

2 ' Exemplum Dei quisque est in imagine parva.'
3 'Avdpamav elvai irpos deoiis irvyyeveuiv.
* °Ev avSpSjv tv dewv yevos.
6 Cicero, De Leg. i. 8: ' Et quod in civitatibus ratione quadam agna-
tionibus familiarum distinguuntur status, id in rerum natura tanto est mag-
nificentius, tantoque prseclarius, ut homines Deorum agnatione et gente
teneantur . . . cumque alia, quibus cohserent homines, e mortali genere
sumpserint, qu» fragilia essent et.^caduca, animum esse ingeneratum a Deo ;
ex quo \ere vel agnatio nobis cum cselestibus, vel genus, vel stirps appellari
potest.'
6 Cleanthes, 3-5.
H
s
Just as Epictetus, with a similar connection of ideas, calls

us to the same duty from our possession of the same
dignity. He distinguishes first, between the lower animals
and man, that ' they, truly, are works of God (decov epya),
but they have not the faculty of government (for the ass
is made subject to man, not man to it), nor are they
derived from God (pepr] avTov) ; whereas thou, 0 man,
hast this faculty of government (irporjyovfievov el) ; thou
hast in thyself a something derived from God (dir6a-iracrp,a
6eov). Thou art a portion of Him. Why, then, dost thou
overlook this thy high birth (tvyeveiav) ? Why dost
thou not recognise whence thou art derived ? Why
wilt thou not remember that when thou nurturest thy
mind thou art nurturing that in thee which is Divine?
Why dost thou forget that thou carriest God about with
thee ? By which I do not mean some outward silver or
golden image. I mean what thou carriest within thyself,1
and yet dost not blush to defile with unclean imaginations
and filthy deeds ! If an image of God were present before
thee, thou wouldst not dare to think or do such things,
but when God Himself is present within thee (ecrcoOev)
and is spying out all thy thoughts and ways, and cognisant
of all thy words, thou art not ashamed to think and do
such things, without any sense of thy peculiar nature or
any dread of the wrath of God.'2
(3) In which animated passage we see an approach
to those speculations by which the Stoics, like many
others, debased the true view of man's relationship with
1 Cf. Ignatius's answer to Trajan : ' No one ought to call Theophoros

wicked, for I have within me Christ, the heavenly King. And who is
Theophoros P He who has Christ in his breast. Dost thou then carry Him
who was crucified, within thee P I do.'
» Epictet. Dissert, ii. 8.
MAN DEBITED FROM GOD. 99
God into a sort of physical derivation from the Divine

essence. Not content with admiring the likeness in man
of the Divine mind, and inferring thence a sort of kinship
in him with the Divine nature (in both which views they
go no further than the sacred writers), they proceed, in
their attempt at elevating human nature, to degrade the
Divine (for all physical conceptions of the relation between
the two inscrutables, man and God, must be degrading)
by calling man an emanation, efflux, excerpt, shred,
particle of the Divine essence. Thus Plutarch : ' The
soul, being participant of reason, is not merely a work of
God, but a portion (/xepos) of Him, and derives its origin
not merely by Him, but from Him and out of Him (i£
avTov).' 1 And Antoninus says : ' We must live in harmony
with God. But to live in harmony with God is to have a
mind always content with what has been allotted to us,
and occupied with what has been enjoined on us, by that
Divine spirit (I mean our mind and reason) which God
has given to be our guardian and governor, and which
is a shred (anocnracrpa) of Himself.' And again : ' Ee-
member of how great a system thou art a portion (/ifpos)
and what an outflow (diroppoia) thou art from its Euler.'2
And similarly the Eoman writers. ' Our minds,' says
Cicero, ' are deduced and distilled from the Divine nature.'3
And again : ' The human mind is an excerpt from the
Divine.'4 And Seneca calls the spirit of man 'a portion
and as it were spark of the Divine Spirit.'5 And Horace
1 Plutarch, Quasst. Plat. 1. 2 Anton, v. 27 ; ii. 4.

8 Cicero, De Div. i. : 'A natura divina haustos ammos et delibatos
habemus.'
4 Id. Tusc. i. 5 : ' Humanus animus decerptus ex mente divina.'
5 Seneca, De Otio Sap. xxxii. 5 : ' Partem ac veluti scintillas quasdam
sacrorum.'
H 2
' a particle of the Divine ether.'1 And even Philo is not

restrained by that awe of the great Jehovah common to
every Jew from catching up these grosser notions, and
stretching Holy Scripture to justify them. For he says :
' The body indeed is begotten, but the soul is begotten of
no one but the Father and Lord of all things. For when
it is said " He breathed into Adam," this can mean nothing
less than an inspiration from God's own blessed nature,
gliding down into the earthly body to take up its dwelling
there.'2 And again : ' Every man, so far as regards his
intellect, is inhabited by the Divine Word, of whom he is
an excerpt (airocriracrpa) and a ray (a?rauy0.071a). 8 For
how is it possible for the human intellect, shut up in the
narrow confines of the body, to take in, as it does, the
vast expanse of heaven and earth, if it be not an insepa
rable excerpt (airocnracrna) from the Divine Spirit?'4
Though he afterwards seems alarmed at his own rashness,
and begs to explain that ' nothing can proceed from Deity
in the way of division, but only of diffusion.'8
Thus does speculation wander ir.to error when it
forgets that both God and man are utterly inscrutable as
to their essence, and therefore that the mode of connection
and communication between God and man must be equally
inscrutable. It is nothing but imperfect metaphor to
1 Horace, Serm. ii. 2 : ' Divinse particula auwe.' Where he seems to have
had in mind the saying ascribed to Pythagoras, eivat njv yfrvxrfv cmoo-iraa-pa
aidepos, of which Cicero complains that 'non vidit distractione humanorum
animorum discerpi et dilacerari Deum ; ' if you extract human spirits out of
the Divine Spirit, you are dividing and rending God. (De Nat, D. i.)
8 Philo, De Opif. Mundi, Op. 90. s Id. ibid. 68.
4 Id. De Cain. Insid. Yet even Christian poets fall into the same way of
speaking. Synesius says that the vovs bears witness to rrpi ev rfj ^rvxjj
polpav T}fv deiav, ' the divine particle in the soul.'
5 Philo, De Cain. Insid. : Tepvrfrai yap ov8eV rov delov KoT' aâprrio-iv dXXot
povov eKTeiverai.
MAN INSPIRABLE BY GOD. 101
speak of God as spirable or man as inspirable ; of deriva

tion from God, or birth from God, or our being the
offspring of God. Press the phrases, and you both deify
the creature and dishonour the Creator.1 Enough, there
fore, for us to know that He has endowed us with a mind
which faintly reflects his own ; that by this mind we are
driven to seek Him, and are enabled in some degree to
know Him, love Him, serve Him, hold converse with
Him, and at last become conformed to Him, not only in
capacity but in character. All beyond this is well met
by the warning of Augustin, that ' the soul of man is no
part of the Divine nature, but a mere created thing ; ' 2
by the exclamation of Tertullian, 'What! would the
Great Supreme entrust to the keeping of a creature the
shadow of his own soul, the breath of his own Spirit,
the efflux from his own mouth ? ' 3 and by the line ad
monition of Gregory of Nazianzen, ' Be it your business
simply to take care of that in you which proceeds from
God and is Divine, and, being participant of a birth from
above, soars towards the source whence it sprang, even
while imprisoned in a lower nature.'4
(4) But this inseparable connection of man with
God renders him further capable of Divine inspiration.
Never did the ancient world lose sight of God and the
1 Epiphanius has well suggested the caution we must use in all such
phraseology : ' Neither do we call the soul a part (pepos) of God, nor yet a
something alien from him who infused it (dX\(rrpiov Tov epxpvo-rio-avros) ;
but how such a subtle essence is to be conceived of, must be left to God
alone.'
1 Augustin, Ep. 157 : ' Animam Dei non particulam esse sed creaturam.'
5 Tertull. De Res. 7 : ' Deus animie suee umbram, spiritus sui auram,
oris sui operam vilissimo alicui commiserit ? '
4 Greg;. Naz. Apol. § 33 : irepi ^\rv\rfV ff (rirovS<i rr]v « OeoO Kat deiav
Kat rrjs ava>deu eiyevetas peTexov(rav (cat 7rpos eKeivtfv eVetyou/ie'nji', « Kai Tip
presence and power of God. Never did it contemplate

the sphere of earth as separate from that of heaven. ' All
things,' said Thales, ' are full of God.' 1 ' The whole mass
of existence,' sang Virgil, ' is alive with the Divine Mind
agitating all.'2 And as to man, so close was the believed
connection between the human and the Divine, that
popular opinion ascribed whatever was intense and over
mastering, even though evil, to celestial interference.
Exceptional cunning, rage, and lust, must come from
higher powers.3 And though the best philosophy nobly
protested against this perversion of the grand and true
idea of inspiration, it applied this idea not less strenuously
to all that i3 good in man. The light which dawned on
sages and on poets ; the life which invigorated heroes ;
the laws of conscience and of human society ; whatsoever
is lofty, pure, and godlike ; were assigned, and rightly
assigned, to inspiration from on high. 'Everything
good,' says Plato, 'must come from God.'4 'No one,'
says Seneca, ' is driven to evil by higher powers.' 5 ' In
our own lust,' says Cicero, 'lies our sin ; and concupiscence
is the mother of all evil.'6 ' Never,' says Plato, ' could
men teach others who were not themselves first taught of
1 ndvra wXtJpij deS>v. See Aristot. De Anima, i. 5.

s Virgil, jEn. vi. 725 :
' Spiritus intus alit, totamque infusa per artus
Mens agitat molem, et magno se corpore miscet.'
s See Homer, H. xix. 86, and passim. And the beautiful Hymn to Love
in Eurip. Hipp. 525 :
"Epwra 8e Tov rvpavvov av8pmv.
4 Plato, De Bepub. ii. 379 : 'Ayados 6 Oedr, Kal rav plv ayadav ovUeva
aWov alruiTeov.
5 Seneca, QMip. 1019 : ' Nemo fit fato nocens.'
8 Cicero : ' In libidine peccatum est. . . . Voluptas malorum mater om
nium.'—De Leg. i. 17.
ALL GOODNESS INBREATHED BY GOD. 103
God.'1 'The wise,' says Zeno, 'are themselves divine.'2

' No man,' says Cicero, ' was ever great without an in
spiration from on high ; ' 3 and ' no poet worth the name
can arise if not inflamed by the Divine truth.'* ' The
counsels of the wise and great,' says Seneca, ' are gifts of
God.'5 ' The voice of conscience,' says another sage,
' is the voice of God.'6 ' Its unwritten law,' said Socrates,
'has been inscribed upon the heart by God.'7 And the
written laws which spring from it for binding man to man
are equally (as Demosthenes says)" the gift of God.8 So
that, in short, all individual goodness and all social
righteousness are emanations from the Spirit of God ;
and therefore to follow righteousness is to follow after
God ; 9 to commune with righteousness is to hold com
munion with God ; 10 and to become righteous is to become
1 Plato, Apol. : ovS' hv SiSaêiv, el pr) Geos vtyrryoho.

2 2o(fiovs deiovs elvai.
3 ' Nemo vir magnus sine aliquo afflatu divino unquam fuit.'—N. D. ii. 66.
4 ' Poeta bonus nemo sine inflammatione animorum existere potest et sine
quodam afflatu quasi furoris.'—De Orat. ii. 43.
6 'Deus dat consilia magnifica et erecta.'—Ep. 41.
6 BpoTois airao~iv r) o-vvei8rfo-is Oeos.
7 'Eyw pev deovs olpat Tovs vopovs dypacpovs rois dvdpioirois delvai.—Xen.
Mem. iv. 4, 7.
8 Has eo'Ti vopos eVprfpa Kai Sapov deSv.
9 To eireo'dai Gen.—Plutarch.
10 How beautiful the testimony of Hippolytus concerning this ! Eurip.
Hip. 85 :
2oi Kai £vveipi Kai \6yois (r' dpelôp.ai,
K\vu>v pev avdr)v, Sppa 8' oi\ opav To (tov.
' For I with thee reside, with thee converse,
Hearing thy voice indeed, though I thy face
Have never seen ! '
And again, ib. 1440:
Xaipov(ra Kai (rv orerê, irapdev oX|9i'a *
paKpav Se \eiirois paStws opi\iav.
' Farewell, blest virgin, grieve not thus to part
From a most faithful votary, who with thee
Hath long held converse.''
like God.' This was the conviction that fired the noblest
men of old. This was the conviction to which Socrates
gave utterance when he declared that ' the Divine Spirit
within him pointed out what he should do, and what
abstain from doing ; and when this voice was listened to
all went well, but when neglected all went ill.'2 For
nothing is more mistaken than the notion that Socrates is
here speaking of a Demon, or ' Familiar ' peculiar to him
self. His language is never about a Demon, or my
Demon, but always about ' the Divine ' (to Saifioviov, to
deiov), ' a certain Divine influence ' (ti SaifioViop), ' a
certain voice ((fxov-q tis) borne in upon me ; ' 3 precisely
similar both in words and meaning to the Scripture idea
of ' the voice of the Lord ' and ' the Spirit of the living
God.' And what marked Socrates was not that he pos
sessed ' a familiar spirit ' of his own, but that he opened
his ears to the Divine Voice, and cherished the breathings
of the Divine Spirit ; that he ' walked in this Spirit,'
' lived in this Spirit ' (as Paul says Christians should
habitually do), and by this Spirit spoke, to enlighten, heal,
and save all who would listen to him.4
1 See Plato, Rep. x. 613 : Els oo-ou Swarbv dvdpwirw 6poiovo-dai ©ea>. And
Thecet. 176 : ' Evil ever hovers round this mortal nature, and we ought
therefore to endeavour to fly from its influence as rapidly as possible. But
such a flight consists in imitating, as much as possible, God (opolao-is Oea
Kara ro 8warov) ; and this imitation consists in becoming just, pious, and
wise {ppoiao-is 8e', 8iKaiov, Kai oo-lov, pera (ppovrfo-eas yeveo-dai).'
8 Xen. Mem. i. 1, 4: ro daipovtov, e07, o-ripaiveiv ' #cai 7roXXoIf Twv £vvov-
Twv irporfyopeve, ra pev iroieiv, to 8e ^ iroieiv, as rov daipoviov irpoo-rfpalvovros.
Kai Tois piv ireidopevois aira o-we'oSepe, To'is fie prf ireidopi'vois peripe\e.
8 Just as in Herodotus, above all the subordinate deities there rises the
idea of an all-ruling spiritual might, which he calls ro deiov, To ftaipoviov, 6
6edf.
4 Cf. Prof. Thompson's note in Arthur Butler's Philosophy, i. 37 : ' The
notion of a Genius of Socrates is a (now exploded) error. Socrates never
speaks of a Aatpav, but always of ro Saip6viou, or Saipovioi) Ti, i.e. a Divine
MAN SURVIVES THIS WORLD. 105
3. And as these inspired ones believed in such essen

tial superiority of man to all other creatures on earth,
they believed (finally) in the survival of man into another
world. This belief, it is true, is sometimes supported by
only fanciful analogies ; as when Simmias argues for the
soul's survival from looking on it as a harmony, that
remains unbroken when the strings on which it has been
played are gone.1 But Antoninus firmly based his faith
in immortality on faith in God ; and maintained, 'If there
be no gods it is not worth while to live, and if there be,
they will take care of my future."2 And Plutarch does
the same, affirming that ' the proof for Divine provir
dence and for human immortality are so wrapped up
together that you cannot hold one without the other.'3
Yet Cicero seems to feel the weakness of all argument
on this subject when he falls back on determination,
whether or no : ' If I am wrong in this, I am wrong by
my own will, and am resolved to cling to an error dear to
me as life!'*
And well he might. For others (and he himself in
supernatural somewhat ('divinum quiddam,' as Cicero has it) to which

he never attributes distinct personality; speaking of it now as a sign (o-qpelov,
Phced. 242 b), now as a t£oovjj or voice (Apol. 31 d).' Thus, e.g. in Xen.
Mem. i. 3, 1, Socrates speaks of 'the intimations which the gods had given
him ;' and in i. 4, 3, exchanges this word for To Saipoviov : ' I by no means,
said Aristodemus, despise To haipovwv, but think of him («««>) as far too-
high to need my worship.'
1 Plato, Phcedo.
s Anton, ii. 11 ; To fie ef dvdpimav direKdeiv, el ph deoi euriv, ovSeV heivov,
KaKa yap o-e ovK av ireplfta\oiev ' et fie rjroi ovK elo'iv, )? ov fie'Aet airois Ttov
dudpaireliov, rl poi (rjv iv Koo-pto Keva deav, rj irpovoias Keva ;
3 Eis eon Xoyoy 6 ToO Geou rrfv irpovoiav apa Kai TtfV Siapovrfv rrfs
avdpairivtfs ^fvxrjs /3e/3tua>v, xat darepov ovK io-riv airo\m&v dvaipovvra
Oarepov.
* Cicero, De Senect. xxiii : ' Si in hoc erro quod ammos hominum immor-
tales esse credam, lubenter erro ; nec mihi hunc errorem quo delector, dum
vivo, extorqueri volo.'
other places) deduce this belief from solid premisses by

legitimate conclusion, and thus give it the dignity and
weight of that Scripture Faith which is 'the logical con
viction of things not seen.' Thus Alcmason builds his
hope, on the metaphysical principle, that whatever has
within itself a native energy (&>s aei kivovia€i>7j) must re
main in possession of this energy.1 In which he is fol
lowed by Plato when he argues, 'Every soul must be
immortal, for that which has within itself spontaneous
energy can never die ' 2 (an anticipation of the modern
doctrine of the persistency of Force). So again Cicero
reasons : 'When the soul feels itself in motion, it feels at
the same time that this motion is due to its own spon
taneity, and not exclusively to any foreign force, and that
it can never become untrue to this spontaneity ; it feels
(that is) its perpetuity of being.'3 And elsewhere he
adds to this another argument, from the uncompounded
nature of the soul : ' It is my firm persuasion that seeing
the soul is by nature without parts, and has in it no ad
mixture of anything different from itself, it never can be
broken up ; and if not broken up it cannot be destroyed.
For destruction is disruption.'4
1 See Aristotle, De Anima.

" Plato, Pheedrus, 245 c : irao-a ~ijrvx<) adavaros 4 rb yap aeudvrjrov adi-
varov.
3 Cicero, Tusc. i. 23 : ' Sentit animus se moveri ; quod quum sentit, illud
una sentit se -vi sua non aliena moveri, nec accidere posse ut ipse unquam a se
tleseratur. Ex quo efficitur aeternitas.'
4 Id. De Senect. xxi. : ' Sic mihi persuasi ..... cum simplex animi
natura esset, neque haberet in se quidquam admixtum, dispar sui atque dissi-
mile, non posse eum dividi ; quod si non possit non posse interire.' Tusc.
i. 29 : ' Nihil est animis admixtum, nihil concretum, nihil coagmentatum,
nihil duplex. Quod quum ita sit certe nec secerni nec dividi, nec discerpi,
nec distrahi potest, ne interire quidem igitur. Est enim interitus quasi
discessus et secretio ac diremptus earum partium quae ante interitum junc-
tione aliqua tenebantur.' All adopted (as usual) from Plato.
THE CERTAINTY OF MAN'S FUTURE. 107
Nor does Cicero fail to employ the psychological argu

ment for the duration of man. The soul is different in
kind from the things of nature, and therefore must have
a destiny different from theirs. 'With such celerity of
thought, such memory of the past, such prevision of the
future, such capacity for arts, for sciences, for inventions,
it is not possible (I assure myself) that the subject in
which such qualities inhere can ever die.'1
But he next has recourse to moral arguments. He
cannot believe that the common opinion of mankind on
any important subject can be without some foundation in
the laws of nature.2 But this opinion makes for the soul's
survival : ' I judge from the consentient expectation of so
many different peoples that the souls of men must en
dure.'3 Still less can he believe that Nature should be so
inconsistent with herself as to produce a being like man,
and then abandon him to ruin. 'Nature must surely be
consistent with herself. We were not made by chance or
with caprice, but by the act of an intelligent Power which
had in view the welfare of man. Such a Power, therefore,
never could have begotten or nurtured a being to work
his way through so many trials, and then to fall into the
1 Cicero, De Senect. xxi : ' Sic mihi persuasi, sic sentio, cum tanta celeritas
animorum sit, tanta memoria prseteritorum, futurorumque prudentia, tot artes,
tantse scientiae, tot inventa, non posse earn naturam quae res eas contineat
esse mortalem.'
8 And this argument from common opinion is no mere counting of heads,
and siding with the majority ; it is based on the conviction that beliefs
cherished by the generality of men must have a foundation in the nature of
man, in the very constitution of the human mind.
3 Cic. Tusc. i. 10 : ' Ut deos esse natura opinamur, qualesque sint ratione
cognoscimus; sic permanere animos arbitramur consensu nationum omnium.'
So Seneca also argues : ' Quum de animarum seternitate disserimus non leve
momentum apud nos habet consensus hominmn, aut timentium inferos, aut
colentium sethera.' (Ep. 117.)
108 THE REALITY IN MAX.
abyss of eternal death. No ! rather let us believe that

there awaits us at the end a port and anchoring ground
where we may rest in peace.'1 And Coriolanus urges
a similar argument : ' If the dissolution of the body is
shared by the soul, I do not see how those can be accounted
happy who, so far from gaining anything by virtue, have
ruined themselves in its cause.' 2
And therefore these thinkers not only believe in a
future for Man, but look upon death as no more than
a simple migration from present exile into his native
land. When Anaxagoras was reproached with being
indifferent to his native country, he replied, ' Nay, hush,
my friends ! for be assured I do most fervently love (and
here he pointed up to heaven) my native land !'3 Whence
Plato says that ' death is but a change of residence from
hence to another place.'4 And Cicero : ' I depart from
life not as if from home, but from a temporary inn.
For nature has given us here a place of sojourn only, not
of habitation.'5 And Seneca : ' The soul, an efflux from
the Deity, which knows neither old age nor death, when
unloosed from the bonds of the burdensome body will
soar back to its native habitation and its cognate lumi-
1 Cicero, Tusc. i. 49 : ' Non enim temere nec fortuito sati et creati suraus ;
sed profecto fuit qusedam vis qure generi consuleret humano ; nec id gigneret
aut aleret quod quum exantlavisset omnes labores turn incideret in mortis
malum sempiternum. Portum potius palatum nobis et perfugium putemus ! '
4 In Dionys. Hal. vii. 630 : d pev oZv apn rois o'wpao-i 8ia\vopevois xat To
Trfs ^v^rjs o, Ti 8!f irore i(m Sia\verai, ovK olSa airas paKapiovs viroXa/3tB Tovs
ptfBev airo\avo-avras rrjs aperrjs ayadov, 6V avrrfv 8e Tavrqv diroXKvpivovs.
3 Diog. Laert. ii. 3, 2: irpos Tov elirovra- ovSev o-oi /xe'Xei i-ifr irarpiSos.
ei(prfpei, e(ptf' epoi yap (r(poSpa pe\ei rrjs irarplBos, 8ei'£as Tov ovpavov.
1 Plato, Apol. : /iera/9oAij ns Tov roVou Km peroUrfo-is evdevSe els aAXov
T07TOV.
5 Cicero, De Senect. xxiii : ' Ex vita ita discedo, tanquam ex hospitio,
non tanquam ex domo ; commorandi enim natuia diversorium nobis non
habitandi locum dedit.'
THE BLISS OF MAN'S FUTURE. 109
naries.'1 'And then,' says Plato, ' the invisible soul shall
find a world like itself noble, pure, invisible; truly, as its
name imports, a " Hades," or unseen state, in presence of
the good and wise Supreme ! ' 2 Then too, ' our rational
nature shall reach its consummation in unmixed light;
and then first, when we have passed away from earth,
shall our longing arms embrace what we have sighed for
all our days with ardent love—true wisdom !'3 Then too,
as Cicero in like manner exults, ' when the freed soul
reaches the goal to which its nature has been impelling it,
things will shine out before it in all their purity and
brightness ; for there will be no hindrance to our seeing
them as they truly are.'4 For then, as Seneca adds, ' The
soul, released from its earthly prison, shall regain all its
rights, enjoy the unchecked vision of nature, look down
as from a lofty tower on all human affairs, and be in close
contact with those diviner mysteries which have so long
eluded its sight. 0 what will such divine light seem to
you when you gaze on it in its own proper region !'5
But then, with these thinkers equally as with the
Scripture writers, such blessed hopes are held out to
1 Seneca, Suasor. vi. 33 : ' Animus divina origins haustus, cui nec
senectus ulla nec mors, onerosi corporis vinculis exsolutus, ad sedes suas et
cognata sidera recurret.'
s 'H 8e ^VX'I "Pa TO ocidef, To els TowvTov Tokov erepov olôpevov yevvaiov
Kai Kadapov Kal detSxj, els 'AiSov i>s d\rfd&s, irapa rov dyadbv Kal (ppovipov
Seov.—Plato, Pheedon, 80 d.
* Plato, Phcedr. ; Kal rare ffpXv eo-rai ov emdvpovpiv Te xai (papev ipao-raX
rival, (ppovri0-ea>s.
4 Cicero, Tusc. i. ; ' Atque ea profecto turn multo puriora et dilucidiora
cernentur, cum, quo natura fert, liber animus pervenerit. Nulla res objecta
impediet quo minus percipiat quale quidque sit.'
5 Seneca, Be Consul, ad Poly. 27 ; and Ep. 102 : ' Nunc animus fratris
mei, velut ex diutino carcere emissus, tandem sui juris et arbitrii gestit, et
rerum naturae spectaculo fruitur et humana omnia ex superiore loco despicit -
divina vero, quorum rationem tamdiu frastra qusesierat, propius intuetur.'
' Quid tibi videbitur divina lux cum illam suo loco videris ? '
those alone who have already welcomed some rays of this

heavenly light while yet on earth. They too, like the
Bible, look for discrimination in that future state. * Those
who pass over into that world unseen, with no previous
initiation into the Divine mysteries, no sanctification by
the Divine Spirit, must stumble there into the mire. Only
he who has been purified and raised to the perfect life in
this world can, when he reaches that, pass on to dwell
with God.'1 'It is when we have fought the good fight
and gained the crown, that, like those who are carried
round in triumph as victors, we shall be introduced into
that lovely life.'2 Then, ' every soul which has passed its
present state in purity and goodness shall inhabit the
place best fitted for it ; shall dwell in moral blessedness
freed from delusion, and folly, and fear, and wild desires,
and all other human evils ; shall pass the rest of its time
in intercourse with God ; shall sing his praise, and shall
enjoy the grand society of his saints.'3 'If indeed,' says
Socrates, ' I had not hoped to reach, first the wise and
good gods, and then the spirits of the just made perfect,
so far superior to any one here, I should have made a
great mistake to be so willing to die ; but now be well
assured I have the fullest hope to rise into fello wship with
the best of men.'4 'And does it seem to you,' asks
Cicero, ' that such a journey to such company is an insig
nificant thing ? Do you think lightly of conversing with
Orpheus, Musaeus, Homer, Hesiod? Nay, but I would
die a hundred times to attain such a privilege as this ! '
' 0 glorious day, when I shall gain at last dismission from
this filthy mob on earth and be admitted to that divine
assemblage of congenial minds ! ' 5
1 Plato, Phado, 96. s Id. De Rep. s Id. Phcedo, 81.
4 Id. ibid. 5 Cicero, Tmc. i. ; De Senect. xxiii.
MODERN ATOMISM. HI
Coming now to Modern Philosophy concerning the

Nature, Dignity, and Destiny of Man, we find some
persons deserting these noble sentiments of ancient wis
dom, and digging up afresh the defunct Atomism of
Democritus, Epicurus, and Lucretius, which treats the
Soul as nothing more than finer particles of body (crajpa
XeTTTO/jLepes), that, when death comes, are scattered (like
the witches of Macbeth) ' into the air, as breath into the
wind.' ' A few fanatical enthusiasts from the ranks of
Science,' says Professor Tait, ' assert that not only life but
volition and consciousness are merely physical phenomena ;
though no truly scientific man would make such an asser
tion.'1 By this school Mind is being subsumed under Body,
Psychology transformed into Physiology. All the mental
experiences of Sensation, Thought, and Will are either func
tions of the brain,2 or secretions from it,3 or movements of
it,4 or resultants of its vibrations.5 And what we call our
Personality has been ' hewed from the same rock whence
have been quarried all the forms of existence, organic or
inorganic, so that the act of the skilful workman in putting
a watch together is only a manifestation of the action of
matter in a highly complex condition upon matter in a
much simpler form.'6 And we are assured on the autho
rity of a most acute observer that he ' discerns in matter
1 Prof. Tait, at the British Association in Edinburgh, 1871.

s ' Die Seele ist ein Produkt der Entwickelung des Hirns.'—Vogt.
3 The brain is ' un estomac qui digere et secrete des idees.'—Cabanis.
4 ' Der Gedanke ist eine Bewegung des Stoffes. Ohne Phosphor, kein
Gedanke.'—Moleschott.
s ' Thought is the resultant of all the forces which make up the brain ;
the effect of the nervous electricity.'—Biichner.
By all which misrepresentations, as M. Flammarion well says, 'the
man ia made merely the adjective of the cerebral substance.' (Dieu dans la
Nature, p. 300.)
6 Statham, From Old to New, 187, 180.
the promise and the potency of all terrestrial life,' which

seems only a Meiosis for his first expression, ' every form and
quality' (mental, therefore, as well as physical). ' of life.'1
But here we must meet such general assertions, on the
threshold, by the counter-statement of Professor Fiske,
the American pupil and expositor of Mr. Spencer : ' It
has been not uncommonly taken for granted that mole
cular physics, in establishing a quantitative correlation
between the various modes of motion manifested through
out organic and inorganic nature, has supplied a basis
whereon to found some theory of the materiality of
Mind. . . . Yet those who really comprehend the im
port of modern discoveries in molecular physics are more
thoroughly convinced than ever that any such reduction is
utterly beyond the bounds ofpossibility. One of the great
results of the discovery of the correlation of forces is the
final destruction of the central argument by which ma
terialism has sought to maintain its position. Henceforth
the materialistic hypothesis is doomed irretrievably. For
in the last resort it is subjective psychology which must
render the decisive verdict as to the possibility of identi
fying feeling with motion. It is now for consciousness to
decide, upon direct inspection, whether a psychical shock
is so much like a physical pulsation that the one term
may be substituted for the other.'2
To this ' Consciousness,' therefore, let us make appeal.
Let ' subjective psychology render its decisive verdict.'
Let each one ask himself: 'Am I? Do I exist? Can I
speak of myself with certainty as a Being ; distinct from
1 Tyndall, Belfast Address.

3 Fiske, Cosmic Fhilosophy, ii. 439, 444. See the whole chapter on
' Matter and Spirit.'
SELF A REAL ENTITY. 113
all other Beings, however close my relation to them ? '

The answer will express itself in a conviction not only
that you are, but that you are ' a primordial Unit,'. whom
you call your Self ; i.e. a selfsame Substance 1 under
lying all the phenomenal changes of your thoughts, and
feelings, and acts, as much and as certainly as any
Eeality, ' Atom' or ' Force,' affirmed by physical science
to underlie the phenomena which it investigates.
And the proof of this conviction rests, just as much
as the proof of physical Atoms, not on surmise or spe
culation, but on Pacts—Facts given in experience, and
therefore furnishing material for a ' Positive Philosophy *
of Mind as much as any of the data out of which there
is constructed a ' Positive Philosophy ' of Matter.
I cite for this, first, the testimony of Mr. Spencer.
' Belief in the reality of Self is a belief which no hypo
thesis enables us to escape. What shall we say of those
successive impressions and ideas which constitute con
sciousness ? Shall we say that they are the affections of
something called Mind, which as being the Subject of them
is the real ego ? If we say this, we manifestly imply that
the ego is an Entity. Shall we assert that these im
pressions and ideas are not the mere superficial changes
wrought on some thinking substance, but are themselves
the very body of this substance—are severally the modi-
fed forms which it from moment to moment assumes?2
* A Self, or selfsame Entity, in the sense in which Cicero has defined all
Real Entity, as ' Id quod semper esset simplex, et unius modi, et tale quale esset.'
{Acad. Post. i. 8.) For Self means primarily same, or identical. See North's
Plutarch: 'They had been trained from their childhood unto one self trade.'
And again : ' Who was also prisoner with him for the self cause,' And so
Shakespeare, King Lear, i. 1 :
' I am made of that self metal as my sister.'
* Which is the view of Herbart, Lehrb. d. Psych. § 113 : ' Conception
I
This hypothesis, equally with the foregoing, implies that

the individual exists as a permanent and distinct Being,
since modifications necessarily involve something modi
fied. Shall we then betake ourselves to the sceptic's
position, and argue that we know nothing more than our
impressions themselves—that these are to us the only
existences ; and that the personality said to underlie
them is a mere fiction ? We do not even thus escape ;
since this proposition, verbally intelligible but really
unthinkable, itself makes the assumption which it pro
fesses to repudiate. For how can consciousness be wholly
resolved into impressions when an impression of necessity
implies something impressed?1 Or again, how can the
sceptic who has decomposed his consciousness into im
pressions, explain the fact that he considers them as his
impressions ? Or once more, if, as he must, he admits
that he has an impression of his personal existence, what
warrant can he show for rejecting this impression as
unreal while he accepts all his other impressions as real ?
Unless he can give satisfactory answers to these queries,
which he cannot, he must admit the reality of the indi
vidual Mind.' 2
Next I cite the powerful argument of Dr. Tyndall,
against a supposed Lucretian : 'I admit that you can
build crystalline forms out of the play of muscular force ;
nay, even a tree or flower ; nay, an animal (if such you
could show me) without sensation. But now comes my
are the ^//"-preserving acts of the Self against the invasions of all other Selfs ; ■
consequently the ' modified forms ' which it assumes in relation to them.
1 Just in like manner Mill's very vague definition of mind as ' the perma
nent possibility of thought ' implies a something in which this possibility
exists—in which the thinking takes place. See Huxley, Lay Sermons, 359 :
' Our knowledge of anything we know or feel is neither more nor less than
a knowledge of states of consciousness.'
' Spencer, First Principles, 1st edit. p. 64.
SELF NO PRODUCT OF ATOMS. 115
difficulty. Your atoms are individually without sensation ;

much more are they without intelligence ; take then the
oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus atoms,
and all the other atoms, dead as grains of shot,1 of which
the brain is formed ; imagine them separate and sensa-
tionless ; observe them running together and forming all
imaginable combinations—this, as a purely mechanical
process, is seeable to the mind ; but can you see, or dream,
or in any way imagine, how out of that mechanical act,
and from those individually dead atoms, sensation, thought,
and emotion are to arise? I can follow a particle of
musk until it reaches the olfactory nerve ; I can follow
the waves of sound until their tremors reach the water of
the labyrinth and set the otoliths and Corti's fibres in
motion ; I can also visualise the waves of ether as they
cross the eye and hit the retina ; nay, more, I am able
to follow up to the central organ the motion thus im
parted at the periphery, and to see in idea the very
molecules of the brain thrown into tremors : my insight
is not baffled by these physical processes. What baffles
me, what I find unimaginable, transcending every faculty
I possess—transcending, I humbly submit, every faculty
you possess—is the notion that out.of those physical tremors
you can extract things so utterly incongruous with them as
sensation, thought, and emotion. You may say that this issue
of consciousness from the clash of atoms is not more
incongruous than the flash of light from the union of
oxygen and hydrogen.2 But I beg to say that it is. For
1 This epithet ' dead,' though intended to strengthen the argument, is

hardly correct. For no atoms are ' dead ; ' there is no ' death ' throughout
the universe ; ' inert ' matter is an ohsolete notion. All things possess
' resistance,' a reactive energy, which is life.
* This thought, like every other, has been anticipated by Cudworth. See
r 2
such incongruity as the flash possesses is that which I now

force on your attention : the flash is an affair of con
sciousness, the objective counterpart of which is a vibra
tion. It is a flash only by your interpretation. You are
the cause of the apparent incongruity, and you are the
thing that puzzles me. . . . You cannot, then, satisfy the
human understanding in its demand for logical continuity
between molecular processes and the phenomena of con
sciousness. This is a rock on which Materialism must
inevitably split, whenever it pretends to a complete philo
sophy of life.'1
Nor is this less decidedly the view of Lotze, 'one
of the greatest living expositors of Development.' For
he affirms : ' The sum total of all that is predicated con
cerning physical atoms—extension, combination, density,
and motion—is entirely unlike the sensations, feelings, efforts
which we may constantly observe to follow on those con
ditions, and so erroneously imagine to grow out of them. No
iii. 5C9 : ' Flame is nothing but a violent agitation of the small particles of
a body by the rapid subtle matter. The same motion communicated to the
eye or optic nerves begets one kind of sensible idea or phantasma called
Light, but to the nerves of touch another quite different kind, called Heat ;
therefore, neither Light nor Heat are really and absolutely in the flame
ivithout, but only fantastically and relatively, the one to our sight,
the other to our touch : therefore sense cannot be knowledge ; it is some
thing in us superior to sense, which judges what really is and is not.'
A similar argument is urged by Magy, De La Science, 267 : ' La lu
miere est essentiellement subjective. C'est ce qu'il est permis de conclure
du phenomene des interferences, qui consiste en ce que deux rayons de lumiere
peuvent s'annuler mutuellement, et produire par Ieurs concours non de la
lumiere mais de robscurite". Ce phenomene serait absolument inexplicable si
l'e"ther jouissait d'un eclat propre et tout-a-fait inde"pendant de notre faculté
de percevoir. Car le moyen de concevoir que deux files de molecules dont
chaque element possede une lumiere substantielle, perdent tout a coup la
proprieté de nous eclairer, par cela seul qu'elles se juxtaposent, ou se confon-
dent en une seule, ou viennent a se choquer l'une contre l'autre ! '
1 Tyndall, Belfast Address.
SELF THE SEAT OF CONSCIOUSNESS. 117
analysis will detect in the chemical combinations of a

nerve, in the tension, the position, and the motion of its
smallest particles, any cause why a wave of sound reaching
these should produce anything beyond a repetition of itself,
or call forth the sensation of a tone. None of the move
ments excited in the nervous tissue cease to be movements;
none are begotten anew into a flash of light, a note of
music, a sweet savour. For these last, therefore, there
must exist a peculiar ground and origin different from
these movements.'1
Nor can any modes of speaking about consciousness,
however carefully contrived, escape the testimony which
language itself bears, under all its forms of utterance, to
a subjective Eeality to whom this consciousness belongs,
and in whom it inheres. When, e.g., Mr. Huxley says
that 'matter and force are mere forms of consciousness,''2
he exchanges afterwards for this phrase, 'known to us as
facts of consciousness.'3 ' Consciousness ' implies a some
One conscious ; to whom these 'forms' are 'facts of con
sciousness.' Besides, 'consciousness' is not itself a Thing,
but a state of some Thing; and 'forms of consciousness'
must mean modifications in the state of this some Thing.
Consciousness is but as a mirror in which forms present
themselves ; and a mirror does not itself concentrate into
unity the manifold points which are reflected in it ; it
simply reflects these points to a focal centre in which they
converge as one picture. Whence Lotze argues, 'It is
not enough to admit Eealities which throw phenomena
upon this reflector ; the very fact of these phenomena
becoming reflected requires the admission of another
1 Lotze, Mikrokosm, ICO. 8 Iluxlev, Lay Sermons, 373.

3 Id. ibid. 374.
Eeality to which they are reflected, and by which they

are perceived. Light, e.g., is not a something spreading
around us ; it has existence only in the consciousness of a
Subject to whom it appears as light. And therefore, for
the fact of this consciousness—for the possibility of
anything whatever making an appearance at all, we must
require the recognition of a Subjective Reality in man.' 1
And even Mr. Lewes, though ignoring this 'Subjective
Eeality' at one moment, admits it at another. 'The
world,' he says, 'is the sum total of phenomena, and
phenomena are affections of consciousness.' True ; but
consciousness is itself an affection of a some Thing which
has consciousness ; it is the form, or mode, or state, of a
Subject affectible ; and to be conscious is not merely to
perceive phenomena, but to have a joint knowledge at
the same time (con-scio) that I, this Subject, am perceiving
them ; that they are phenomena presented to Me ; new
influences experienced by Me ; new states into which I
am thrown. This Mr. Lewes tacitly concedes when he
speaks of 'objects which do affect, or could affect,
Us.' For who and what is this Us ? If he were to cor
rect his slip by going back to his first phrase, and saying
' affect our consciousness,' still the Us lurks under that,
and will not be extruded from it. For ' our conscious
ness ' is the consciousness of Us : it is not consciousness
in the abstract (if such a thing there could be) ; it is ' the
consciousness experienced by Us ; ' and it implies there-
1 Lotze, Mikrokosm, 171 : It is not enough ' das Wesen entgegenzusetzen

das den Schein itirft ; ' ' zur Moglichkeit des Scheines tin anderes Wesen
hinzugedacht werden muss das ihn sieht .... Jede Erscheinung hat Dasein
nurin dem Bewusstsein dessenfiir welches sie ist ; und von diesem Bewusstsein
behaupten wir dass sie nothwendig nur der untheilbaren EinJieit eines Wesens
zukomrae.'
SELF THE SEAT OF SENSATION. 119
fore unavoidably a Thing whose consciousness it is. So

again, when Mr. Lewes says,1 ' All sensation is certain,
indisputable ; when I say " I see an apple there," I express
an indisputable fact of feeling, the fact that I am now
affected in a way similar to that in which I was for
merly affected when certain coloured shapes excited my
retina,' he cannot write this single sentence without the
starting up, and thrusting itself into view, no less than
six times, of this irrepressible I. The very 1 sensation '
that he sets forth as indisputable is nothing but the state
of a some Thing sensible ; the ' feeling ' is a state of a
some Thing that feels; the 'seeing' is the affection of a
Me, in whose retina the ' coloured shapes are excited ;'
who is ' affected in this particular way ;' who is the Subject
of this affection. At every turn, in every phrase, we are
forced back on the recognition of this Me, as a some
Thing which is, in feeling, the seat of the sensation; in
thought, the Thinker of the thought ; in acting, the
recipient of the ' excitement' and the incipient of its re
ciprocation. This ' I,' I say again, must always be assumed
(and is assumed spontaneously when men forget their
theories) as the Eecipient of all impressions ; the Per
cipient of all thoughts ; the Incipient of all action
roused by these impressions and these thoughts.2 And
1 Problems of Life, i.
3 ' L'esprit paien 6tait constarament parti de la conviction que les pense"es
et les volontes des hommes e"taient purement l'effet des forces inherentes
aux choses exteneures. Renversons cette conviction-la, mettons le non a
la place de Voui, et nous aurons juste le sentiment venu de la Judee
i—la tendance a regarder au dedans et a. sentir que nos conceptions et nos
decisions sont produites par quelque chose qui agit en nous, qu'elles
Bont les resultats des fonctions de notre etre.' (See James i. 13-15 ;
Matt. xii. 34, 35 ; Mark vii. 15.)—Milsand, in JR. d. d. M. Sept. 15, 1875.
Add ibid. 305 : ' Oette idt5e du Dieu des vivants qui e"tait sortie de la
conscience juive est positivement ce qui a trion]phe" meme dans le domaine de
if they reply (as Huxley does), 'Yet, after all, this is

assumption only ; no one has seen tins Me ; no one is
conscious of it;' then I rejoin, with Dean Mansel,
' When men argue that of mind no less than of matter,
of our Self, the thinking and sensitive Substance, no less
than of the extended .and moving substance, they are
wholly unconscious ; who, in this case, is the I, that am
conscious of sensations ? and how can I be conscious of
such sensations as mine ? It would be more accurate to
say, not that I am conscious of my sensations, but that
the sensation is conscious of itself (which is in fact pre
cisely the phraseology of Lewes when he writes, 'The
organism is conscious of the movement of the organism ! ') ;
' but, thus worded, the glaring absurdity of the theory
would carry with it. its own refutation.' Alas, no! Not
at least to the authors of such a theory ! Mr. Lewes does
not feel himself refuted by his own words ! ' The or
ganism ' here (we must not say ' His organism,' for then
the beaten-out ' I ' again creeps back) is not conscious of
its own absurdity !
The Facts, then, of our consciousness, taken as phe
nomena which must have a real substratum, oblige us
la philosophie laïque et de la science physique. Pendant des siècles—jusqu'à

David Hume en réalité—la raison moderne était restée plongée dans le
fétichisme du sens ou le dualisme de l'imagination : elle n'avait pu dépasser
l'idée de propriété et de qualité, l'idée que chaque chose possédait une
activité et une valeur à elle. . . . Mais dès aujourd'hui on pressent un moment
à venir où la science enlèvera à la nature son prétendu empire sur nous, où
elle comprendra du moins que l'être pensant est lui-même le siège des forces
actives d'où résultent ses mouvements, que les choses extérieures, au lieu d'être
les agents qui l'ébranlent, jouent simplement à son égard le rôle d'un obstacle
immobile, et que c'est lui-même qui crée ses perceptions aussi bien que ses
pensées et ses volontés, exactement comme c'est le torrent qui se donne à lui-
même, par sa propre impulsion, le rebond qui l'emporte, ou le nouveau cours
qu'il prend en se heurtant à un rocher.'
SELF THE SEAT OF CONCEPTION. 121
to believe in what Spencer terms 'a scientific Idea repre

sentative of a Eeality that cannot be comprehended ;' —
representative, namely, of ' that Personality of which
every man is conscious, and of which the existence is
to each a fact beyond all others the most certain.' 1 But
these same Facts of consciousness, which are the base of
all knowledge, whether of other substances without us or
of our own Substance within us,2 give us some intimation,
further, about (not indeed the essence, for this is inscrutable,
but) the nature of this Substance, as a Eeality conceptive,
concentrative and causative.
1. A conceptive Eeality. By which I mean that it is
distinguished, by its manifestations, from all other Eealities
on earth by the power of forming for itself mental pro
ducts out of the materials supplied to it by outward
objects. As an elementary substance in correlation with
all other elementary substances in the universe, and by
self-maintaining acts resisting their encroachment, Man is
incessantly generating modifications of himself in relation
to these encroachments ; and such self-modifications, from
the simplest to the most complex, are conceptive acts.
This conceptive activity takes place with reference to
even the simplest possible invasion of other substances,
that which produces in us a sensation. Each unit of sen
sation is no mere mechanical stamp and impress of a
foreigu force upon us, but is the result of our own inter-
1 Common parlance indicates this ' beyond all other things certain,' when
it says, ' As sure as I live ; as sure as 1 am.'
2 For ' observation/ though often distinguished from consciousness as
more to be trusted, is really no more than consciousness of things beyond us.
We neither see, feel, nor know anything but the phenomena in our own mind ;
all else, with respect to other men without us just as much as with respect
to the man, within us, is only inference.
nal reaction on such force. ' Sense,' says Cudworth, ' is

not a mere passion, or reception of the motion from bodies
without the sentient ; for if it were so, then would a
looking-glass and other dead things see ; but it is a
perception of a passion made upon the body of the sen
tient, and therefore hath something of the soul's own self-
activity in it.'1 Again : ' A mirror, or crystal globe, doth
not see or perceive anything ; whence we learn that
things are never perceived merely by their own force
and activity upon the percipient, but by the innate force,
power, and ability of that which perceives.'2
And this innate activity of the percipient is still more
manifest in the generation of conceptions more specifi
cally so called ; which are more than sensations, and are
formed from taking together, and binding into one whole,
bundles of sensations. These conceptions are still more
clearly no mere mechanical prolongation of vibrations of
nervous tissue, but a transformation of these merely phy
sical movements into mental phenomena totally unlike
them both as to quantity and quality. Unlike as to
quantity, for they possess not (what all molecular move
ments have) extension—in length, breadth, and thickness.
And unlike as to quality ; for they are not single units of
impression, but complex wholes of intellection gathered
out of such units ; whence their names of ' conceptions,'
from con-capio, to take up together, and ' intellective
acts,' from inter-lego, to choose out and arrange. Which
wholes of conception, moreover, are gathered up differently
by different minds, according to the difference of vigour,
bias, and culture with which each may be endowed. For
1 Cudworth, iii. 432. 8 Ibid. iii. 587.

SELF NOEROGENETIC. 123
no conception is the immediate impress of the bodily

vibration, but a mediate result of each man's independent
activity as determined by individual character. The Self
is never purely receptive, but always conceptive. As Cud-
worth says again : ' A sentient eye will be conscious, or
perceptive, of nothing of the mechanism of a watch, but
only be variously affected by different colours, figures,
forms;1 it is only the Mind or Intellect, superadded to
this sentient eye, and exerting its active and more com
prehensive power upon all which was passively perceived
by the sentient eye, that as it doth intellectually compre
hend the same things over again, proceeds further to
compare all the several parts of that ingenious machine.'
But it is accepted law that as every phenomenon
must have a relation to a non-phenomenal cause, so unlike
phenomena must be referred to unlike causes.- We term,
e.g., the cause of certain chemical phenomena 'oxygen,'
to distinguish it from the cause of certain other unlike
chemical phenomena which we term ' hydrogen.' By the
same rule, the phenomena of mental action (conceptions)
being altogether different from the phenomena of physical
action (vibrations) must be ascribed to a different cause.
And just as we call the cause of one set of chemical
phenomena Oxygen, from its power of generating Acidity,
and the cause of another set of chemical phenomena
Hydrogen, from its power of generating Water, so may
we, by a just analogy, call the cause of mental phenomena
Noerogen, from its power of generating Thought ; and
thus mark it off from all other Substances as a thinking,
or conceptive Eeality.
1 Just as on the retina of a dead man tlie impressions of the last ohject
presented to it are found remaining. A fact -which it has been proposed to
utilise in judicial investigations.
2. But the phenomena of consciousness present to us

this Eeality, not simply as conceptive but also as concen-
trative of its conceptions in the focus of its own indi
viduality ; so that they appear, amidst all their variety
and variations, but fluctuating states of one and the same
central Self. 'We find within us,' says John Smith,
' something which collects and unites all the perceptions
of our several senses ; in which they all meet as in a
centre. And of this Plotinus justly says, " That in which all
the several sensations meet, as so many lines drawn from
several points in the circumference, and which compre
hends them all, must needs be One." ' 1 And similarly Her-
bart : ' The soul is the very first Substance which Science
obliges us to recognise. It is that simple Entity which
we must posit (setzen) in order to account for the -whole
ness of the web of thought which we have before us when
we contemplate all our conceptions taken together, as
our own. The unity of this web of thought demands for
its explanation a Unit of subjective being at its base ;
and this Unit, because real' (i.e. not logical merely,
like the unity we ascribe to a tree), ' must be simple and
uncompounded.' 2 So also Janet : ' The unity of Self is
a point which admits no doubt. The only question is,.
Is this unity a resultant of composition, or a primary fact?
The Materialists affirm it to be a resultant ; but if so,
the consciousness which implies it is a resultant ; yet no
composition of all the consciousnesses of the universe will
ever form a one, single, individual, unique consciousness.
The unity we ascribe to things without us' (such as that
of a tree, a house, a statue, a human body) ' may, indeed, be
1 John Smith, Discourses, p. 82.
8 Herbart, Eticy. d. Philosophie, § 130.
SELF CAUSATIVE. 125
the result of combination of parts ; but this cannot hold

of that unity within us which perceives itself.'1 And so,
finally, Lotze : 'The simple fact of unity of consciousness
obliges us to recognise a supersensuous Substance which
transcends all perception ; a one individual Soul, as the
focus in which the whole play of the corporeal life has its
centre; an Atom, without extension, whose sole charac
teristic is intensity.'2
3. But this same conceptive and concentrative Subject,
or Unit of Eeality, by which all mental phenomena are
originated, and in which they all inhere as their common
centre, is also causative. By which I mean that it not
only receives impressions from the external world, trans
forms them into conceptions, and weaves them into one
web of consciousness; but reacts, through their vital energy,
so as to originate changes in the body attached to it, and
thereby in the sphere of external things.3 It is thus the
focus not only in which all the radii from other centres
converge, but from which all the radii of reaction on
these centres diverge. For though it can be said of no
finite Entity that it is absolutely self-determinant, seeing
that each Entity acts on each and God on all, yet each
separate Unit of being has in itself a relative self-determi
nation in its capacity for resisting external influences.
1 Janet, Mat. Cont. 129, 130 : ' lAinite", percue par le dehors, peut etre
le resultat d'une composition ; mais olle ne le peut pas, quand elle se percoit
elle-meme an dedans.'
2 Lotze, Mikrok. i. 180, 181 : ' Even the opinion which attributes mental
activity to matter must end in the conviction that matter also, if it is to
possess such life, must have underlying it a supersensuous (immaterial) in
dividuality, of which the only attribute is intensity.'
3 Cf. Milsand, in Revue d. d. M. Sept. 15, 1875, p. 306 : ' L'etre pensant
est lui-meme le siege des forces actives d'ou resultent ses mouvements ; c'est
lui-meme qui cree ses perceptions, ses pensees et ses volonth.'
Its power of self-preservation is a power of checking

every disturbance with which it is threatened from with
out. And we are conscious of this power ; conscious of
a spring of action in our Self that will never go down,
because a living being can never be wanting to its own
self-maintenance.1
"Whence Magy maintains : ' As to the union so much
insisted on of the cerebral dynamism with the thinking
soul, it simply amounts to this : that the soul is a sub
stance not altogether separate from the organism, nor
independent of it, but standing in intimate relation, as with
all nature so specially with that particular system of forces
to which in the realm of nature it is most closely attached.2
But we must not, on this account, identify the soul with
its organism, any more than we may identify oxygen with
hydrogen because these two gases, when united, lose the
properties which they manifested when apart.' And
again: 'What are attractions and repulsions which are
not the attractions and repulsions of some Things ? Cer
tain philosophers of our day think to comprehend move
ments without movers—movements which wander about
through space without having their origin in any Things.
1 This is Cicero's argument : ' Sentit animus se moveri : quod quum

sentit una sentit se vi sua, non aliena, moveri ; nee accidere posse ut ipse
unquam a se deseratur.' (Tusc. i. 23.) ' Quumque semper agitetur animus,
nec principium motus habeat, quia se ipse moveat, ne finem quidem habitu-
rum esse motus, quia nunquam se ipse sit relicturus.' (De Senect. xxi.) Comp.
Young, Night Thoughts, 9 :
' The triumph of my soul is—that I am ;
And therefore that I may be.'
3 Cf. Butler, Analogy, i. 1 : ' There is not any probability that our organs
of sense are any more than instruments which the living persons ourselves
make use of; nor, consequently, that we have any other kind of relation to
them than what we have to any other foreign matter formed into instruments
of perception and motion, suppose a microscope or a staff.'
FORCE BORN OF JUXTAPOSITION. 127
For "Things," say these idolaters of Force, "are mere

chimeras." Be it so ! But forces with no substratum,
with nothing of which they are forces, are quite as much
chimeras I'1
Nay, Herbart has shown that Force has no meaning
or existence but as the result of some juxtaposition of
two or more Things. ' No Entity is originally in itself
alone a Force ; else its simple essence would be clogged
by an addition—that of acting beyond itself—which
must be supposed inherent in it and yet which cannot be
thought except in relation to something not itself. Con
sequently, though each Entity may display itself, in
various ways, as Force, it has no inherent Force, much
less a multiplicity of Forces, within itself. Gravity, im
pulse, cohesion, elasticity, all require some organisation,
or juxtaposition of elements, for their production.' 2
And thus we are constrained to recognise in every
man a some Thing, distinct from the things by which he
is surrounded, which impress him and are impressed by
him ; 3 and this Thing as essentially conceptive, concentra-
tive, causative ; translating the impressions made on it
through the body into thoughts ; weaving these thoughts
into one web of thought ; creating out of these thoughts,
1 Magy, De la Science et de la Nature.

* Herbart, Hauptpunkte d. Metaphys. 38-43.
' Comp. I. H. Fichte, Anthrop. 181: ' The soul is an individual, perma
nent, intelligent Substance, existing in relation with all other substances, and
in this relation constructing for itself its own time and place Not,
however, as dividing itself into particles of time and space, but as present
with its whole force in each particle of time and space ; just as the forces of
Magnetism, Electricity, and Light are indivisibly present with their total
energy in every particle of bodies ; the smallest portion of every Magnet (e.y.)
indicating at every moment its north and south pole and its point of indiffer
ence, and the smallest vibrations of Sound and Light spreading through all
things, so that in every the minutest particle these forces are interfused.'
thus inwoven, new thoughts ; and by the energy of these

thoughts affecting in return the body which has been the
occasion of them, and therewith the outer world.1
From which Facts, as our base, we draw of necessity

a further conclusion respecting Man. This namely, that
as a Eeality underlying all the phenomena of conscious
ness his Self must, amidst all changes of this consciousness,
be ever permanent. Since the Person, whom we indicate
by the word ' I,' is a simple Unit of being, one of the
irreducible elements of the universe, this Unit can never,
amidst all the modifications which take place in it
through the influence of other Things, through its own
processes of growth, and through the variations of the
surrounding medium in which it may be placed, be in the
slightest degree deprived of its own durability. For as
an elementary portion of universal being it shares that
persistency of existence and of force which has been
proved to be the prerogative of all elements. We can
not predicate of it, any more than of them, either place
or time ; nor can its destiny be accomplished in any one
portion of time, such as the present short life, because it is
in itself timeless. This is the conclusion of not merely
philosophical speculation, but exact science. ' The Soul
(says Herbart) is an indivisible Entity, of which we can-
1 If you object, ' How can the soul, so different from the body, be affected
by the body, or affect it in return ? ' read Lewes's note in his Hist, of Phil.
iii. 138 : ' Spinoza's fallacy, that " of things which have nothing in common
one cannot be the cause of the other," has been one of the most influential
corrupters of philosophical speculation (see Mill, Logic, ii. 376). The aeser-
tion is that only like can act upon like. This was the groundwork of the
system of Anaxagoras. But although it is true that like produces (causes)
like, it is also as true that like produces unlike : thus fire produces pain when
applied to our bodies, explosion when applied to gunpowder, charcoal when
applied te wood ; all these effects are unlike the cause.'
DEATH ONLY A CHANGE OF FORM. 129
not say it is in place or time (irgendwo und irgendwann).

Its immortality therefore follows as a matter of course,
because of the timelessness of all Entities.' And again:
' All doubts about the immortality of the soul arise from
confounding with it the physical life which resides in
each particle of the body, and the mental life which pre
sents itself to us in the mind. The soul is not itself this
mental life, but the seat in which it has its play ; and this
seat of the mental phenomena continues in being when
all the bodily lives with which it is connected here have
been detached from it ; continues, moreover, with what
ever amount of mental life it may have created for itself
while resident in the body ; continues in possession of all
those intrinsic states and modes of being which no sub
stance that has once acquired them can ever part with.' 1
For ' the destiny of man can never be restricted within
the confines of our earthly existence, seeing that the soul
never dies. Death is but the renewal of its youth.' 2
And this is re-echoed by I. H. Fichte : ' The question and
the marvel turns not on the continuance of our being ; for
this is involved in the fact that we already are in being,
and are spiritual (real) Entities, dominant over the world
of phenomena and only for a time incorporate within it.'
' In .death, therefore, the soul only strips off one parti
cular form of self-manifestation. To die means simply to
1 So also I. H. Fichte, Psych. 393 : ' Every simple conception is a special

act of self-maintenance in the soul. It includes an inner change of state, tho
result of which can never be undone, because it has affected the whole web
of its existence so as to qualify its future being. But the soul is a perma
nent thing ; therefore this permanence must be shared by the whole tissue of
its activities and their results. They remain an indestructible portion of
their indestructible source and seat.'
2 Herbart, Lehrb. d. rsych. § 199, 110 ; Ency. d. Phil. § 141 ; Lehrb. d.
Psych. § 246.
K
become no longer perceptible to ordinary sense ; just in

the same way as the real Entities which constitute the
ultimate elements of body are imperceptible to sense.
And surely we have a right to claim for the soul, which
is undeniably the base of all mental phenomena, the
same invisible continuance in being which is conceded to
every simple chemical element. The soul, just like these
elements, is by nature invisible, and only under certain
conditions incorporates itself, and produces corporeal
phenomena. To conclude therefore from the mere ap
pearance of death, that the soul is destroyed, would be
just the same fallacy as to conclude from the dissolution
of any chemical compound that those supersensuous real
elements which demonstrably lie at the base of this com
pound are by its dissolution destroyed.' 1 And so Pro
fessor Balfour Stewart : ' A simple elementary atom is
truly an immortal being, and enjoys the privilege of re
maining unaltered and essentially unaffected amid the
most powerful blows that can be dealt against it. It is
probably in a state of ceaseless activity and change of
form, but it is nevertheless always the same.' 2 With
1 I. H. Fichte, Anthropologic, § 180, § 134. Cf. J. Smith, of Cambridge,

p. 66 : ' No substantial and individual thing ever perisheth.' And Young,
Night Thoughts, vi. :
' The world of matter, with its various forms,
All dies into new life. Life born from death
Rolls the vast mass, and shall for ever roll.
No single atom, once in being, lost,
With change of counsels charges the Most High.
What hence infers Lorenzo ? Can it be ?
Matter immortal f and get spirit diet
Above the nobler shall less noble rise ?
Shall man alone, for whom all else revives,
No resurrection know P '
2 Balfour Stewart, Conservation of Energg, p. 7.
REAL BEING IMPERISHABLE. 131
which compare the assertion of Carlyle : ' Only the time

shadows are perishable ; the real Being of whatever was,
and whatever is, and whatever will be, is even now and
for ever ! And the splendid testimony of the Bhagavad
Gita : ' The soul neither killeth nor is killed ; you cannot
say of it, It hath been, It is about to be, or It is to
be hereafter. It is a thing without birth. It is ancient,
constant, and eternal. As a man throweth away old gar
ments and putteth on new, so the soul, having quitted its
old mortal frames, entereth into others which are new.2
The weapon divideth it not ; the fire burneth it not ; the
wind drieth it not away. It is indivisible, inconsumable,
incorruptible ; it is universal, permanent, immovable. Its
former state of being is unknown ; its middle is evident ;
its future is not to be discovered.' 3
1 Carlyle, Sartor, 309.

' Compare 2 Cor. v. 1-4 : ' If our earthly house, our present dwelling,
be dissolved, we have a divine building, eternal, in the heavens ; so that we
shall not be unclothed, hut clothed upon.'
3 See Maurice, Moral and Met. Phil. i. 37, 38.
PAET IV.
THE SUPREME BEAUTY,

Kara(jipovelv rav aoparwv, aXX* eK rutv yivopevav Ttfv dvvuptV avrtou Kara-
lxavdavovra ripav ro daipovtov.—Socrates, Xen. Mem. iv. 3, 6.
' We must not think lightly of things unseen ; but learning from the
facts that take place around us how great is their power, we must venerate
the divine in them.'
' Tunc naturae rerum gratias ago, quum illam non ah hac parte video
quae publica est, sed quum secretiora ejus intravi ; quum disco, quse universi
materia sit, quis auctor sit aut custos ; quid sit Deus ; totus in se intendat,
an ad nos aliquando respiciat ; faciat quotidie aliquid an semel fecerit.'—
Seneca, Nat. Qu. Preef. ii.
CHAPTER I.
TEE BEING OF GOB.
We have seen that all the facts of visible existence oblige

us to recognise as their necessary correlatives, invisible
Essences. Metaphysics is the indispensable complement
of physics. For the study of Nature brings us unavoid
ably on to realities lying at the base of all material
phenomena ; and the study of Man, to a Eeality which is
the source and centre of all mental phenomena.
But now we are drawn onward to convictions tran
scending these. For the realities we recognise in Nature
and in Men are evidently not unconditioned. They are
shown, by all their phenomena, to be in constant inter
action, interdependent, limiting and limited by each
other. And this interdependence and mutual limitation
is also seen to be under the influence of certain laws of
combination, of attraction and repulsion, which they in
stinctively obey. They are therefore, clearly, none of
them primary, independent entities. They are but secon
dary, dependent, regulated ; each with its sphere of in
dividual action, and its share of individual energy and
influence, but no one comprehending all the rest and
136 THE SUPREME REALITY.
ordering their goings. Consequently, from all these

realities, so manifestly only interactive, limited, secon
dary, and dependent each on each, we must ascend in
thought to a primal Eeality which originates, contains,
and controls them all. The being of God is involved in
the being of the world. Nay, it is involved in the being
of each individual in the world. In the fact that / am
is contained the fact that God is. For consciously, I am
not of myself, and all other grounds to which I might
trace my being—human ancestors, animals, the earth—-
are equally not of themselves ; therefore, I and all these
other grounds must have an ultimate ground in which we
live and move and have our being. As imperatively as
I myself and all other phenomena of the visible world,
with our limitations of place and time, demand the recog
nition of realities underlying and producing them, which
realities constitute an invisible world beyond the limits of
place and time; so imperatively does the limited, condi
tioned, yet regulated play of these realities themselves
demand the recognition of a transcendent Eeality, an
Ens realissimum, unlimited, unconditioned, by whom
they must be adjusted and actuated, from whom they
must come, and in whom they must perpetually have
their being.1
We are brought therefore now to inquire into the
Being of this primal Eeality as the Ground of the universe ;
1 ' Genius studies the causal thought, and far back in the womb of things
sees the rays parting from one orb, that diverge, ere they fall by infinite
diameters. Genius watches the Monad through all his marks, as he performs
the metempsychosis of nature. Genius detects through the fly, through the
caterpillar, through the grub, through the egg, the constant type of the indi
vidual ; through countless individuals the fixed species ; through many species
the genus ; through all genera the steadfast type ; through all the kingdoms
of organised life the eternal unity.'—Emerson, Essays, i. p. 13.
GOD AS CAUSE. 137
his character in relation to this universe, and his procedure

in the development of this universe.
The Being of a primal Eeality is forced on us by the

necessity of finding a Cause for all the secondary causes,
and a Life for all the dependent lives, which fill the
universe.
1. The idea of Cause is inwrought in the mind of
man. ' All science,' Mr. Statham acknowledges, ' goes
upon the theory of causation. It warns us never to
regard changes as uncaused, even though their causes may
escape us.' 1 And so Mr. Spencer : ' That there can be
no change without a cause, or, in the words of Mayer,
that " a force cannot become nothing, and just as little can
a force be produced from nothing," is that ultimate dictum
of consciousness on which all physical science rests. It
is involved alike in the assertion that a body at rest will
continue at rest ; that a body in motion must continue in
motion, at the same velocity, in the same line, if no force
acts upon it ; that any divergent motion given to it must
be in proportion to the deflecting force ; and that action
and reaction are equal and opposite.'2 Therefore, under
the guidance of this idea, ' beginning with causal agents
imperfectly known, and progressing to causal agents less
known, we come at last in thought to a universal causal
agent posited as not to be known at all.' 3
2. And as all the movement in the universe thus lands
1 Statham, From Old to New, 121 : ' Science is the theory of -causation.
It warns us, therefore, not to regard changes, or conditions, as uncaused, even
though their causes may escape us.' For it is ' a most wonderful and unac
countable fact of our nature, that having sensations we desire to account for
these sensations.' (153.)
2 Spencer, Essays, iii. 316. 3 Ibid. iii. 200.
us in the conviction of a primal Cause, so equally all the

life in the universe lands us in the conviction of a primary
Life. Life is spread everywhere around us ; life we are
conscious of in ourselves. But this life in ourselves (we
are equally conscious) is not our own, our own produc
tion, in our own power, at our own disposal. And the
same we conclude concerning all the life around us. It
is no possession of the things that enjoy it. It comes
and goes ; it springs into sight, and vanishes from sight.
It is an intermittent stream. The Source, therefore, of
this stream must be deeper down in the abyss of being.
Now, on this truth of the Being of God the revela

tions of the Bible are in perfect accordance with the fore
going inductions of reason. It places, in fact, all true
wisdom in the recognition of God. It raises Philosophy
into Theosophy. ' The fear of the Lord, that is wisdom ;
the knowledge of the Holy One, that is understanding.' 1
The idea of Cause it insists on as the very first of the
convictions which are due to reasoning Faith. ' Faith is
the assurance of things not seen ; and by means of such
Faith we come to the conclusion (voovptv) that the worlds
were framed by the word of God ; ' 2 that the whole sphere
of the visible (to ^Xeiropevov) owes its existence, not to
phenomenal antecedents, however far you trace them
back, but to the simple Will of One ' who spake and it
was done; who commanded and it stood fast.'3 And
equally does Scripture recognise the idea of Life as
actuating all things. ' In God we live, and move, and
are.' 'In his hand is the life of every living thing.'
1 Prov. ix. 10. s Ileb. xi. 1, 3. Psalm xxxiii. 9.

GOD AS LIFE. 139
' He giveth to all, life and breath, and all things.' ' He
is the fountain of life.' He alone ' hath life in Himself.'
' He only hath immortality.' Of Him alone can it be
said, ' Before the mountains were brought forth, or ever
Thou hadst formed the earth and the world, even from
everlasting to everlasting, Thou art God ! ' And He
alone could claim as his distinctive title, • I am what I
am!'1
But the Bible view of God is essentially different from
that of a bare mechanical Cause. Mechanism conceives
God as an extra-mundane Artificer, who, having once put
out of hand the universe, now leaves it to work its way
according to its functional laws. But Scripture presents
Him as not only eminent over all things, but immanent
in all things. ' Do not I fill heaven and earth ? saith the
Lord.' 2 ' Whither can I go from thy Spirit, and whither
can I flee from thy presence ? If I ascend up into
heaven (the highest imaginable point above me), Thou art
there ; if I make my bed in the under world (the lowest
imaginable point beneath me), behold Thou art there ! If
I take the wings of the morning (fly to the farthest East)
or dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea (take refuge in
the farthest West), even there shall thy hand lead me and
thy right hand hold me.' 3 And because of the imma-
1 Acts xvii. 28 ; Job xii. 10 ; Acts xvii. 25 ; Psalm xxxvi. 9 ; John v.

26 ; 1 Tim. vi. 16 ; Psalm xc. 2 ; Exod. iii. 14.
s Jeremiah xxiii. 24. Cf. Seneca, De Bene/, iv. 8 : ' Quocunque te flexeris,
ibi ilium videbis occurrentem tibi ; nihil ah illo vacat : opus suum ipse im~
plet. Ergo nihil agis qui te negas Deo debere sed nSturse : quia nec natura
sine Deo est, nec Deus sine natura.'
8 Psalm cxxxix. 7-10. Note the similar passage in Plato, De Leg. x.
005 : ' Never can you be forgotten by the Divine Justice. Not if you dip
down into the depths of the earth ; not if you soar up into the heights of
heaven ; not if you cleave to this world ; not if you take refuge in the under
world ; not if you can find any other place more inaccessible still.'
nence of God in all things, as their primal life, He is

also operative on all things, as their primal cause. All
things are actuated by his power. ' He doeth according
to his will in the army of heaven and among the in
habitants of the earth, and none can stay his hand or say
to Him, What doest thou ? ' Nothing can take place
without his origination. ' Are not two sparrows sold for
a farthing ? Yet not one of them falleth to the ground
without your Father ; nay, the very hairs of your head are
all numbered.' So far is Scripture from the notion of
bare mechanical cause.1
And equally is it far from the notion of a blind dy
namical life, surging up from no one knows whence, and
urging itself onward by an impetus, unintelligent and un
intelligible, to no one knows whither. For the Bible
idea of the Spirit that pervades the universe is not that
of mere blind life, but of intelligent life. It is a life
inseparable from Intelligence, working everywhere and
always with intelligence, so that, as Sir John Herschel
says, ' the atoms have a presence of mind.' 2 It is in
fact the energising of intelligence. For when ' the
Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters, God
said (the spoken word, \6yo<s Trpo(f>opiK.6<;, bringing out
the hidden Reason, Xdyos ivSiddeTos), Let there be
light, and there was light ! ' The mechanical theory of
the universe is practically Atheism ; it leaves us ' without
God in the world.' The dynamical theory is Pantheism ;
1 Dan. iv. 35 ; Matt. x. 29, 30. Comp. Blasche, Das Rose, 141 : ' The
Will that rules the whole of things cannot operate from without them. It
must work within them. For the Spirit which breathes life into this whole
is everywhere present in each particle thereof ; and the Life of the whole is
the Life of each.'
2 Herschel, Scientific Lectures, p. 458.
GOD AS INTELLIGENCE. 141
it makes the world God. The Bible theory is Enpanti-

theism ; it declares God immanent in all the works of
his hands,1 the intelligent Cause of all causation, and Life
of all life.2
Just this is the truth which the deepest thinkers of

ancient times have reached by their own meditations.
1 This immanence Quintilian expresses by terming God ' Spiritum omni

bus mundi partibus immistum ; ' and the Stoics, ' Deus mundo permistus,'
and ' Divina Katio toti mundo insita.' See Cudworth, ii. 288. Cf. Wil
kinson (The Human Body, xxviii.) : ' The natural theologians are clay
patronising the Potter, and bringing us at best to an infinite handicraftsman.
This is anthropomorphism, or the distillation of God out of our own limits
and thoughts, our own space and time. The Paleys, Broughams, and so on,
seem to have been satisfied with this vulgarity of heathenism. But a Scien
tific Natural Theology accepts the Living Lord of Revelation, and consists in
tracing the correspondency of his revealed attributes in the sciences ; being
in effect the synthesis of the knowledge of the real God with the sciences of
real nature. The evidences of God's existence do not consist in demonstra
tions of artistry and carpentry, but in symbols of spirit and love pervading
creation. The proof that nature is full of Deity lies in its power to soften
the heart and moisten the eyes of the unbelieving world.' But still it must
be ever borne in mind that when we speak of ' immanence,' ' infusion,' or
' diffusion,' this is merely borrowed conventional language. Force cannot
properly be spoken of as ' repandue ou concentree, enveloppee ou envelop-
pante, juxtaposee ou a distance ' (Magy, 189). Whence the non-sense of
questions about the place of the Soul, or the place of God in Nature. God is
not truly ' diffused ' through Nature ; or ' enveloped ' in Nature ; or ' envelop
ing' Nature (as the womb envelopes the child, which is Jeremy Taylor's
image) ; or ' out of Nature ; or ' in ' Nature. It is enough that He is with
Nature, or rather that Nature is inconceivable without God ; because Nature
is a series of effects which cannot be conceived without the joint conception of
their Cause ; ' partout ou un changement s'opere dans la figure des corps nous
supposons aussitot qu'une force est intervenue ' (Magy, 187).
3 This distinction is well stated by Schelling (as quoted by Lewes, Hist.
Ph. iii. 146) : ' God is that which exists in itself : the finite is that which is
necessarily in another. Things, therefore, are not only in degree, or through
their limitations, different from God, but toto genere. Whatever their rela
tion to God on other points, they are absolutely divided from Him on this :
that they exist in another, and He is self-existent or original. From this
difference it is manifest that all individual finite things taken together
cannot constitute God ; since that which is in its nature derived cannot be
one with its original.'
While one set of philosophers looked on the world as ever

self-developing, and another as once for all put out of
hand and thenceforth uncared for, the more profound
enquirers discerned in the world's development a de
veloping Mind; and in all its activities an actuating
Force. Thus Plato states ' the earliest reasoning' (ffaXaios
Xdyos) to have held that 'Zeus is the beginning, Zeus
the middle, and all things have their birth from Zeus.'1
Anaxagoras finds the shaping force of the world, not in
this world itself, nor in physical potencies, such as love
and hatred, but in a Mind which brought all things into
order;2 which Mind is pure, unmixed, and subject only
to itself. And Socrates says : ' There is a divinity so
great and glorious that he at once sees everything, hears
everything, is present in everything, and takes care of
everything.'3 This divinity, Xenophanes declares, is
'all eye, all ear, all intelligence;'4 and, 'without the
labour of thinking, moves all things by the force of this
intelligence.'5 This divinity Aristotle terms 'the prime
mover,'6 always imparting motion, but himself immov
able.7 This divinity the Stoics call ' the working Force'8
in the universe ; and ' the Spirit which pervades the
whole of things,'9 diffusing everywhere his 'generative
1 Zeis apx^> Zeus pea-o-a, Aws 8' iK iravra rervKTai.

3 O/coia eorai, 7ravra SieKOo-prfo-e voos.
3 Xenophon, Mem. i. 4, 4 : yvao-rf To Be'iov on Too-ovTov Ko.1 ToiovTov eo-riv,
&o-d' apa iravra opav, Kai iravra aKoveiv, #eai iravraxov irapeivai, Kai Spa irdvrav
'iripe\e'urdai avrovs.
* ov\os opa, ov\os 8e voei, ov\os 8e r aKovei.
5 dXX' dirdvevde irovoiov voov (ppevl iravra KpaSalvei.
6 To irparov Kivovv.
7 Kivet, oi Kivovpevov. . . . ear/ ri Kivovv, airb didvrfrov.—Met. xii. 7.
8 To ttoioGv
9 To irvevpa SirjKov Si o\ov Koo-pov. Just in the same sense as the soul
pervades the body, and is 8i oXov o-aparos Strjxov.
GOD AS FORCE. 143
thoughts.'1 And of this divinity Antoninus says: 'All

things come of Thee, exist in Thee, return to Thee.'2
Nor is modern philosophy less necessitated to admit

the universal presence of this primary Force. ' Science,'
says the Duke of Argyll, ' in its doctrine of the conser
vation of energy, and the convertibility of forces, is
getting firm hold of the idea that all kinds of force are
but forms, or manifestations, of some one central Force,
issuing from some one central head of power.'3 'Force,'
says Spencer, ' is the ultimate of ultimates. Matter and
motion are differently conditioned manifestations of Force.
And Force can be regarded only as a certain conditioned
effect of the Unconditioned Cause—as the active reality
indicating to us an Absolute Reality by which it is imme
diately produced.'4 And Herbart has fully shown how
the necessity of tracing up all things to this ' ultimate of
ultimates ' arises from the very notion of Force. His argu
ment is this :—
The notion of. Force is gathered from the changes we
observe in the forms of things. And the ordinary view
is that these changes are caused by forces inherent in
the substances whose phenomenal marks become thus
varied. But this is mere supposition. For, though you
perceive that on striking steel with a flint a spark follows,
the only fact before you is the following of the spark
upon the striking. You see no force flowing in upon the
steel to produce the spark. And the assumption of such
1 Xdyot (nrepiMTiKoi.
2 Anton, iv. 23 : ex o-o0 iravra, Iv trol irdvra, ds o-e iravra ; and ix. 39 :
diro pias irrryffs voepas iravra.
s Reign of Law, ] 23.
* Spencer, First Principles, 235, 236.
a force is not only unwarranted, but is clogged with

insuperable difficulties.
For (1) suppose this Force to spring from within the
substance which exhibits change of form ; then this
' springing ' is itself a change in that substance ; and
since all change implies a cause for it, and cause must be
conceived as Force, then for the origin of this change
you must assume beneath this supposed Force a deeper
Force. And so on without end.
Or (2) suppose the Force to spring from without the
substance which exhibits change, and to come down
upon it from some other substance brought into relation
with it; then the 'springing' of Force from that other
substance constitutes a change therein ; and so for this
change, also, there must be assumed a cause ; and for
this cause another Force ; and so on without end.1
These difficulties have led many to drop the notion of
Force as the cause of Change, and to stop short at the
changes themselves. Thus Saigey says, ' Force is nothing
but the cause of motion. But the cause of motion is
itself motion. We must be content, therefore, to affirm
that atoms and motion constitute the universe.'2 Where
he falls into the same ' regressus ad infinitum ' as those
who have recourse to the notion of Force. For the
question necessarily recurs, if motion is the cause of
motion, what is the cause of that causative motion ? And
so on without end. Besides that, as Mr. Lewes well
observes, ' Motion is not a thing ; it is only a condition
of things. Motion and rest are only names expressive of
conditions.' 3
1 Herbart, Lehrb. d. Phil. § 106. * Saigey, Physique Moderne, p. 12, 21.

3 Lewes, Hist, of Phil. 1st ed. i, 99.
GOD TRANSCENDENT. 145
And so we are driven on again to seek an answer to

the questions, Whence comes Change ? and whence springs
Force? beyond the sphere of the elementary substances
of the universe and of the movements which take place
among them, and to recognise a Somewhat which tran
scends them all. ' The ultimate datum,' says Spencer,
' must be that of which Change is the manifestation—
namely, Force. But then the nature of this indecom
posable element is inscrutable. Let x, and y, and z repre
sent Matter, Motion, and Force. Then, we may ascertain
the values of x and y in terms of z ; but the value of z
can never be found ; z is the unknown quantity which
must for ever remain unknown. Getting rid of all com
plications, and contemplating pure Force, we are irresis
tibly compelled, by the relativity of our thought, to
vaguely conceive some Unknown Force as the correlative
of the known force.' 1 ' And thus we see,' adds his
expositor, Mr. Fiske, ' that scientific enquiry, proceeding
from its own resources, and borrowing no hints from
theology, leads to the conclusion that the universe is the
manifestation of a Divine Power which is in no wise iden
tifiable with the universe, or interpretable in terms of
" blind force," or of any other phenomenal manifesta
tion.'2 At this 'Unknown Force,' this 'Unconditioned
Cause,' this ' Absolute Eeality,' this ' Divine Power,' as
the actuating Principle of all things, we must, whatever
path we take, at last arrive. It is the vanishing point of
all the lines of research. ' Of Him, and through Him,
and to Him, are all things !'3 ' Thee, most glorious, most
1 Spencer, First Principles, 236. 2 Fiske, Cosmic Phil. ii. 407.

3 Rom. xi. 36.
L
mighty, the ground of all nature, the law of all move

ment, without whom nothing takes place in the universe
—Thee, under every name, do we adore ! ' 1
1 See the Hymn of Cleanthes, which Dr. Doddridge calls ' beyond com
parison the purest and finest piece of natural religion in the whole world of
Pagan antiquity, containing nothing unworthy of an inspired pen ' (On Acts
xvii. 28) :
Kvdurr d&avdrwv, iroKvwiwpe, irayKpares aid,
ZeC, (pvo-e(as apxryye, vopov pira irdvra Kvfiepvav—
Ov8e Ti yiyverai epyov eVt \dovl o-ov 8i'â, daipov.
147
CHAPTEE n.
THE CHARACTER OF GOB.
1. Scripture Doctrine.
Not only is the Being of God, as the Ground of the
Universe, declared in the Bible, but also his Character
as displayed in this Universe. And herein Holy Scripture
distinguishes between what we cannot know of God—
namely, what He is in Himself ; and what we can know
of God—namely, what He is in relation to this world.
1. In Himself God is unknowable. In fact, all
Essences, because essences, are unknowable. That ele
mentary substance which lies at the base of each man's
mental phenomena, those elementary substances which
lie at the base of physical phenomena, must ever be
removed from all perception. We must say of them what
John of Damascus says of angels : 'They are supersensu-
ous entities, ever active, self-moving, incorporeal, whose
essence God alone can know.' The Bible constantly
insists on this inscrutableness of the Deity. ' No one hath
seen God at any time.' ' He dwelleth in the light that
no one can approach to ; Him no one hath seen nor can
see.' ' Thou canst not see my face, for there shall no
one see Me and live.' ' Canst thou by searching find out
i 2
God ? find out the Almighty completely ? He is high as

heaven, what canst thou do ? Deeper than Hades, what
canst thou know ? The measure of Him is longer than
the earth, and broader than the sea.'1
2. But though thus unknowable in Himself, yet this
hidden Ground of all being, in relation to the world
in which He lives, is knowable. The distinction is beauti
fully symbolised in the splendid imagery of the Book of
Exodus, xxxiii. 18-23. The Being of God had been
proclaimed to Moses, in the Bush, as that of the living
God—the One who alone has life in Himself ; who lives
because He lives.2 But Moses wants more than this ; he
longs to understand more clearly this self-existent Being ;
not only to hear his voice, but to be admitted to his
presence, to behold his splendour : ' I beseech Thee,
show me thy glory.' Now, what is the reply? 'As
suredly no ! I will give you clearer manifestations of
my character ; of my disposition in relation to you ; I
will make all my goodness pass before you ; I will bring
out more plainly my name (or characteristic quality) as
gracious and merciful; but my face, the glow of my
burning essence—this no one can see and live ; the in
tolerable splendour would burn you up ! ' 3 Then the
mysterious speaker adds, ' Betire into the hollow of that
1 John i. 18; 1 Tim. vi. 16; Exod. xxxiii. 20; Job xi. 7-9.
3 Exod. iii. 14, on which see Coleridge.
3 Mark the contrast between the Jehovah who refuses, and the Jove who
grants, unwarranted desires. When Semele was ambitious to behold his
glory, the fatal craving was as fatally complied with :
' Neque enim non hsec optasse, neque ille
Non jurasse potest ; '
and so she perished by the inrush of divine splendour :
- ' Corpus mortale tumultus
Non tulit tethereos, donisque jugalibus arsit.'
Ovid, Met. iii. 297.
CHARACTER SHOWN BY CONDUCT. 149
rock : take shelter in its deep recess, while this devouring

flame of glory passes by ; so shall you be permitted a safe
glimpse of its "back parts" (its retiring extremities), mildly
shining on you like the rays of the setting sun ! ' There
is the symbol of God's way of dealing with us as to the
revelation of Himself. This figures what He can and
does unveil to us of his character or disposition towards
the world of which He is the ground and life.
Now all notion of Character comes solely from what
we are conscious of in ourselves, and transfer by analogy
to those around us. We find our own Character to con
sist, more or less, in Intelligence, or discernment of what
is fit ; in Justness, or love of what is fit (i.e. of Law
restrictive and retributive) ; and in Benevolence, or desire
to do what is fit for the good of all around us. And in
proportion as we see in the doings of other beings signs
of such qualities, we give them a character for Intelli
gence, Justness, and Benevolence.
But God, from all that we Lave been considering, has
become to us a Being as real as the persons. around us;
as real as our own Self. Just in proportion, therefore,
as we see in His doings in the world the signs of similar
qualities, we assign to Him a Character like our. own.
We judge of the Workmaster by his works. In- this
way it is that the Psalmist argues, ' The heavens declare
the glory of God, and the firmament showeth his handy
work; without speech, without language, still their testi
mony spreads throughout all lands.'1 And Paul affirms,
' That which is knowable concerning God has become
unveiled to all men, for God has laid it open ; '—and how ?
by the works which He has wrought : ' for the otherwise
1 Psalm xix, 1-4.
invisible mind of God, being judged of by considering the

things that He has made, becomes thus clearly discerned.' 1
Then, descending from the general to the particular,
the Bible deduces from the specific tokens of the things
made the specific character of their Maker, as intelligent,
just, and good. As intelligent, for the Psalmist exclaims,
' 0 Lord, how manifold are thy works, and in wisdom
hast Thou made them all ! '2 And the Book of Proverbs,
rising from all particulars to embrace the universal Whole,
declares, ' The Lord by wisdom hath founded the earth ;
by understanding hath He established the heavens ; by his
knowledge the depths are broken up, and the clouds drop
down the dew ! ' 3 Diverse as all things show themselves,
in their infinite variety, yet united in their correlation
with each other, and working out together a preconceived
result, they manifest that well-considered adaptation of
means to ends which we term Wisdom. Then, as to
that principle of justness or order, which, apportioning
to everything its place and function, not only restricts it
from invading the place and function of all other things,
but avenges such invasion, the Bible is full of passages
concerning God's original appointment and continuous
vindication of this order throughout the physical and
moral world. ' Who hath laid the measures of the earth,
or who hath stretched the line upon it ? Who hath shut
up the sea with doors, and said, Hitherto shalt thou come,
and here shall thy proud waves be stayed ? ' 4 ' All his
works are truth ' (i.e. retributive), ' and his ways justice ;
and those who walk in pride will He abase.' 5 ' Consider
the work of God : who can better his adjustments ? Who
1 Eom. i. 20. s Psalm civ. 24 3 Proverbs iii. 10, 20.
4 Job xxxviii. 5, 8, 11, 5 Daniel iv. 87.
GOD THE ARCHETYPE OF MIND. 151
can make that straight which seems to us crooked? For

God hath set the one over against the other to balance
each other, so that man can never make things more
complete.' 1 Then as to the benevolence of God—his dis
position to give what is fit for the good of all his crea
tures—we are assured that ' the Lord is good to all, and
his mercies are over all his works ; ' that He has not left
Himself without ample testimony to this feature of his
character, seeing that ' He is always doing good ; giving
us rain from heaven and fruitful seasons, and filling our
hearts with food and gladness.' 2
Nor is it external testimony alone that is given to the

character of God. We have sufficient intimations of it
in what we find in our own hearts. From the facts of
consciousness within us, as well as from the facts of
nature without us, we cannot but argue onward from
effects to causes ; from things known to their source in
the Unknown. Everywhere the principle holds good
that as the streams so must be the fountain, as the pro
duct so the producer. Manifestations, therefore, however
obscure, in the human mind must be traced up to their
origin in the Divine Mind. As God is the Author of our
being, so must He be the Author of those qualities which
distinguish our being ; and these qualities are confessedly,
notwithstanding all our deficiency in them and our aber
rations from them, intelligence, justness, benevolence.
Whence the necessary conclusion that He from whom our
minds, with these their qualities, are derived, must be Him-
1 Eccles. vii. 13, 14.

2 Psalm cxlv. 9 ; Acts xiv. 17, where mark the present tense (ayadovpyav),
indicating continuity of good doings.
self the Archetype of intelligence, justness, benevolence.

Thus the Psalmist argues from the intelligence which is
found in man to a corresponding though higher intelli
gence in God : ' He that planted the ear, shall He not hear ?
He that formed the eye, shall He not see ? He that teacheth
man knowledge, shall not He know ? ' 1 Thus Job con
cludes from the justice in man to the purer justice of
God : ' Shall mortal man be more just than God ? Shall
a man be more pure than his Maker?'2 And the
Psalmist is assured that God must respond to each one
with reciprocation of the character which he observes . in
each : ' With the merciful Thou wilt show Thyself merci
ful ; with an upright man Thou wilt show Thyself upright ;
with the pure Thou wilt show Thyself pure ; and with the
frowardThou wilt show Thjself froward.' 3 So again, all
the love that is found in man is an argument for the
greater, though corresponding, love which must exist in
Him from whom man springs. ' If ye, though evil, know
Iioav to give good gifts to your children, how much more
shall your heavenly Father give good things to them that
ask Him ? ' 4 The reasoning is, indeed, throughout, only
that of analogy; but of an analogy so natural and so
1 Psalm xciv. 0. Comp. the similar conclusion by Socrates from mind

in man to fontal Mind in God (Xen. Mem. i. 4, 3).
2 Job iv. 17. 3 Psalm xviii. 25, 26.
4 Matt. vii. 11. The argument here is complete, from such good as we
find in ourselves to a perfect goodness in Ilim from whom we spring. If we
love, however imperfectly, our oflspring, how perfectly must lie who im
planted in us this love, love his offspring ! ' Why is it that when the Expe
rience philosophy holds its court, the most important of the witnesses is
rarely put in the box ? Why is it that while every minute fact of organic
or inorganic nature is cited, as to the character of the Creator, the supreme
fact—the existence of Man as a being who loves and has the ideas ofjustice
and duty—is passed over ? Why is it that in a world teeming with injustice
there should exist a being whose brain has acquired a " set " of passionate love
for justice ? '—Miss Cobbe, Hopes of the Human Race, lviii.
GOD AND MAN CORRESPONDENT. 153
necessary that we cannot resist it. We cannot but con

ceive of the Father as bearing some resemblance, in kind
if not in degree, to his offspring. If man bears the
image of God, then God must be conceived in the image
of man. If the human is defined in terms of the
Divine, the Divine must be defined in terms of the
human.1 This equation is used in Scripture on both its
sides to teach us the proper way of worshipping the
Supreme. On the one side, Are we like God? Then
our worship must be suitable to this our likeness ; ' for
asmuch as we are the offspring of God, we ought not to
think that the godhead is like unto gold, or silver, or
stones graven by art and man's device so as to be wor
shipped by men's hands as if He needed anything from
us.' 2 And, on the other side, Is God like us ? Then
our worship must be suitable to this his likeness to us.
' God is Spirit, and hence the worship He demands as
the only fitting one is that of spirit.' 3
1 Anaxagoras held that all Minds, whatever their relative power or

station, are qualitatively alike. ( Ueberweg, 65). ' The universe is a thought of
the Deity. I find only a single manifestation in Nature—that of Mind, the
thinking essence. All within me and without me is only a hieroglyph of a
Power which resemhles me. Harmony, truth, order, beauty, excellence, give
me joy because they raise in me the active state of their designer : because
they reveal to me the presence of a rational Being, and leave me to divine my
affinity with this Being. A new experience, e.g. of gravitation, &c, gives
me a new reflection of a Spirit—a new acquaintance with a Being like my
self. I read the soul of the artist in the Apollo.'—Schiller, Phil. Letters.
2 Acts xvii. 29.
3 John iv. 24, where the point is, not (as in the English version) ' God is
a Spirit,' but ' God is Spirit ' (irvevpa 6 Beds) ; Mind like our mind ; and
therefore to be worshipped in the only way suitable to his nature and ours—
that of Mind adoring Mind : iv irvevlxxtTi Ktxi a\ri6eia, where the Kat intro
duces an explanatory addition, and = nempe, scilicet : ' In the way of spirit,
which is .the true way.' Cf. Eph. iv. 24 : iv fSacaioo-vvrf xat SirloTrfTi T?js
aXrfdeias, ' in righteousness, which is the true sanctity.' See Fritzsche on
Matt. 854.
Now, in this double view of God, as a Being at once

unknowable in Himself but knowable by his self-mani
festations in Nature and in our own minds, the current of
philosophical thought runs parallel with that of Scripture.
1. Beginning with Ancient thinkers, we find the un-
knowableness of God in Himself insisted on by Socrates
at the very time that he is enlarging on his manifested
goodness in relation to man. 'Just as the sun does not
permit itself to be curiously pried into, punishing with
blindness the presumptuous gazer ; just as the thunder
bolt and the winds of heaven are invisible powers ; just
as in man himself the soul is utterly unsearchable ; so
the Supreme withdraws Himself from all created gaze.
He is seen, indeed, to do the grandest things, but He, the
doer, is not to be seen.' 1 And so the Orphic hymns :
' Though God beholds all things, He is Himself beheld
by none.' 2 And Aristotle : ' No otherwise can God be
visible but to the mind.' 3 And Seneca : ' Eluding our
sight, He is visible to thought alone.' 4 And Maximus
Tyrius : ' The Divine Being in Himself can neither be seen
by our eyes, nor defined by our tongue, nor touched by
our hands, nor heard by our ears ; only to the noblest,
purest, most rational portion of our soul does He reveal
Himself; and even here simply by what in Him is similar
1 Xenoph. Mem. iv. 3, 0 : ra peytarra pev irpajTav oparai, ra8e 8e oIKovq-

luav aoparos.
* ov8e ris avrbv
e'uropcj. dyr/rav, avrbs 8e ye iravras oparai.
3 aoparos &v aKKas 7rX^v \oyi(rpq>.
4 ' Effugit ociilos; cogitatione visendus est.'— Qu. Nat. vii. 30.
GOD IS INTELLIGENCE. 155
and akin to our own mind.' 1 And who knows not how
Simonides presented this divine inscrutableness to Hiero
by that method of symbolism which so expressively em
bodies thoughts in acts ? ' What is God ? ' said the
monarch. ' Give me till to-morrow to think of this,' re
plied the sage. And then, when the morning comes, he
asks for another day, and then another, till he has raised
the mind of his questioner to that white heat of intensest
expectation, which best could take the impression of his
final words : ' The longer I think of this great Being,
the more entirely incompetent do I feel myself to utter a
single word about Him ! ' 2
2. But then, the ancient philosophy agrees equally
with Scripture that this Being, so inscrutable in Himself,
is knowable in relation to us, by his self-manifestations
in nature, and in our own minds. In this way He shows
Himself to be emphatically Mind, or Intelligence ; and
Intelligence making itself known by manifestations of
all-pervading Law (or Justness) and all-embracing Bene
volence. Thus Heraclitus, though he does not distinguish
from his Kosmos the divine and eternal diffused through
out it, recognises a pervading Order in all things, and this
Order he terms the all-encompassing reason.3 Anaxa-
goras, the first who rose from physical conceptions of the
First Cause to metaphysical ones,4 declares that this order
1 Max. Tyrius, Diss. i. 13.

s See Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 21.
s He calls it yvaprf, 8/mj, elpappevrf, To irepioxov ripas \oyiKov Kal (ppevtf-
pes. See how Cleanthes and the Stoics insist on this all-pervading reason,
law, justice: ZeO, vopov pira iravra Kvfiepvibv. And again: Sxrff eva yiyve-
o-dai irdvrav \ 6yov, alev eovra. And again : yvaprfs fj iria-vvos (rv 8tKtfs pera
irama Kvfiepvqs.
4 The Ionians confined their attention to sensations {alo-drfra), the Pytha
goreans to notions (8iavorfra) ; the Eleatics first rose to ideas (voip-d). See
Boeckh, in TJeberioeg, i. 31.
can come from nothing but ' an altogether independent

Mind, "unmixed with baser matter," and itself alone
existing of itself ; 1 which when all things lay in con
fusion, undifferentiated, brought them into order.'2 Par-
menides goes further, and maintains that this regulating
Mind must be itself essential Being, for ' to think and
to be are one and the same thing.'3 Socrates worked
out fully the argument of which the Bible is fond, from
the character of the works which we see to the character
of the Worker whom we see not : ' You will be con
vinced, my Euthydemus, of the goodness of God, if, instead
of waiting till He show Himself to your eyes, you recog
nise Him in his works ; for by these, and these alone,
does He deign to manifest Himself. Himself He ever
keeps withdrawn from sight, but in his doings we can
see Him and admire Him. Learn, therefore, to make
much of what you see ; estimate the greatness of the
Efficient cause by the effects which you behold ; and reve
rence the Divinity whom they display to you.'4 And
as to the special characteristic of Divine Wisdom, we find
Socrates in the same book arguing thus : ' You who
think yourself possessed of intelligence, can you suppose
1 See Ritter, Hist. Phil. § 53 : ' Mind is without limit ; independent

(aiiToKpares) ; unmixed with material things (xP*lfulTl) ; and itself alone exist
ing; of itself (jiovvos avros i(j>' eavrov). ' Where,' says Mr. Lewes, ' we have
as distinct an expression as possihle of the modern conception of the Deity
acting through invariable laws, hut in no way mixed up with the matter
acted on ' (Hist, of Phil. [1st ed.] i. 22). Aristotle also, while he affirms the
immanence of the universal in the individual, of the ideal in the sensible, yet
recognises for Mind an existence apart from matter. See Ucberweg, i. 42.
2 See Diog. L. ii. G: rtavra \piliiara <fv 6pov - elra Nov? e\di>v aira 8texd-
o-prfa-e.
3 To yap avrb voeiv iarlv re Kal eivai.
4 Xenoph. Mem. iv. 3, 6 : "Ort 8e ye dXi)6V) Xry&>, rat o-v yvma-r], av pij ava-
pevrfs, eas &v ras poptpas Tusv de5>v tSys, dXX' i£apKrj o"0( ra epya airav opavri
(refieo-dai Kal npav Tovs deovs.
GOB IS GOOBXESS. 157
there is no fontal Intelligence whence it has flowed down

to you ? You acknowledge your body to be a portion
of Nature ; is your mind no portion of anything, but
snatched up by some happy chance from nowhere?'1
Plato, again, conceived the Divine Mind as essentially
like our own in (what constitutes the essence of our per
sonality) the consciousness of its own ideas, and the power
of acting in accordance with these ideas ; and first and
foremost of these ideas, ever present to the Divine Mind,
and acted out by the Divine Will, he places Goodness,
prompting to do good.2 Aristotle, also, like the Bible,
gathers from the works which are visible to us the Being
and the Character of One, invisible, of whom these works
are the manifestation ; 3 who is absolute Spirit, or Self-
consciousness ; 4 the Thought prior to all thoughts ;5 the
Prime Ideal of all things ; 6 and the Prime Mover in all
things.7 And again he declares, ' In Him is life ; nay,
He is life. For all mental energising is, in its very
essence, life. And He is energy ; that energy self-pro
duced which is the highest of all life, and is eternal.
God then we pronounce to be a Being eternal and Most
High ! ' 8 ' And if you ask (says Antoninus) where have
you seen this wondrous God, and how do you know that
1 Xenoph. Mem. i. 4, 3 : vovv 8e povov npa ovhapov ovra, o-e eurt^tof 7ra>?
8oKms a-vvapirao-ai ;
s Plato, Timaus, 20 e : dynOof %v . . . mi iravra on pa\urra if3ov\ifdrf yevio-dai
irapaii\ifo-ta aura. Where you have, first, the inward disposition (ayadbs rfv) ;
and next, the will («/3ovXîj) to order all things in accordance with this dis
position.
3 See Cicero, Be Nat. B. ii. 37.
* vovs, bs avrbv voei. 5 v0ij0-ir vorfo-iav.
0 irparnf eiSor. ' irp&rov Kivovv.
8 Met. xii. 7 e : rai fatf 8e ye wrdpx" ' ri 7"P vo" ivipyeia fa>ij ' eWvor 8e ff
ivipyeta ' ivipyeia 8e r] Kaff avrffv iKelvov £arf dplart] Kal alSios ' (fiapev 8e Top
Qeov eivat £(oov didioVj apiorov.
He exists, to be worshipped by us ? then, my answer is,

My own soul I have never seen, and yet I bow in
reverence before it. In like manner, every time I ex
perience anything of the power of God, I conclude from
this that He must exist, and therefore bow in reverence
before Him.'1
If now we proceed to enquire what Modem Philo

sophy thinks concerning the knowledge of God, we shall
find Mr. Spencer, while admitting that ' the omnipresence
of something which passes comprehension is unquestion
able,' 2 yet affirming that ' this Power which the Universe
manifests to us is utterly inscrutable.' 3 Now, if this opinion
be held simply touching the essence of this Power, it
goes no further than the sublime declarations of Scrip
ture, and of ancient Philosophy. But if it be extended
to include the character of this Power in relation to the
world in which it manifests itself, then the very expression,
' a Power which the Universe manifests to us,' forbids
such extension—assumes that such extension does not take
place. For 'manifestation of Power' must be manifes
tation in some way ; under certain aspects, with an indi
cation of certain qualities and characteristics in the power
manifested ; the power manifested in a hurricane has the
character of a destructive power ; that manifested in the up-
springing of life and fertility has the character of a mild
and beneficent power ; that manifested in the colligation of
cause with effect has the character of a preconceiving, in
telligent power. So that manifestations of Power are at the
1 Anton, xii. 28: 'E£ S>v rrjs 8vvdpea>s Twv 0e&» eraorore 7reip£/«n, iK
rovriov, oTi T6 eieri /taraXaju/3tic(o, Kal diSoipai.
2 Spencer, First Princ. p. 45. 3 Ibid. p. 40.
GOD SELF-MANIFESTIVR 150
same time manifestations of the character of this Power.

The same facts which show Power show the sort of Power
thus revealed. And 'the Power which the Universe
manifests to us ' is so plainly characterised by something
more than itself as abstract force—by intelligence, just
ness, and benevolence in the exercise of this force—that
Mr. Mill can even permit himself to think the goodness
of God to be more manifest than the power ; and that
the power seems so ' extremely limited ' as to be unable
to give effect to that goodness.
Hence we find Mr. Fiske very properly going beyond
the master of whom he is so able an expositor, and
admitting that while ' Deity is unknowable just in so
far as it is not manifest to consciousness through the
phenomenal world ; ' it is nevertheless ' knowable, just in
so far as it is thus manifested ; unknowable, in so far as it is
infinite and absolute ; knowable, in the order of its pheno
menal manifestations ; knowable, in a symbolic way, as
the Power which is disclosed in every throb of the
mighty rhythmic life of the universe ; knowable as the
eternal Source of a moral law which is implicated with
each action of our lives, and in obedience to which lies
our only guaranty of the happiness which is incorruptible,
and which neither inevitable misfortune nor unmerited
obloquy can take away. Thus, though we may not by
searching find out God, though we may not compass
infinitude or attain to absolute knowledge, we may at
least know all that it concerns us to know as intelligent
and responsible beings. They who seek to know more
than this, to transcend the conditions under which alone
is knowledge possible, are, in Goethe's profound language,
as wise as little children who, when they have looked
into a mirror, turn it round to sec what is behind

it."
Yet still the admissions of many modern thinkers
fall much below the convictions of ancient philosophy on
this point. They insist much on the inscrutableness of
the Divine Power, but they admit little as to our ability
to discern the character of this Power. All that lias
been, for so many ages, considered to indicate design,
purpose, adjustment, and providential care, they now
either deny or doubt. The adaptation of means to ends
is something instinctive only (whatever that may mean)
and not intentional ; natural (whatever this, again, may
be) and not supernatural ; tending towards ultimate ends,
but not preconceived and predetermined with reference
to such ends !
And most especially the idea of personality, which
follows from the admission of preconception and prede
termination in the Divine Mind, is censured as incon
sistent with the absoluteness of the inscrutable Power,
as clogged with contradictions, and as only a part of
those anthropomorphic views of Deity which advanced
thinkers must get rid1 of altogether.2 This is insisted on
1 Fiske, Cosmic Phil. ii. 470.

2 Such objectors are fond of quoting the lines of Xenophanes, that foolish
men think the gods like themselves, but that the one greatest of gods resem
bles us neither in body nor in mind : o#Te Sepas dmfroio-iv Sixotios ovTe voifpa :
but they overlook that by vorflm Xenophanes means, not vovs, the pure
Intellect, for he affirms elsewhere that God is all intellect (ol\os 6pa. ov\os
8e voet), but the sensuous understanding; like ours, which he terms in the
next couplet aio-drfo-is, when he says, ' Men vainly think the gods to have
TtfV 0-(peTept]V T alO-dr}0-lV CX*lV< (P°""IV Te> ^CpOS Te.'
The votflm which Xenophanes denies to the gods is the discursive under
standing, by which we gather the impressions of sense and elaborate them
into notions ; not the contemplative intellect which sees all things at a glance.
PERSONALITY IS SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS. 101
even by Mr. Fiske : ' An anthropomorphic God cannot

be conceived as an infinite God. Personality and infinity
are terms expressive of ideas which are mutually incom
patible. Goethe has profoundly said, " Since the great
Being whom we name the Deity manifests Himself not
only in man, but in a rich and powerful Nature, and in
mighty world-events, a representation of Him framed
from human qualities cannot of course be adequate." '
But (1) it is not true that ' personality and infinity are
incompatible ideas.' The personality we suppose in God
is ascribed to Him only so far forth as this idea is proper
to that intelligence, inseparable from that intelligence,
which his works display. It does not include the relative
distinction of Me and Thee. It is simply that which con
stitutes a man a person, taken by himself ; and which
would continue so to constitute him if he were out of re
lation with every other man or thing in the world ; for it
is exclusively the power of self-consciousness, or ranging
over the field of his own thoughts ; and of self-determi
nation, or regulating his acts according to these thoughts.
Personality is self-possession, in regard to both thought
and will ; comprehension of our thoughts, and control
over our volitions ; the knowing what we think, and the
doing what we think. It has relation to Self, and to no
thing else. . ' Personality,' says Herbart, ' is self-con
sciousness ; wherein the Ego regards himself throughout
all his varying states of mind as one and the same being.'' 1
This is clear from another line ; in which he contrasts with this laborious
perception the simple vovs, and says :
' But, free from toil, by force of mind, he moves the world,'
dXX' dirdvevde irovou> voov (ppevl irdvra KpaSaivei.
1 Herbart, Met. i. xix. : ' Personlichkeit ist Selbstbewusstseyn worm das
M
' It is one of the most unwarranted prejudices,' says I. H.

Fichte, ' and a pure fancy of Pantheism, to assert that
God, because absolute, cannot be a Person, on the ground
that He thus becomes limited by co-ordination with other
persons. The very reverse is the truth, namely, that
Personality is the highest and most perfect form of all
real being, and is withal just that form of being in
which alone the highest and most absolute Unity of the
world can be conceived. The idea of God and the idea
of absolute personality are so inseparable that each can
be intelligible only in connection with the other. For
by this term personality all languages express that quality
which only a Spirit can partake of—the power of throw
ing its glance over all that belongs to it and occurs in it ;
of grasping these possessions and experiences as its own ;
and at the same time of having perfect command over
them.' And similarly Frohshammer : ' The assertion that
the notion of personality implies limitation, and is ap
plicable only to what is finite and relative, is by no means
correct. The essential elements of personality are exist
ence, consciousness of this existence, and control over it.
Distinction from others, and therefore limitation by them,
is not an essential element of personality. The more
personality, the less limitation by others, need of others.
Besides, God cannot be without that perfection which
manifests itself in man as the highest. Our prerogative
is to be persons. We must not assign a less prerogative
to Him in whose image we are made.' 1
Then (2) Goethe's saying that 'no representation of God
Ich sich in alien seinen mannigfaltigen Zustanden als Eins und Dasselbe
betrachtet.'
1 As (juoted in British QuaHerly Review, Jan. 1874.
ANALOGY UNAVOIDABLE. 1G3
framed from human qualities can be adequate ' is in no

way inconsistent with the contemplation of God as a
person like ourselves. A comparison may he just though
not adequate. The child's conception of his Father, or
the ordinary man's conception of a Newton, cannot be
adequate to the vastly wider compass and higher mode of
operation of the superior mind ; and yet we recognise
such minds as similar, though not the same. With
Newton the propositions of Euclid were not arrived at by
ratiocination, but beheld intuitively. Yet we do not there
fore pronounce Newton's Ipind altogether different from
our own ; unrepresentable in terms of our own. To adopt
Fiske's own words, ' We can and do believe in the existence
of an all-pervading and all-sustaining Power, eternally
and everywhere manifested in the phenomenal activity
of the universe, alike the cause of all and the inscrutable
essence of all, without whom the world itself would be a
vision, and thought itself would vanish.' But then, seeing
that this ' phenomenal activity of the universe ' is marked
unmistakably by purpose and intelligence, wc must
equally believe the ' cause and essence ' of it to be also
purposeful and intelligent ; and how can we clothe this
belief in terms more fit than what the analogy of our own
nature supplies us with ? Accept what forms of speech
you will, they can never, when applied to the Deity, go
further, or be interpreted further, than as analogical
expressions ; notes of resemblance and not of identity ;
never adequate, however legitimate.
The whole question, therefore, must ever turn on the
greater or less degree of resemblance which we assume
between God and man. The question is not, as Fiske
elsewhere states, ' whether the creature is to be taken as
m2
the measure of the Creator,' for the child is not the

measure of his father, the common man is no measure of
a Newton ; but the question is whether we can think of
Him whose image we bear in any terms, under any
imagery, by any analogy, not derived from the knowledge
and experience of our own mind ; a mind immeasurably
inferior to the mind of God, but not essentially different
from it. The old objection of Xenophanes that animals
would image the Deity by analogy with themselves, has
no force. They could not do otherwise than go by ana
logy, and mount upwards from what would be to them
the highest to an imagined higher. And just the same is
true of our conceptions of Deity. With ourselves we
must begin : from what is best in ourselves we must
reason on. ' The chief natural way,' says J. Smith, 'by
which we can climb up to the understanding of the Deity
is by a contemplation of our own souls. We cannot think
of Him but according to the measure and model of our
own intellect, or form any other idea of Him than what
the impressions of our own souls will permit us ; and
therefore the best philosophers have always taught us to
inquire for God within ourselves.' And the very objectors
to such analogical language fall into it, unconsciously and
unavoidably, themselves. The very phrase to which Fiske
' heartily assents,' that ' necessary law is the constant
expression of the Divine working,' 1 is purely thus analo
gical, derived from our experience of our own working.
The definition of the Supreme as illimitable ' Force ' 2 is
equally analogical, derived from our own sense of force.
The formula which is ' the final outcome of a purely
1 Fisko, Cosmic Phil. ii. 393. 2 Ibid. ii. 314.

POWER CHARACTERISED BY ITS EFFECTS. 165
scientific enquiry,' that ' there exists a Power to which no

limit is conceivable,' is just as much analogical, derived
from our own sense of limited power ; and is moreover so
anthropomorphic—so unavoidably anthropomorphic—as
to express the concentration of this illimitable power in one
Subject ; for Fiske writes, not ' there exists power,' but
' there exists A Power.' And as to our possible know
ledge of this Power (of his character if not of his essence)
this forms an essential part of Mr. Fiske's definition ; for
' all phenomena, as presented in our consciousness, are
manifestations of this Power, which we can know only
through these manifestations.' Granted, fully granted.
For this concedes that ' through the manifestations ' we
may, indeed, ' know the power ; ' and it is only on ac
count of these manifestations, and as taught and con
strained by these manifestations, that anthropomorphic
theology reasons onward, by legitimate analogy, to the
character of the Power Himself, thus manifested. These
manifestations are replete with intelligent purpose. Though
the purpose is not always discernible, and in some cases
is wrongly conjectured, yet the existence of purpose and
of the intelligence implied by purpose is undeniable.
Naturalists themselves, as the Duke of Argyll has so fully
shown, conduct their researches on the ascumption of such
purpose. Therefore as the manifestations, so must be the
power manifested. The manifestations exhibit intelli
gence. Were it only in the law of the survival of the
fittest , you have preconceiving and preordaining intelligence .
Consequently the Being whom these manifestations mani
fest must be Himself the fountain of intelligence ; Himself
intelligent ; Himself having thoughts which He conceives,
and ends which He purposes in harmony with those
thoughts ; that is, He must be apersonal Being—not Force

merely, nor Life merely, but Life conscious of itself, and
Force determinant of itself, by preconceived means to
wards preconceived ends.1
And so we are brought to the profound and beautiful
conclusion of Herbart, that God, though unknowable
in Himself, may be the Object of our trustful contem
plation by means of those manifestations of his character
which his works and ways bring before us. 'People
want to have a perfect insight into the Godhead. But,
if the highest Being could lie within the sphere of our
comprehension, as an Object whom we could grasp, then
our whole range of thought would become contracted,
and all further outlook towards the transcendent would
be shut out. Nature itself, with all its apparent adjust
ment of means to ends, still remains far beyond our
grasp ; and the Author of such adjustment must, still
more, ever remain to our eyes only a fixed Star, which,
as often as we begin to reckon how many millions of
miles it is away from us, recedes still further into un
approachable distance. And yet this fixed Star affords
us its friendly, beneficial presence throughout all our
course ; it does not thrust on us the feeling of its unap
proachable distance ; and we see it with the most undeni
able clearness, though grasp it we never can.'2
1 By no turns of speech, however ingenious, can this recognition of a

Person be eluded. Take Mr. M. Arnold's phrase, ' a Power, not ourselves,
which makes for righteousness.' Here, to ' make for righteousness ' implies
a conception of righteousness, a love of righteousness, and a determination in
behalf of righteousness ; i.e. it implies Thought, Feeling, and Will. And
thought, feeling, and will are personal acts which can be predicated only
of a Personal being.
3 Herbart, Ency. Phil. 05.
167
CHAPTEE HI.
THE PROCEDURE OF GOD.
1. Scripture Doctrine.
Besides intimations of the Being and the Character of

the primal Eeality, the Bible discloses to us his Method
of procedure in dealing with this universe of which
He is both the Ground and the Life. It declares Him
to have brought into existence the elements of this
universe ; to be producing from them progressively-
complicated forms of manifestation ; and (since such pro
ducts are liable, in proportion to their complexity, to
aberration from their type) to be redeeming them into
ever closer correspondence with the original Divine Idea.
1. The elements of the universe were brought into

existence by the Great First Cause, by means of an Ema
nation from Himself, whose relation to Him is indicated
by the (necessarily figurative) analogy of one begotten
to One who begets, and who is hence called ' the Son of
God,' 1 and more emphatically ' the only-begotten Son ;'2
and ' the only-begotten of the Father.'3
1 Ileb. i. 2 : ' His Son, by whom He made the worlds.'

2 John i. 18 : ' No one hath seen God : the only-begotten Son, He has
made Him known.'
3 John i. 14 : ' We beheld his glory, the glory as of the only-begotten of
the Father.'
1G8 THE SUPREME REALITY.
And the perfect similarity and equivalence of this Son

to his Father is intimated by the declaration that ' in
Him dwelt all the fulness of the Godhead in a concrete
form.' 1 For this ' Fulness,' or Pleroma, of God means
the whole content of the Divine Mind ; the sum of the
Ideas (or mental models) of all existence, which, springing
out from the depths of the Divine Essence, present them
selves before his consciousness as objective -Thoughts.2
And such Thoughts, emanating from the essentially Eeal
one, are themselves Eealities ;3 so that in putting them
forth God Himself emerges from the abysmal depths of
the Indeterminate,4 the Undefinable,5 and the Formless,0
into definite self-manifestation. The Son, therefore, thus
filled with God, is both representative of his mind and
executive of his will ; whence He is further called ' the
1 Ool. ii. 9, a-apariKas, i.e. not as a potency merely, but substantially,
as if incorporated (a-aparadds), as the soul dwells in the body. Theoph.
and Cyril in Suicer, ii. 1217. So Ignatius (ad Trail.) says of the Logos that
it was not merely a somewhat spoken, but substantiated, ov pyror aW
oua-ito5rfs.
2 This ' Fulness of the Godhead ' the Jews denoted by their word ' The
Schechinah,' or sum total of the perfections which dwell in God. Thus the
book Sohar says, ' Where dwells the Schechinah, there all things dwell. Is
God gentle? So is his Schechinah. Is God gracious, strong, faithful, just,
wise ? So is his Schechinah. Is God King ? His Schechinah is Queen.
And this Schechinah is the Image of God, his Face [Gen. iii. 8 : ' They hid
themselves from the face of the Lord '], his Voice [Gen. iii. 8 : ' They heard
the Voice of the Lord God '], his Word.' See Bertholdt, Christologia, § 23.
3 Cf. Tertullian (in Keil, 495) : ' Nihil dico de Deo inane et vacuum
prodire potuisse, ut non de inani et vacuo prolatum ; nec carere substantia
quod de tanta substantia processit et tantas substantias fecit.'
4 To "meipov. ' This was like the Protoplasm of Huxley, a sort of inde
terminate basis of all existence.' (Blackie, Hor. Hel. 2C1.) So also ' the
theory of the book Zohar is that all definite existences are a series of emana
tions from a primitive abstraction (?) called En Soph, To "meipov, that
which has no limits.' (Mansel, Gnosticism, 36.)
5 To airoiov. Cf. Philo, Legat. i. 13. airoios 6 Qeos, i. 15. ' We must
conceive of God as Siroios (without qualities).' (Mansel, 17.)
6 To apop(pov. So Lucian says that "Eprns made all things eg a(pavov$
KXii Ke^vpeVtfs dpoptpias.
THE FIRST-BEGOTTEN. 169
lmage of the invisible God ; ' 1 ' the Impress of his per
sonality ;'2 and ' the Eadiation of his splendour.'3
Then next, seeing that thus in the Son the creative
thoughts of the Father first come out into acts, He is
called ' the beginning of the creation of God ; ' 4 and
' the First-begotten of all creation ; ' 5 because ' in Him
were all things created that are in heaven and in earth,
visible and invisible ; all things were created by Him, to
be subject to Him ; and He is set over all things, and
in Him they all consist;' are held together in being as
one organised whole.6
1 Col. i. 15; 2 Cor. iv. 4. Cf. Wisd. vii. 20 : ' The imago {ekav) of his
goodness.'
2 Heb. i. 3 : xaPaKrhp T*ls wooroo-ems avrov. Where xaPaKrriP is that
which is cut in, as on coins and medals, the same as eIKwv, Matt. xxii. 20,
' Whose is this image (el/cav) ? ' So Philo calls him the seal (impression) of
God. De pi. N. 217 : o-qjpayiSi Beov, rfs 6 xaPaKThp e'o-riv 6 dtdtos \6yos.
3 Heb. i. 3 : diravyao-pa rrjs 8oîjy. Where the ' glory ' of God is the
intolerable splendour (Exod. xxxiii. 20), the ' light which no one can ap
proach to ' (1 Tim. vi. 16), in which lie dwells. The Son is the Eadiation
of this Light ; ' bright effluence of bright essence, in whom all the Father
shines.' Chrysostom renders the phrase by (pas iK (paros. Cf. Wisdom vii. 25,
20 : ' Wisdom is an effluence (diroppoia) from the glory of the Almighty ;
the brightness of the everlasting light (diravyao-pa (paros aiSlov), and the
image of his goodness.'
4 Rev. iii. 14 : tf apxl] rrjs Krlo-eas. Cf. Prov. viii. 22, of the Divine
Wisdom: ' The Lord e KTio-e pe ap\rfv 6Sav avrov.' And Clement Al. : rjv
6 Xriyos apxrf deia rav irdvrav. So that this phrase is equivalent to what
Cleanthes and Theophilus call (pio-eas dpxqyos, the First Father and Author
of Nature. Cleanthes : Zev, (pvo-eas dpxnye. Theoph. Ant. : Tav Se yivopi-
vav dpxiybv Kai o-vpfiov\ov, Kai epydrrfv eyevva Aoyov, bv\oyovexav e'p eavra,
doparov re ovra ra KTi£opeva KOo-pa, oparbv iroiel, rtporepov (pavtjv (pdeyyo-
pevos, Kai tft&s iK (paras yevvav, irporjKev rfj Krio-ei Kvpiou.
5 Justin M. {Dial. § 100) paraphrases this expression as irparoroKos
Tov Beov Kat irpo irdvrav TS>v KTurpdrav. Reuss (Thiol. Chret. ii. 75)
compares Col. i. 18, Matt. i. 25, Rom. viii. 29. But see Lightfoot on Col.
p. 213.
6 Col. i. 10, 17. Where o-vvurravai is ' corpus unum, Integrum, secum con-
sentiens, esse et permanere ' (Reiske). Cf. Aristotle, De Mundo : as e'«c Tov
Beov ra irdvra, KoI Sut Beov rfplv o-vveo-TrfKe. And Heb. i. 3 : ' Upholding all
things by the word of his power.' Imitations are witnesses to their original ;
The same truths are set out by John in his own

peculiar way of speaking. He whom Paul calls ' the
first-begotten,' John calls ' The Word ; ' i.e. the Utterance
(outerance, outcome) of the Divine Mind ; the spoken
thought and will of God.1 'In the beginning was The
Word, and the Word was with God ' (in the relation of
object to subject),2 ' and the Word was God.' 3 For the
entire subjectivity of the Father, all that He is in essence,
comes out into existence in the objective Son. ' The Word,'
and just this view we find parodied by Simon Magus when he called his
Helena ' the first conception (IWoia) of the Divine Mind ; the Mother of all
things ; since God by her conceived the thought of making the angels, or pri
mary powers, and through them the world.' (SeeMansel, Gnosticism, 82.) In
Simon's own words (Hippolytus, vi. 0) ' the Root of all things is the incom
prehensible Silence, the Father who upholds all things, who stands, has
always stood, and will for ever stand (6 ia-ras, (rrds, o~rrfo-6pevos) ; and the
two shoots from this root are vovs and arivoia. And as, thus evolving Him
self from Himself, He revealed to Himself his own thought, so this revealed
thought acted not otherwise than in accordance with Him, hiding within Him
self the Father, who was, indeed, not called " Father " before this his thought
revealed Him.' (Ibid. 89.)
1 For the essence of the Idea expressed by the term ' The "Word ' is that
He is the Manifester of the Father. As by our words we make known our
mind and will, so ' The Word of God ' is He who makes known God's mind
and will ; who brings out the ever invisible subjectivity of the Father as
Spirit, into objective visibility. ' This is the notion of the Logos. But He
can be thus the Manifester of the Father only so far as He is one with the
Father. None but the only-begotten Son, in the bosom of the Father, can
speak out, and make manifest, all that is in this Father.' (Baur, Christenthmn,
p. 300.)
2 John i. 1 : irpbs rbv 6eov. Cf. Mark ix. 9 : ' How long shall I be with
you (n-por v/iSs) ? ' And compare what is said in Prov. viii. 80 by the Divine
Wisdom, as the daughter of God : ' I was by Him (irap' alrov) as one
brought up with Him, and I was daily his delight, rejoicing always before
Him (iv irpoo-airop avrov).'
3 John i. 1. ' The Logos, or revealed God' (Mansel, Gnost. 80). ' In
John the choice of the term 6 \6yos as a designation of Christ, and the
assertion of his proper deity and incarnation, have a direct antagonism
to the Jewish Gnosticism of Philo, as well as to the Christian Gnosticism of
Cerinthus.' (Ibid. 75.) ' Simon Magus also affirmed himself " Sermo Dei,"
which may have had some share in leading John to adopt the same term as
a designation of the true Messiah.' (Ibid. 82.)
THE WORD. 171
as the uttered thought of the Supreme, is commensurate"

with his inherent thought.1 By the agency, therefore,
of this ' Word,' the Father gave actuality to his ideas,
and accomplished his will. ' All things were made by
Hira, and without Him was not anything made that was
made."2
In which way of speaking John adopts the then cur
rent view of many Jewish divines that when it is written
in Gen. i. 3, 9, 11, 14, 20, 24, 26, 'God said, Let there
be light,' this utterance (or outerance) of the Divine will
was a putting forth of his eternal Word 3 to give actuality
to his thoughts ; according to those verses of the Psalmist
(xxxiii. 6, 9), ' By the word of the Lord were the heavens
made, and all the host of them by the breath of his mouth ;
He spake and it was done, He commanded and it stood
fast.' Whence the Jerusalem Targum, in Gen. i. 27, sub
stitutes for ' God created man ' this paraphrase, ' The
1 That is, according to a favourite way of speaking of the Fathers, the
outspoken Word (\6yos irpo(popiKoe) or Manifestation of God, was equivalent
to the inspoken Word ( \6yos evSidderos), or Mind of God. Reason is un
spoken words, whence Antisthenes calls Philosophy ' the power of talking
with oneself (To Svvao-dai iavra 6piKe7v) : and words are spoken Reason.
And hence Theophilus of Antioch terms the Son, ' The uttered Word (Tov
Aoyov irpoqbopiKov) of the hitherto unuttered Word (Tov Aoyov ivStaderov) or
Mind of God : ' When God determined to give utterance to his thoughts by
creating all things, lie begat the uttered Word (irpocpopiKov), the voice of
that Reason which had been always lying unuttered (ivSidderos) in his bosom
(iv rois i8i'oit oTrXay^voir).' With which compare John i. 18 : ' The only-
begotten Son, who was in the bosom of the Father.' And John iii. 13 : ' He
who came down out of heaven, and yet is still in heaven.' This transference
of the whole Father into the Son as the (pvo-eas apxtyos harmonises fully
with the now accepted doctrine of the conservation of matter and force. For
if the whole content of the Divine essence has been poured out into existence
in this irpa>TOToKos rrjs Krlo-eas, this ap\r]yos Kal o-vpôv\os xai ipydrtfs TS>v
yivophav, then there can never be any increase or decrease of this existence ;
its matter and its force must be persistent.
3 John i. 3. Cf. Heb. i. 2 : 'By whose instrumentality He made the
worlds.'
3 For ' Word ' (K10*D) is a verbal noun from to ' say.'
0
Word of God created man;' and again in Gen. iii. 2,

instead of ' The Lord said,' it has ' The Word of the Lord
said, Behold man whom I have created ; he is the only
begotten on earth, even as I am the only begotten in
heaven.' And the Chaldee Targum of Onkelos, in Deut.
xxxiii. 27, instead of 'God is thy refuge,' has 'Thy
refuge shall be in God, who in the beginning created
the world by his Word;' and in Isaiah xlv. 12, instead
of ' I have made the earth and created man upon it,'
gives ' I by my Word have made the earth ; ' and again
in Isaiah xlviii. 13, ' I by my Word have laid the founda
tions of the earth.' 1
2. Thus then is God said to have brought into exist

ence the elements of the universe. But next He is repre
sented as producing from these elements progressively
complicated forms of manifestation, from the lowest to
the highest. The ' material ' is first called forth : ' In
the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.'
Then out of this material is fashioned the whole series of
forms in an ascending scale of complexity and worth.
When the earth was ' without form and void ' (unshapcd
and unfurnished) ' and darkness brooded over the deep,
the Spirit (or life-giving Energy) of God moved on the
face of the waters, and God spoke ' (put forth his Divine
thoughts by the Divine Word), and thus began and carried
on a process of Formation? from the lowest to the highest
1 See Keil, Oputeula, 522-527.

2 Mark the contrast between the Creation of the ' material ' of existence,
Gen. i. 1 : ' God created (N"1?3 iiroitfo-e) the heaven and the earth ; ' and
the Formation of different kinds of existence, Gen. ii. 7 : ' He formed ("IV!,
eWXao-e) man out of the dust of the earth,' as a potter pXV, Kepapevs, Lam.
iv. 2) moulds his amorphous clay into useful and graceful forms.
DEVELOPMENT MAY BECOME DIVERGENCE. 173
stages of existence ; from darkness to light;1 from con

fusion to distinctness ; 2 from incoherence to cohesion ; 3
from barrenness to fertility ; 4 from vegetable growth
to sentient self-movement ;5 and from the blankness of
unthinking animalism to the speaking countenance of an
intelligence made like to that of God Himself ;6—in short,
from a Chaos of loose elements to the Cosmos of a diffe
rentiated, combined and unified Whole.7
3. But such a process of Formation, from the simplest

to the most complex products, involves in it (and that
too in proportion to their complexity) the danger of
aberration from the primitive types. Growth may be
come misgrowth ; formation, malformation ; development,
divergence.8 And this the Bible shows to have taken
place. The how, indeed, of such divergence it does not
1 Gen. i. 3 : ' Let there be light:

2 Gen. i. 6 : ' Let there be a firmament to divide (Siax<opi(ov, separating
off) the waters from the waters.' Cf. Spencer, First Princ. 216 : ' Evolution
is a change from the indefinite to the definite.'
3 Gen. i. 0 : ' Let the waters be gathered together ' (o-vvaxdrfr(o els o-vvaya-
ytfv piav). ' Evolution is a change from the incoherent to the coherent.'
4 Gen. i. 11, 12 : 'Let the earth bring forth the herb yielding seed after
its kind, whose seed is in itself after its kind.' ' Evolution is a change from
homogeneity to heterogeneity, through continuous differentiations and in
tegrations.'
5 Gen. i. 20-25. 0 Gen. i. 26, 27.
7 Gen. ii. 1 : ' Thus the heavens and the earth were finished into mar
shalled order' (xal iras 6 Koo-pos avrav). Cf. Martineau, ii. 180 : 'Whatever
is, rose out of some groundwork of confusion and nothingness. . . The birth
of Order was the first act of God.'
8 See my Fatherhood of God, 80-02. Cf. Page Roberts, law and God,
0 : ' The moment you have laws of order and movement, you have the possi
bility of disaster. The tender child may toy with the useful machinery
which is doing the work its inventor intended, and be torn to pieces by the
swiftly revolving wheels. It was not the maker's will that the machinery
should work destruction; but the constructive power becomes destructive
when misapplied.'
state. It gives us nothing of the ' endless genealogies '

of evil, and the process of debasement through inter
mediate iEons, on which the Gnostics indulged their
vagrant fancy. It is always altogether silent on those
speculations which endeavour to fill up the gap between
the One and the many ; the Infinite and the finite ; the
Absolute and the conditioned ; the Ideal and the actual ;
the Perfect and the imperfect. All we gather from it is,
first, that the many have proceeded from the One through
the instrumentality of his manifested will—the Logos,
or Word of God : and, secondly, that these many are in
fact (no matter how) inadequate representatives of that
One ; imperfect, nay, perverted, when compared with that
One. This is affirmed of the highest supersensuous Reali
ties: ' He put no trust even in his servants, and his angels
He charged with folly ; ' 1 of the sensuous phenomena of
the visible world : ' Behold, even to the moon and it
shineth not ; yea, the stars are not pure in his sight ; ' 2
and still more expressly of Man : ' God made men up
right, but they have devised for themselves many inven
tions.'3 This is the truth symbolised in the narrative of
the Fall,4 wherein we have depicted to us how Man, from
1 Job iv. 18, where the ' servants ' are the same as are called in Job xv.
15 his ' saints ' or holy ones, both which terms are synonyms for the angelic
host. Comp. the LXX., which has
Kara iraiSwv avrov oh irurreiei,
Kara 8e dyye\u>v avrov o~Kohiov ri eVeedj/o-e
(he has detected something crooked).
1 Job. xxv. 5. 3 Eccles. vii. 29.
* Gen. iii. 1-7. Hegel misinterprets this narrative as representing the
progress of man from unconsciousness to moral discrimination. But what
the Bible exhibits is a divergence from the knowledge of right to rebellion
against it; from God's will already recognised (ii. 17, iii. 1) to the counter-
suggestions of our own will. See Knobel on Gen. p. 46 : ' Moses recognises
in man an aspiration after further development which, indulged within the
EXISTENCE INADEQUATE TO ESSENCE. 175
' the multitude of his thoughts within him,' and the desires
which are thence suggested to him, is drawn on to doubt,
to delusion, and to that contradiction of God's purpose
concerning him, which is sin. His very aspirations
towards rising higher in the scale of being become
abused, through wilfulness, to sinking lower. For the
true progression of our nature can be effected, only along
the path of strict obedience to the laws prescribed to
it by God ; and this progression is retarded, nay, turned
backward, when our own will is set up as more wise, and
pleasant, and efficient for our welfare, than the will of
God.
Thus then the Ideas of the Divine Essence must come
out inadequately into actual existence. The sensuous
can never fully represent the supersensuous, and all show
can be only a faint shadow of substance. ' A house
made with hands ' must be an insufficient presentment
of its ideal ' pattern and exemplar,' just as the earthly
temple, with all its splendour, could be only a ' copy and
shadow' (virohevyyua koX enaci) .of its heavenly type.1
limits of God's law, works good ; but passing this boundary on the impulse
of self-will, degenerates into sin.' To this narrative we may apply the re
mark of Ititter, Ucber das Bbse, p. 323 : ' All religions which have seriously
gone into the grounds of Evil, give us aleo narratives concerning its commence
ment in Time. And they thus show that they consider it a something which
belongs not to the essence of human nature, but is only a phenomenal result
of its functional action (nur eine zeitlich entstandene Erscheinung seines
Lebens).'
1 Ileb. viii. 5. If we reject the use of the term ' real ' to denote what is
merely apparent, and substitute for it 'actual,' and adopt the true anti
thesis between the Ideal and the Actual, the words of Vacherot, as quoted
by Caro (De Vldce de Dieu, 234, 283), well express the distinction between
the ideal Realities of the invisible world, and the sensuous phenomena of the
visible. ' La virtualite de la Nature est infinie, mais elle n'aboutit jamais a
des actes parfaits, ce qui serait contradictoire. ... La perfection e'est la vente
dont Tactuel n'est et ne pent etre qu'une dechiance ; la perfection e'est l'essence
que l'existence imite sans Vatteindre jamais; la perfection e'est encore le type
176 THE SUPREME REALITY .
No copies reproduce their origmal altogether free of

inaccuracy and even distortion. ' Everything is beauti
ful, seen from the point of the intellect, or as truth.
But all is sour if seen as experience. How painful is the
actual world, the kingdom of time and place ! There
dwells care, and canker, and fear!'1 And this liability
to deterioration increases with the complexity of the things
produced. Not only can no chronometers be so adjusted
as to keep perfect time, but their very adjustments to
wards this end expose them to the being more easily
put out of order. And in a system of complex things
there works more extensively the law of interaction, and
therewith of possible counteraction. And hence the
early divergence from the perfectness of the Ideal to
the imperfectness of the Actual, which is symbolised in
the narrative of ' the Fall.' In Genesis i. 31 we are told
that ' God saw everything that He had made, and behold it
was very good '—the first flush of creation harmonised
with its Idea. But in Gen. iii. 18 we find man falling
into disharmony with his Creator, and the earth bringing
forth thorns and thistles. Whence it is elsewhere de
clared, ' God made men upright, but they sought out
for themselves many inventions.' And again, ' The crea
tion was brought into bondage to corruption.' 2
4. Since, therefore, the Actual thus falls short of its
Ideal, the work of Him to whom the realisation of this
Ideal is intrusted is one not of Creation solely, but of
Redemption, Reconciliation, Restoration ; i.e., of bringing
back by means of a series of remedial processes the
lequel ne se maintient a l'etat ideel qu'a la condition de n'avoir aucune forme

concrete et delerminee.'
1 Emerson, Essays, 172. 2 Eccl. vii. 20; Rom. viii. 20.
REDEMPTION INDISPENSABLE. Ill
diverging Forms of Existence into ultimate correspond

ence with their types in the eternal Essence. The ' pro
cess of the ages ' has three ' moments ' of development.
First, the objective presentment before the Father, of
his Divine Ideas, embodied in the person of his Son, who
is ' the Word,' or outerance of these Ideas. Next, the
differentiation of these ideas into manifold complex forms,
involving, from this very complexity, a depravation of
them. And thirdly, the Eedemption of these Forms
from all their intermediate aberrations into perfect cor
respondence with the primal Ideas of God.1 Eedemption
is thus as necessary as Production, and must go on with
it, step by step.2 As the secular inequalities, even in
the planets, need compensation, still more do the wider
eccentricities of more complex organisation—of vital
growth—above all, of human will. He, therefore, who
is the Organiser of the Universe, is at the same time
its Eedeemer. The same ' Word,' or expressed and
operative Reason, of God, who first called all things into
being, is redeeming them continually into higher being.
This is intimated by St. Paul when he says to the Ephe-
sians that ' God has purposed in the dispensation of the
1 Cf. I. H. Fichte, Spec. Theol. 613: 'As surely as God is the omni
present, immanent Power of goodness in all finite things, so surely must He
compensate and restore to order whatever, either in nature or mind, has
through the misuse of its self-developing force deflected from its original
orbit, and brought itself into collision with the absolute purpose of creation.'
See also my Fundamentals, 153-167.
2 It is only as we bear this in mind that we can meet the objection of
Mr. Wilkinson (On the Human Body, p. xxvii.), that ' only the truths of
mere development and creation occur in the sciences, and not those of love
and redemption ; whence moral and spiritual life is banished from the book
of nature.' This is not true unless we separate the God of Nature from the Gcd
of Revelation. For, most certainly, the God of Revelation is, from first to
last, a God of Redemption. Always is He, by the Son of bis love, ' recon
ciling all things to Himself (Col. i. 20 ; 2 Cor. v. 19).
N
fulness of times to gather together in one (reduce under

one head) all things in Christ ; both which are in heaven
and which are on earth, in Him.'1 And in accordance
with this view the same Apostle looks on the redemption
of the Israelites from slavery into the freedom of God's
people as carried on under the superintendence of Christ.
For he tells the Corinthians how those people 'drank
of the Eock whose waters followed them, and that Rock
was Christ.'2 Wherein he adopts the prevailing belief
of his countrymen, expressed in the Targums, in the
Book of Wisdom, and by Philo, that every act of God in
instructing, guiding, and blessing the world was per
formed by the instrumentality of his energising Word.
Thus the Jerusalem Targum, on Isaiah xvi. 1, uses the
very language of St. Paul, and says, 'Let them bring
offerings to Messiah, the King of Israel, who will be
strong for them, seeing that He was, in the desert, the
Rock of the commonwealth of Zion.' And Onkelos, on
Deut. i. 32, 33, instead of ' Ye did not confide in the
Lord your God,' says, ' Ye did not confide in the Word
of the Lord your God, who went in the way before you.'
So, again, the Jerusalem Targum renders Deut. xxvi.
17, 18, 'Thou hast constituted the Word of the Lord
King over thee, even as the Word of the Lord has, on his
part, constituted himself King over you, to make you his
peculiar people.' And with reference to ' the night to
be much observed ' in Exod. xii. 42, it says, ' Four
nights are written in the book of memorial. The first,
when the Word of the Lord came forth for the crea
tion of the world. The second, when the Word of
the Lord appeared to Abram. The third, when the Word
1 Eph. i. 10. s 1 Cor. x. 4
THE WORD THE REDEEMER. 179
of the Lord displayed Himself in the middle of the night,

with one hand slaying the first-born of Egypt, with his
other hand saving the first-born of Israel. The fourth,
when the end of the world shall be at hand, and the iron
yokes shall be broken, and the "Word of the Lord shall
come forth as King ! ' In like manner, the Book of
Wisdom says, ' Thine almighty Word leaped down from
heaven out of the royal throne into the midst of a land
of destruction, and brought thy authentic commandment
as a sharp sword, and while it touched the heaven it
stood upon the earth.' And it declares of the Divine
Wisdom (or Word) ' She preserved the first father of
the world, and brought him out of his fall. She re
deemed from pain those who attended to her ; and she
guided the righteous in right paths ; she delivered the
righteous from the nations that oppressed them ; when
they were thirsty they called upon Thee, and water was
given them out of the flinty rock ! ' 1 Philo, too, calls this
Eock ' the Wisdom of God, and the Divine Word who
ruleth in all things.' And in remarkable similarity with
St. Paul to the Ephesians he declares ' The Word of
the Eternal is the link that binds together all things,
and gathers into one great whole their various parts.1
And again, ' Who but the Word, the eldest born, before
creation, should be the Euler of all things, and grasp the
rudder of the world ? ' 2
1 Wisdom xviii. 15, 10; x. 1-15; xi. 4.

2 Philo. See Keil, Opusc. 501. Melito has followed this line of thought
to a great extent : 'We have made,' he says, 'collections from the Law and
the Prophets to prove to you that our Lord Jesus Christ is the perfect
Reason, the Word of God : who was begotten before the light, who was
Creator together with the Father ; who was all things in all ; who among
the patriarchs was Patriarch ; who in the law was Law ; among the priests
Chief Priest; among the kings Governor; among the prophets Prophet;
»8
Thus, then, by this Word, or energising Eeason and

Wisdom of God, did the Father of all things begin and
carry on his process of Redemption from all the evil
to which they are exposed. For this, He inspired the first
man with agricultural skill to redeem the earth from
savageness by human labour : ' The Lord God sent forth
Adam from the garden of Eden to till the ground whence
he had been taken.'1 For this, He taught his sons to
become shepherds and husbandmen : ' Abel was a keeper
of sheep, and Cain was a tiller of the ground.'2 For
this, He instituted civil communities : ' Cain built a city.'3
For this, He established the rights of property : ' Jabal
was the father of such as dwell in tents and have cattle.'4
For this, He raised up men to teach the useful and the
graceful arts : ' Tubal Cain was an instructor of every
artificer in brass and iron ; ' and ' Jubal was the father of
all such as handle the harp and organ.'5
And not only for all that sustains and adorns fife, but
much more, for all that ennobles and sanctifies it, has
the Father of spirits been carrying on a process of Re
demption out of all that is low and sinful into all
that is lofty and pure. For this, He inspired successive
gifted men, full of the Holy Ghost, to raise the tone
of morals and religion, and redeem their brethren from
false worship to the true ; from sin to purity ; from self-
among the angels Archangel ; among voices the Word ; among spirits the
Spirit ; in the Father the Son ; in God God ; the King for ever and ever.
He was pilot to Noah ; He conducted Abraham ; He was bound with Isaac ;
He was in exile with Jacob ; He was sold with Joseph ; He was captain
with Moses ; He was divider of the inheritance with Joshua ; He foretold
his own sufferings in David and the prophets.' (See Dr. Lightfoot in Con
temporary Review, Feb. 1876.)
* Gen. iii. 23. 8 Gen. iv. 2. 5 Gen. iv. 7.
* Gen. iv. 20. e Gen. iv. 22; 21.
REDEMPTION A CONTINUOUS PROCESS. 181
will to submission to Divine law : Noah He sent as ' a

preacher of righteousness,' to gather round him a few
who should escape destruction by the flood, and become
the seed of a new race : 1 and Abram he called out from
idolatry to be ' the friend of God,' that he might ' com
mand his children and his household after him to keep
the way of the Lord, and to do justice and judgment
{i.e. obey Law, restrictive and retributive) to the end
that the Lord might bring upon Abram the promise
which He had given him, In thee shall all the nations of
the earth be blessed.'2 For this, Joseph was sold into
slavery, to become the Eedeemer of his Family from
famine, and establish them a prosperous clan in the land
of Egypt. For this, when another Pharaoh reduced them
into slavery, another Eedeemer was provided for them in
the person of Moses,3 who was to emancipate them not
only from Egyptian, but from moral bondage, so that
' God's words might be in their heart, and they might
teach them diligently to their children, to become a
wise and understanding nation.' For this, next, their
Supreme Eedeemer raised a horde of slaves into a people ;
consecrated them as a sacred community ; gave them
statutes and judgments enshrining his moral law ; or
dained for them religious ordinances ; carried them tri
umphantly into Canaan ; set over them rulers to save them
from enemies without and anarchy within ; raised up a
royal dynasty to perpetuate the reign of moral order ;
priests to enforce this order by Divine authority ; and
1 Gen. vii. 17 ; ix. 1. 2 Gen. xviii. 19.

8 Cf. Justin Martyr: 'The Word, the First-begotten of God, and there
fore God, appeared to Moses in the flame of fire in the hush.' 'O Adyor, irpa>-
ToToxos i>v xov Qeov, Kal Qeos virapx^, Kai irporepov 8ia ri)r Tov irvpos papty<fs
Kai eiKovos aVapiTOU ToS Maxret, Kai rois hepois irp(xprfTats itpavrf.
prophets to establish for it a dominion in the heart. For

throughout all his dealings with them, ' the Lord remem
bered they are my people, who will not be false to me ;
therefore He was their Saviour; in all their affliction
He was afflicted, and the angel of his presence saved
them ; in his love and in his pity He redeemed them, and
bare and carried them all the days of old.'1 Where
note well, that as the essence of all true Eeligion consists
in moral service both of God and Man, so the essence of
all Eedemption is presented, throughout, as deliverance
from moral slavery into moral freedom. Eeligion is,
in every stage of Israel's history, affirmed to be moral
allegiance : ' Hath the Lord as great delight in burnt
offerings and sacrifices as in obeying the voice of the Lord ?
Behold, to obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken
than the fat of rams.'2 'The conclusion of the whole
matter is, Tear God and keep his commandments, for this
is the whole destiny of man.' 3 ' Wherewith shall I come
before the Lord, and bow myself before the Most High
God? Shall I come before Him with burnt offerings,
with calves of a year old? Will the Lord be pleased
with thousands of rams or with ten thousands of rivers of
oil ? Shall I give my first-born for my transgression,
the fruit of my body for the sin of my soul ? Nay, but
He hath showed thee, 0 man, what is right ; and what
doth the Lord require of thee but to do justly and to love
mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God?'4" And there
fore the Redemption which God works for men is, in its
supreme intention and result, Eedemption from moral
perverseness into moral devotedness to God and man.
1 Isaiah lxiii. 8, 9. 3 1 Sam. xv. 22.

3 Eccl. xii. 13. 4 Micah vi. 6-8.
CHRISTIANITY A MORAL REDEMPTION. 183
For this, the Lord declares by his Prophet, ' I brought

thee up out of the land of Egypt, and redeemed thee out
of the house of slaves.' 1 For this, says the Psalmist,
' let Israel hope in the Lord ; for with the Lord there is
mercy, and with Him is plenteous redemption ; and He will
redeem Israel from all his iniquities.'2 And to this are
directed the free and ample promises by Isaiah : ' Put
away the evil of your doings from before my eyes ; cease
to do evil ; learn to do well ; seek justice ; relieve the
oppressed ; do right to the fatherless ; plead for the
widow ; then come and let us talk together, and though
your sins be as scarlet they shall be as white as snow ;
though they be red like crimson, they shall be as wool ;
if ye be willing and obedient, ye shall eat the good of the
land.'3
And just like all the previous steps of God's redeem
ing work, so is that final step of it which He has accom
plished by the incarnation of his Son. In Christianity as
in Judaism, religion is declared to be a moral service of
God and man. ' Go and learn what that meaneth, I
desire mercy to man, not sacrifice to God.' 4 ' If you
wish to enter into life, keep the commandments.' 5 ' Thou
shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and thy
neighbour as thyself : on these two commandments hang
all the law and the prophets.' 6 ' To patient continuance
in icell- doing shall be eternal life.'7 'Without holiness
no one shall see the Lord.'8 And therefore the Eedemp-
tion wrought by Christ is, in like manner, a redemption
1 Micah vi. 4. 2 Psalm cxxx. 8.

3 Isaiah i. 16-19. 4 Matt. ix. 13 ; xii. 7.
5 Matt. xix. 17. 0 Matt. xxii. 40.
7 Rom. ii. 7. 8 Heb. xii. 14.
from moral evil to moral gooduess ; from moral disorder

and debility to moral health and strength. ' Thou shalt
call his name Jesus because He shall save his people from
their sins.' 1 ' God has remembered his covenant, that we
being delivered from the hand of our enemies might
serve Him without fear, in holiness and righteousness be
fore Him all the days of our life ! ' 2 The one mission of
the Divine Eedeemer, from first to last, by his teaching
and his sufferings, by his life and his death, by his pas
sage through the world, and his rising above the world,
by his descent to earth and his ascent to heaven, was to
effect ' deliverance to captives, liberty for the bruised,
the Jubilee year of restitution of men to God;'3 their
rescue from the bonds of ignorance, error, sin, and sor
row, and all the corruption that is in the world, into
participation of the Divine character here, and so of the
Divine blessedness hereafter. Christianity just meets the
need of all who under the burden of moral evil ' sigh
by reason of their bondage and cry unto God by reason
of their bondage.' It is ' God hearing their groaning
and remembering his covenant, and looking on his chil
dren, and having respect to them.'
And thus Christianity is the poetry of life ; the sing
ing of songs to heavy hearts. 'True poetry,' says
M. Jouffroy, ' has but one theme—that of the yearnings
of the human soul in the presence of the question of its
destiny.' And such a theme pervades the Epic of Re
demption ; to such yearnings it addresses itself ; by such
yearnings alone can it be understood, embraced, and ap
plied ; for such yearnings it supplies the consolations of
1 Matt. i. 21. ' Luke i. 74, 75. • Luke iv. 18, 10.
CHRISTS REDEEMING WORK. 185
the Heavenly Father. The whole scheme of the Gospel

is a Drama of Eedemption, from darkness to light, from
death to life. It is the poem of Paradise regained. And
Jesus is the maker of this poem ; the Hero of this drama,
throughout all its action, its vicissitudes, its catastrophe,
to its final consummation. So various is the work of
this Eedeemer that the Scripture writers exhaust the most
copious imagery to illustrate all its bearings and results.
His coming into the world for this end, they liken to the
self-sacrifice of a self-denying benefactor beggaring him
self to enrich the destitute ; 1 of a prince descending
from his father's splendour to do service for the meanest
of his subjects, even to humiliation and death.2 His
presence in the world, they compare to the sun in heaven
shedding over all men light and life.3 His office in the
world is likened to a sower sowing seed ; 4 to a fisherman
casting his nets into the sea ; 5 to a physician going wher
ever there is disease.6 His teachings are compared to the
indispensable bread of life ; 7 to the mamia which fell
from heaven ; 8 to the streams which flowed from the
stricken rock.9 His death is likened to the self-sacrifice -
of a faithful shepherd who rescues his flock at the price
of his own life ; 10 to the lifting up the serpent in the
wilderness for the healing of poisoned sinners ; 11 to the
ransom or redemption price by which slaves are bought
1 2 Cor. viii. 9 : ' Though He was rich, yet for our sakes He became poor,
that we through hisjwverty might be rich.' 2 Phil. ii. 5-8.
3 John viii. 12 ; xii. 46. 4 Matt. xiii. 3-0, 37 ; Mark i. 17.
5 Matt. xiii. 47 ; comp. iv. 10. 6 Mark i. 17.
7 John vi. .35. 8 John vi. 32, 33, 48-51.
9 John vii. 37-30. The water drawn nt the Feast of Tabernacles was in
memory of that brought forth for the Israelites in the wilderness. Comp.
1 Cor. x. 4.
10 John x. 11. 11 John iii. 14, 15.
out of bondage ; 1 to the Paschal lamb which warded off

the angel of death ; 2 to the triumph of a conqueror
over mighty foes ; 3 to the work of a surety cancelling
the demands of an antiquated covenant ; 4 and of a me
diator, ratifying a new and better one ; 5 to the atoning
sacrifice which lifted up the penalty from transgressors of
the Mosaic law, and banished it away into the wilder
ness ; 6 and to the substituted victim, which, clearing off
all charges out against us, makes us feel at one with God.7
His functions are likened to that of a peace-maker, doing
away all differences between God and men, and therewith
between the several divisions of God's family;8 of the
prophets who proclaimed God's words ; 9 the kings, who
maintained God's truth ; 10 the priests, who made interces
sion for God's people ; the high priest, who penetrated to
God's presence-chamber with propitiations, and came back
thence with benedictions.11 And the total result of his in
terposition is compared to that of an intervening friend
who brings together a disorganised and scattered family,
and reunites them into perfect amity under their father's
rule. For this was ' the good pleasure which God pur-
1 Matt. xx. 28; Acts xx. 28 ; 1 Cor. vi. 20 ; 1 Tim. ii. 6 ; Rev. v. 0.
2 John i. 20, 36 ; Luke xxii. 10 ; 1 Cor. v. 7 ; 1 Peter i. 10, where com
pare ' Ye were redeemed (e'\vrpa>driTe) with the precious blood of Christ as of
a Lamb without blemish ' with Exol. xii. 27 : ' This is the sacrifice of the
Lord's passover, when He delivered (eppva-aro) our houses.'
3 Coloss. ii. 15.
4 Coloss. ii. 14 : ' He cancelled the Bond (xeipoypacpov) which the Mosaic
ordinances had against us, and drove the nail through it, into his cross.'
5 Ileb. viii. 6. 'He is the mediator (jieo-in)s) of a better covenant'
(1 Tim. ii. 5).
0 Rom. iii. 25 ; comp. Levit. xvi. 15-22.
7 2 Cor. v. 10-21 : ' God was in Christ reconciling the world to Himself
(KarciKKdo-o-av, see Rom. v. 10, Col. i. 20).
8 Eph. ii. 13-15. 8 John iii. 31-36. »« John xviii. 37.
11 Hebrews ix. 11-14, 28.
FINAL REDEMPTION PROMISED. 187
posed in Himself to gather back into one body under one

head (dâ/ceâXaiwo-acrâi) the whole family in heaven
and earth.' 1
Whence, therefore, this many-sided Eedeenier is
imaged under various forms as ever administering the
affairs of this family to bring it to its destined end. Now
He is compared to a Minister of State presenting subjects
to their king;2 now to an advocate watching over his
client's welfare ; 3 now to a sovereign prince ordering all
things for his people's good ; 4 now to a watchful super
intendent trimming carefully the lamps committed to his
charge ; 5 now to a conqueror, organising the realms
which he has won, and working out his final triumph.0
For this, He promises his perpetual presence with his
followers ; 7 for this, sends his Spirit as his representative
in their hearts ; 8 for this, through this Spirit, guides,
animates, strengthens, and enables them to complete his
work by spreading everywhere the glad tidings of his
Eedemption, and applying the benefits of this Eedemption
to all mankind.9
5. And such a completion of Christ's redeeming work,

however long delayed, is assured to us by the promises of
God : ' I will put my law in their inward parts and write
it in their hearts ; and all shall know me, from the least
1 Eph. i. 0, 10, iii. 15 ; Col. i. 20. Where Bp. Ellicott says : ' We must
not presume to dilute the significant word diroKardWaâi, or to limit the
comprehensive one To. iravra, but acknowledge the Son as the "causa medians"
by which the absolute totality of created things shall be restored into its
primal hannony with its Creator.' Comp. also Heb. xii. 22-24.
8 1 Peter iii. 18. 3 1 John ii. 1.; * Eph. i. 20-23.
5 Rev. i. 12-20. 6 1 Cor! xv. 25-28.
7 Matt, xxviii. 19, 20. 8 Johnxiv. 15-21 ; xx.22. 0 1 Tim. ii. 0, 7.
of them to the greatest of them, saith the Lord.' 1 And

again : ' Supplications may be made for all men ; for God
our Saviour purposes that all men shall be saved by com
ing to the knowledge of the truth, because as there is
One universal God of all, so is there also One universal
Mediator between God and men, the Man Christ Jesus
who gave Himself a ransom for all, to be proclaimed to
them in due time.' 2
Such a completion is being furthered by the over
ruling Providence of God. For through his never-failing
control the very divergences to evil in all created being
are made subservient to ultimate greater good. The
aberrations incident to all growth are wrought up
into helps towards higher forms of growth. The stum
bling blocks opposed by ignorance, and sin, and sorrow,
are transformed into stepping-stones to truth, and holi
ness, and happiness. The agonies of wrong-doing are
made the birth-pangs of right-doing. Always is Eedemp-
tion being furthered, even when it seems most thwarted.
The wilfulness of individuals is made contributory to the
will of God : • Ye indeed devised evil, but God deter
mined it for good.'3 Tor this purpose have I raised
thee up, that my power might be shown and my name
celebrated through the earth.'4 The degeneracy of a
particular nation is made subservient to the regeneration
of all nations : ' The barren branches are broken off that
1 Jer. xxxi. 33. * 1 Tim. ii. 3-6.

3 Gen. 1. 20, where mark the antithesis : ' It was in your mind to do evil,
but in God's mind to accomplish by this good.' The word is the same in
both clauses (Chashab, j3ov\ofjuu), and much stronger than our English
version gives it. See the LXX. :
Vpeis e/3ov\ev(rao-de eIs irovifpa,
6 8e Oeof ifiov\evo-arO els ayada.
* Eom. ix. 17.
FINAL REDEMPTION SECURED. 189
fruitful ones may be graffed in ; their fall is the riches of

the Gentiles ; the casting away of them is the reconcil
ing of the world.' 1 The trials of men work out their
triumph. ' Count it all joy when you fall into divers
trials, for the trial of your faith worketh patience ; and
patience, experience ; and experience, hope.' 2 The very
sins of men are overruled to their growth in good
ness ; ' for behold this selfsame thing that ye sorrowed
after a godly sort, what carefulness it wrought in you,
what zeal, what vehement desire ! 3 Nay, even the
greatest sin ever wrought by men—the murder of their
Eedeemer—is turned into the means of life for the re
deemed. That awful fact which to the eye of sense ap
peared the ruin of all hope is affirmed by Prophecy, by
Jesus, and by his followers, to be, not only no hindrance
to his work, but the most important step in its elabora
tion ; the indispensable factor through which alone it
could be wrought out. ' 0 fools and slow of heart to
believe all that the Prophets have spoken ! Was it not
ordained that the Christ should suffer, and so step onward
1 Rom. xi. 19; xi. 15. 2 James i. 2; Rom. v. 3, 4.
3 2 Cor. vii. 11. Comp. Bossuet: 'Que ceux-la craignent de dt5-
couvrirles dt5fauts des ames saintes, qui ne savent pas combien est puissant le
bras de Dieu pour faire servir ces de"fauts non-seulement a, sa gloire mais en
core a. la perfection de ses t51us.' And I. H. Fichte, Spec. Theol. 650: ' The
eternal purpose of God cannot be defeated by the weakness or the wilfulness
of men, though these may for a time hinder and delay its accomplishment.'
And Cleanthes : ' Nothing in earth or heaven takes place without Thee,
except the wild vagaries of foolish men. Nay, Thou knowest how to reduce
even these superfluities of naughtiness {irepuro-a, James i. 21) into their
place ; to bring back to order the abnormal ; to make the most unfriendly
things befriend thy purpose. For Thou hast so knit together in one whole
the evil and the good that they subserve one eternal law ! '—
dXXa (rv xat ra irepuro-a eirlarao-ai apria delvai,
Kai Koo-peis Tci oKOo-pa, Koi ov cpt\a o-oi cpt\a iarlv '
a>8e yap els iv airavra o-vvrippj>Kas io-ffKa KoKoio-iv,
acff iva yiyv&rdat irdvrav \6yov ateV iovra.
up to his glory ? ' 1 ' Except a corn of wheat fall into

the ground and die, it abideth fruitless ; it is only when it
has died that it bringeth forth fruit.' 2 The seeming de
struction of the Prince of Peace shall be the real destruc
tion of the Prince of this world ; and ' when Jesus is
lifted up (upon the cross) then it is that He draws all men
to Him.' 8 For ' those things which God had showed
beforehand by the mouth of all his Prophets, that the
Christ should suffer, He hath by your wicked deed ful
filled.'4 Therefore do the disciples exult in the trium
phant thought that ' all which Herod, and Pontius Pilate,
and the Gentiles, and the people of Israel had done
against their Master, was only in fulfilment of what God's
hand and God's counsel had determined before to be
done ! '5 Whence comes the final assurance, on which we
may rely, that the completion of the promised Eedemp-
tion will be effected not only by the counsel but the hand
of God ; not only by his all-devising Wisdom but his
Almighty Power. For ' though the Eedeemer was cru
cified through weakness, He now liveth by the power
of God.' ' He must reign till He hath put all enemies
under his feet.' 'The Son of man shall come, in the
clouds of heaven, with power and great glory, and shall
gather together his elect from one end of heaven to the
other ! ' 6
6. But in order to this ultimate result there must take

place in each individual soul a personal Eedemption from
sin to holiness, from godlessness to God. The necessity
1 Luke xxiv. 25-27. 2 John xii. 24. 3 John xii. 81, 32.
4 Acts iii. 18. s Acts iv. 27, 28.
0 2 Cor. xiii. 4; 1 Cor. xv. 25; Matt. xxiv. 30, 31.
INDIVIDUAL REDEMPTION. 191
of such a transformation, and the way in which it must

be accomplished, are intimated by the Divine Master
Himself, and vividly painted from personal experience by
his servant Paul.
The Master Himself, in Johnviii. 30-36, says to those
who had given Him their confidence (tous TrcmarT€VKOTa<:
aiTa), ' If you remain faithful to my teaching, you will be
come genuine disciples, and possess yourselves of that
truth which will work out in you freedom.' And when
they replied with indignation, ' Freedom ! We have never
been enslaved to any one ! Why this promise of Free
dom?' Jesus solemnly assures them (apriv apty Xeyw iifiv),
' Every one who does wrong shows himself to be in
slavery to wrong ; and slaves have no abiding position in
the family ; the Son of the family alone belongs unchange
ably to it. Only, therefore, as this Son confers on you
his own position, and exalts you into freedom like his
own, can this family become your home.'
Where the intimation is : 'All men are enslaved by
sin. Christ alone, the Son of God, is free from it. But
this Son of God can make us partakers of his privilege
of sonship, and in this way of his freedom from sin. And
this He does by unveiling to us the Father as our Father
as well as his ; as standing to us in the relation, not
of a threatening Lawgiver, but of a faithful Friend.1
The deliverance of men from sin is accomplished, first,
through the proclamation of God's true character, by
the teaching of his Son,2 and next through the crowning
1 John i. 17: 'The law was given by Moses' (the revelation of God
by Moses was that of a Lawgiver mainly), 'but grace and truth came by
Jesu3 Christ ' (the revelation of God by Jesus is that of one full of never-
failing, constant Love). See John iii. 16.
2 For ' the word ' which Jesus speaks of in John viii. 31 is ' the word
192 THE SUPREME REALITY. -
proof of this character afforded by the death of this Son

in our place and stead.1
But the teaching of Jesus on this point of the deliver
ance from sin is made more vivid to us by the personal
testimony of his servant Paul. He strikes his keynote
in Eom. vii. 6, ' We Christians have been freed from the
jurisdiction of the Law of Moses through our dying along
with Jesus, so that we may now serve God in a new way of
moral spontaneity in place of the old way of legal literality. ' 2
Then the Apostle shows the necessity of such a libera
tion ; since those old statutes, instead of accomplishing
the obedience they demanded, bring upon their subjects
the curse which they denounce. For the very man
who recognises the Law of God as spiritual discovers by
that He had seen when with the Father,' verses 37, 38. And ' the truth ' of
which, by faithfulness to this ' word,' the disciples would become possessed,
is the truth concerning God as their Father and Friend. Of. John xvii. 3,
' This is life eternal to know Thee, the only true God as revealed by thy Sou ;'
and verse 1 7, ' Make them holy by means ofthy truth,' that is, by means of the
word concerning Thee which Thou hast commissioned me to reveal: for 'this
word concerning Thee is the true exposition of thy character (6 \6yos 6 o-bs
dXiy&id eort).
1 For ' in this was made clear the love of God towards us, in that He sent
his only-begotten Son into the world, that we might live through Him.
Herein is love ' (its effectual proof), 'that He so loved us as to send his Son,
to be a propitiation for our sins.' (1 John iv. 9, 10.)
3 See Rom. vii. 0 : ' Now we are emancipated from the Law, that we
may serve God in a new way of moral obedience to its spirit (iv ratvonp-i
irvevparos), in place of the old way of legal obedience to its letter (<tal ov
iraKaiorrfTi ypaplwros).' That is, we are freed from the conventional, local,
temporary law of the Mosaic precepts, to serve according to the universal,
eternal law of moral principle. Comp. the analogous phrases, Rom. ii. 29 :
' True circumcision is that of the heart, wrought by the Spirit of God and
not by the law (iv weCpon ov ypdppari).' 2 Cor. iii. C : ' We are ministers
of a new Covenant, ov ypdmxaros dXXa irvevparos, not written on tablets of
stone (verse 3), but by the Spirit of the living God on our hearts.' Rom. ii. 14:
' Christian Gentiles, though without the external law of Moses, act from
an inward law (tpvo-ei) in accordance with it.' Cf. Laertius : ' Aristippus,
rogatus aliquando quid haberent eximium Philosophi : Si omnes, inquit,
leges intereant, cequabiliter vivimus.' Horace : ' Oderunt peccare boni virtutis
amore.'
MORAL SLAVERY. 193
the effect of its demands on his recalcitrant sinfulness,

that he himself is just the contrary of this law, unspiritual,
enslaved to sin. He finds a law in his fleshly nature,1
defying the Law of God ; and while his inner man
admires its beauty, his outer man rebels against its autho
rity, and becomes the bondslave of sin. 0 wretched
thrall ! Who shall deliver such a one from this fleshly
nature thus dragging him down to death ?
Why, thank God, Jesus Christ ! He has wrought
this deliverance for every one who becomes one with
Him ; who, being baptised into his death, and so buried
with Him away from the world of flesh, rises with Him
into the world of spirit (Eom. vi. 3-7)! 2 For, to such
1 When using those terms, ' the body ' (o-apa), and ' the flesh ' (o-dp£),
and ' the members ' (jueXij), Paul is not thinking merely of what we should
call ' bodily indulgences,' but of all that is opposed to the pure reason, or
' spirit,' For in Gal. v. 19-21 he describes the ' works of the flesh ' as cor
ruptions of understanding and will, as well as concupiscence— silliness in
the understanding, and selfishness in the will, as well as sensuality in the
desires. For he enumerates in detail, as instances of these ' works of the
flesh,' the results not only of passions unregulated by reason, such as
' adultery,' &c. ; but of notions unenlightened by reason, such as ' idolatry,
witchcraft, heresies' (which he calls in Col. ii. 18 'fleshly modes of
thinking,' 6 vovs riji o-apKos, and in 2 Cor. i. 12 'fleshly shrewdness,'
0-ocpia a-apRuaj) ; and of volitions unrestrained by reason, such as ' strife,
seditions' (which he calls in Eph. ii. 3 'wilfulnesses of thought,' Oe\rfpara
Twv Slavoiav).
2 The position asserted for those who are 'in Christ Jesus,' in Rom. viii.
1-11, is directly the reverse of the position described in vii. 7-25 of the man
who has not yet found Him. The whole passage, vii. 7-25, is an expansion
of the single sentence in vii. 5, ' When we were in the flesh (or living in con
nection with this world), our sinful passions, provoked by the antagonism of
the Law, wroughlfin us fruit whose end is death.' And the whole passage,
viii. 1-11, is an expansion of the contrasted single sentence in vii. 6 :
' But now, having become united to Christ (verse 4), we have been delivered,
as if by death, from the Law, to serve God as men risen out of the old sphere
of literal compulsion into a new sphere of spiritual freedom.' And this
contrast is repeated in vii. 24 and viii. 2 by the repetition of the two cognate
verbs for deliverance. The man not yet ' in Christ ' had cried despairingly,
' Who can make me free from the power of sin ? ' The man ' in Christ ' cries
0
194 THE SUPREME REALITY,
a man there is no death to be feared ; such a man the

power of the Spirit of Christ, which raises up to life, has
freed from the power of sin, which drags down to death.
Because just the very thing which the Law of Moses
could not accomplish—the entitling, namely, of its sub
jects to the blessing which it promised them of eternal
life—this has been accomplished by God's sending his
Son into the world, clothed in sinful flesh and made
a substitute for sinners. For in this way God inflicted
in his flesh the curse of the law on sin, that (on the other
hand) the blessing1 of the law on righteousness might
be vouchsafed to those who, risen in Christ Jesus into a
exultingly, ' The power of Christ's Spirit has made me free from the power
of sin ! Now, therefore, there is for me no death, hut everlasting life ! ' So
far forth, then, as we live in Christ, and He lives in us, we are 'made free
from sin, with our fruit unto holiness, and the end everlasting life' (vi. 22).
And so far forth as we are not realising this freedom, we are not in Christ,
nor is his Spirit in us (viii. 9). It is well said hy Prof. Godwin (on
Romans, 185) : ' The whole discussion is to show the powerlessness of the
Law, in contrast to the power of the Gospel. And therefore to suppose that
Christian experience is described in vii. 7-25 is to make Paul's argument
self-destructive ; for the inefficaey of the Gospel would be proved as well as
that of the law.'
1 Bom. viii. 4, To Sutaiapa Tov vopov, where Sucalapa is not the duties
which the Law prescribes but the rewards which it promises. For what was
the ahvvarov of the Law ? Its impotency to bring its own blessings on its
subjects, because of the counter-influence of the flesh in them. Its promise
was (Levit. xviii. 5), 'Keep my statutes, and ye shall live by them;' but
this ' keeping of its statutes ' men could not accomplish because of the anta
gonism of sin. Of. Gal. iii. 21 : 'If any mere law could confer eternal life,
this blessing of right to eternal life (ij Sucaioo-vvrt) would have come by the
Mosaic law.' What the law could not effect was that men should keep its
precepts. But just this is effected by the power of the Spirit of Christ, which
is stronger than the power of sin ; and this power of the Spirit of Christ
comes down into us through our faith in the sacrifice of Christ. And thus
the penalties of the Law having been inflicted on Jesus, in our place, for our
old life in the flesh, the rewards of the Law may be bestowed on us for our
new life in the Spirit. He endured for us the curse of the Law (Gal. iii. 13),
that we being thus exonerated from that curse might gain the blessing of the
Law. See Bom. vi. 22, 23; and comp. Chrysostom: To /iev ay&vio-â
ylyovev Keiva, tfpeis oV rrjs vtKijs mreKavo-aluv.
MORAL REDEMPTION. 195
new state of being, walk no longer as embodied persons,

in the sphere of flesh, but as disembodied persons, in the
sphere of spirit.1
And this is the only way of deliverance from sin and
ruin. For all who continue as if still in the body give
their minds to bodily indulgences ; 2 only those who rise,
as if disembodied,3 into the sphere of spirit, give their
1 Bom. "viii. 4, where prf KoTo o-apKa irepmareiv = to lire as if no longer

in the body ; as if we had passed away from its influences into a higher
phase of being (that of spirit) ; as if we were, thus far, and with reference to
the sinful impulses of the flesh, out of ourselves, raised above ourselves, and
transferred into the region of spirit. Cf. Rev. i. 10, where to be ' in the
Spirit ' is the same as Acts x. 10, to be ' in a trance ; ' and a ' trance ' is a
state of eKo-rao-is, or being raised out ofoneself; as the word 'trance ' (as well as
ecstasy) shows : for it denotes the being in a state of transition (transitus) from
one region of existence to another. The Christian is to live as a denizen of the
world of spirits ; breathing no longer the fumes of earth, but airs from heaven.
2 Cf. Phil. iii. 19, 20 : ' Those men give their minds to earthly things,
but our citizenship is in heaven.' Rom. vi. 4-6 : ' We have been buried with
Christ, that like as He rose from the dead we also should walk in a new
sphere of life (Jv Kaivorqrt farjs), bearing this in mind that our old man has
been crucified along with Him, to the destruction of that body in which sin
dwells, that we may be no longer the slaves of sin.' Ephes. ii. 5, 6 : ' God
has made us alive in Christ, and raised us up with Him, and made us sit in
the heavenly places along with Him.' Col. iii. 1-5 : ' Seeing then that jou
have been thus raised up with Christ, seek the things which are above ; give
your minds to heavenly and not earthly pursuits; for ye have died away
from these last, and your life is hidden up with Christ in God ; wherefore
put to death your lower man (to jueXq) which remains still on earth.'
s To understand this notion of disembodied spirit, we must bear in mind
the psychology of Paul. This regards man as a supersensuous Being, some
times called Spirit, sometimes Soul, sometimes Mind, sometimes the inner
(or essential) Man, who during his residence in the body is affected and con
taminated by the influences of the world and 'the motions of sins in his
members;' but who on deliverance from this lower sphere escapes from
temptation and sin : for ' he that is dead is freed from sin ' (Rom. vi. 7). And
this escape the Christian is to anticipate, by already dying, with Christ,
to the body and the whole sphere of sense ('He died unto sin once, so
likewise do ye consider yourselves as dead unto sin ! ' Rom. vi. 10-11.
'In Jesus Christ the world is crucified to me, and I to the world,' Gal.
vi. 14) ; and by rising again with Christ into the unpolluted sphere of spirit
(' In that he liveth, he liveth unto God ; do ye therefore regard yourselves
as alive unto God in Him,' Rom. vi. 10, 11). We must become as if already
o 2
minds to moral goodness.1 But a mind set on bodily

indulgences must sink us into ruin, because it impels us to
break God's law, and so to be at variance with God, and
thence exposed to condemnation by God ; whereas a mind
set on moral goodness—this alone is pleasing to God ; this
alone, therefore, can bring us on to glory and blessedness.
How then are we to realise this life, as of disembodied
spirit in the sphere of spirit?2 Then only when the
Spirit of Christ descends into us, and when partaking
thereby of the consciousness which He enjoyed, of Son-
ship with God, we are enabled to feel like Him (according
to his prayer in John xvii. 21, 23) that we are one with
God, and God with us.3 "Without this Spirit of Christ we
have no part with Christ ; but with it, even though our
body must undergo the penalty of sin, our spirit shall
reach the reward of everlasting life, through righteousness.
disembodied, and must therefore no longer, even -while remaining upon earth,
live the life of sense (Jv a-apKt), but the life of reason and of conscience
(Jv irvevpari).
1 TA (f>povripa Ttfs a-apxos. On the full meaning of (ppovrfpa, see Ernesti,
Opusc. Theologica, pp. 341-343. It includes the bent, direction, habit of a
mind given up to sensuous thoughts, feelings, and desires on the one hand ; or
to spiritual and moral on the other.
2 To be ' in the spirit ' is to dwell, as it were, in the sphere of spirit, which
is the sphere of God. It is to have passed out of the region of our selfish
personality (the fya> of the flesh) into the region of God's personality ; taking
his eyoj into ours ; giving ourselves up to be taught, guided, controlled by
Him. See Gal. ii. 19-21 : I am come to live unto God : Christ's cruci
fixion has been repeated in me ; so that it is no longer my native, sensuous
iya, but Christ, the iya> of Christ, which actuates me. I have removed myself
from my own centre to become a point in the circumference of which Christ
is the centre. Superstition is the endeavour to save one's self from God.
Religion is the readiness to give up one's self to God, and take His self into us
instead. ' Our wills are ours to make them Thine ! '
3 For this is what Paul means by ' the Spirit of God dwelling in us '
(Rom. viii. 7). It is the realisation of the promise, ' I will dwell in them
and walk in them ; and I will be their God, and they shall be my people, and
I will be a Father unto them, and they shall be my sons and daughters.'
(Exod. xxix. 45 ; Jer. xxxi. 1, 9 ; 2 Cor. vi. 16, 18.)
BEASON BEWAILS 0 UB SLA FEB Y. 1 97
And here note how the religion of Christ has solved

a problem which Philosophy could not solve. Philosophy,
as much as Christianity, acknowledges the necessity of
personal redemption. All observers of human nature
recognise the antagonism between principle and passion,
and the slavery in which this antagonism ends. ' In
every one,' says Plato, ' there are two leading principles
(iSe'cu), the one implanted in us (!)u,t£utos) which desires
what is pleasant, the other acquired by us (eiH/cr»7Tos)
which demands what is proper Tov aptcrTov) ;
and these are contrary to each other, sometimes the first
prevailing, sometimes the second.' 1 And so Cicero :
'Both Pythagoras and Plato make a twofold nature of
man ; the one partaking of reason, the other destitute of
it. In that which partakes of reason they place the seat
of tranquillity, i.e. of placid self-consistency ; in its con
trary they find the source of those unruly motions both
of anger and of lust which are enemies to reason.' And
then comes the confession of a slavery into which this
antagonism reduces us. ' Every pleasure and pain,' says
Plato, 'is like a nail which drives the soul into the
body and fastens it thereto till it makes it bodylike
(crcoju.aToeiS^).'''' Hence, as Phgedra complains,
Well knowing what ia right,
We practise wrong. Some do amiss through sloth,
Others, to virtue's rigid laws prefer
Their pleasures.3
And Medea confesses :
I am well aware
What crimes I venture on ; hut rage, the cause
Of woes most grievous to the human race,
Over my better reason has prevailed.4
1 Plato, PhadruB, 237 d. 8 Id. Phmdo, 83.

3 Euripides, Hippol. 377. * Id. Medea, 1078,
198 THE SVPMEME REALITY.
And Epictetus employs the very language of St.

Paul : ' All sin involves in itself a conflict, for the sinner
has no desire to sin but rather to do right, as is plain
from his self-contradiction. And the very man who can
point out to another his transgressions, and show him
how he is failing to do what he approves of, and is
doing what he does not approve of—this man him
self will fall back from his own determinations ! ' 1 And
Seneca not only confesses this fact of our moral enslave
ment, for ' no one can be counted free who gives way to
the bodily passions ; ' 2 but, like Paul, suspects a somewhat
at the bottom of this bondage. 'What is this which
when we are tending in one direction drags us another
way, and when we hang back from evil urges us on to it ?
What is it which thus wrestles with our mind and throws
it off from all firm determination ? For we are always
halting between two opinions ; there is nothing that we
frankly, fully, absolutely, permanently decide for.' 3
Now, how is this conflict to be settled, how this
slavery to be escaped from ? Philosophy sees no end for
it but in the casting off the body ; but Christianity tells us
how redemption may be accomplished even in the body.
' So long as we have our body about us,' says Plato, ' and
our soul is kneaded up in one lump with such evil stuff,
we shall never be able to possess ourselves completely of
that holiness we long for.'4 But the doctrine of Paul is,
1 Epict. Diss. ii. 26: eO 6VXet, ov iroiei, Kai 6 îj dfKei, iroiet. Cf. Rom.
vii. 15 : ov yap 6 de\a>, TovTo irpao-o-w, aK\' b pioS> TovTo iroim.
2 Seneca, Ep. xcii. 31 : ' Nemo liber est qui corpori servit.'
3 Ibid. lii. 1. And Seneca notes this self-contradiction under the same
image as St. Paul, even when he glories in having escaped from it. Ep.
lxv. 21 : ' Major sum et ad majora genitus quam ut mancipium sim mei
corporis; quod equidem non aliter adspicio quam vinculum cdiquod libertati
meee circumdatum? 4 Plato, Phadon, 66.
RELIGION EFFECTS OUR REDEMPTION. 199
that already, before deliverance from our body, we may

be redeemed, though uot from the presence yet from the
power of sin ; because the energy of the Spirit of God
which is infused into us through our union with Christ,
enables us to break the force of sin and strangle its ser
pent brood. For ' if we walk as dead to sin and alive
with Christ we may destroy the power of our earthly
members ; 1 keep under the body and reduce it to sub
jection ; 2 and, by Christ living in us, pass even our
fleshly life in harmony with the Son of God.' 3 Because
by Him there is wrought in us that fundamental trans
formation from error to truth, from despair to hope, and
so from moral impotence to moral power, which works the
personal Eedemption that we need.4 A transformation
which originates with the Father ; 5 which is produced in
us through trust in Jesus as the Son of the Father ; 6
which is kept up by the Spirit of Jesus bringing us into
filial fellowship with the Father ; 7 which shows itself by
the passing away of our old frame of mind and the crea
tion of an altogether new one ; 8 and the result of which
is to bring us into participation of God's holiness now,9
1 Coloss. iii. 1-5. 2 1 Cor. ix. 27. 3 Gal. ii. 20.

4 For always, ' Possumus quod posse videmur.'
5 James i. 18 : ' Of his own will begat He us, by means of the word of
truth.' 1 John iii. 9, v. 18 : ' Begotten of God.'
6 John i. 12 : ' To them He gave the privilege of sons of God, who believe
on his name,' i.e. rely on Him as what He claims to be.
' Kom. viii. 15 : 'Ye have not received the spirit of a slave, so as to
fear God ; but the spirit of a son which enables you to call God your
Father.'
8 2 Cor. v. 17 : ' If any one be in Christ, he is a new creature ; old things
have passed away, and all things have become new.'
9 2 Peter i. 4: ' He has given us exceeding great and precious promises,
that, animated by them, we may become participant of the Divine cha
racter.'
200 THE fiVPliEME REALITY.
in order to our participation in God's glory here

after.1
And then the transformation which takes its rise in

the individual soul, spreads from this to other souls ;
affects the spiritual, moral, and social condition of the
world at large, and brings in everywhere everlasting
righteousness. That which the Spirit of Christ has begun
in particular men, the same Spirit diffuses through the
mass of men. It is the Spirit of Christ, in its historic
development, which, by means of the truths of Christ,
regenerates the world. To this Spirit we owe every new
light shed on the image of God as our Father, Friend,
Eedeemer; every fresh experience of the fundamental
sentiments of reverence, allegiance, love, devotedness to
this Father, and of righteousness and goodness towards
all his offspring ; and every refinement and advance in
the religious Ideas, the moral principles, and the social
conduct of men. Jesus Himself declared, ' I have many
things to say to you, but you cannot bear them now.'
Jesus Himself therefore promised, 'The Spirit, whom the
Father will send to you as my Substitute, will open out
to you more expansive views and principles ; and will do
this by giving vitality to the truths I have already taught
you.' Jesus Himself assured his disciples, ' By means of
this Spirit, thus enforcing, enlarging, applying my in
structions, and thus unfolding continually wider views of
God and man, and of your relation and your duties to
1 1 John iii. 2 : ' Now are we sons of God, and therefore we know that
when the Son of God shall appear, we shall be like Him (»'.«. participant of
his glory) ; for we shall see Him in that glory.' Rom. viii. 29 : ' Whom He
chose He appointed to become conformed to the image of his Son,' i.e., as the
next verse shows, ' to partake of the glory of his Son.'
THE RESTITUTION OF ALL THINGS. 201
God and man, I will come and dwell in you ; nay, the
Father Himself will come and dwell in you, and so shall
you find that I am in my Father, and you in me, and I in
you ! ' 1 And thus in every department of human life, in
science, in philosophy, in ethics, in sociology, in religion,
it is the Spirit of truth who guides men into all the truth
of God ! Thus does he, through the succession of ages,
glorify the Divine Word, because he receives of this
Word and opens out his teaching more and more. And
in this way, in the fulness of time, will God ' pour out
his Spirit upon all flesh,' and all shall be like inspired
persons, and all have commerce with the invisible, and
all, from the least to the greatest, know God !
7. Nor does the process of Eedemption begun from

the first, carried on through the incarnation of Christ,
and made effectual by his Spirit, stop with this recovery
of man. It includes in it the world of nature as well
as of mind. It is termed, with reference to things
as well as persons, ' the Eegeneration,' and ' the Eestitu-
tion ' (or recovery to their primitive Ideal) . ' of all
things.' 'In the Regeneration, the Son of man shall
appear in his glory.' 2 ' Whom the heavens must re
ceive until the time of the Restitution of all things.'3
' The earnest expectation, even of the realm of nature,
waiteth anxiously for the manifestation of the sons of
God ' (the realm of mind) ; ' because the realm of nature
was made subject to corruption, not of its own accord
but by the will of Him who brought it into bondage, in
hope of ultimate rescue from this bondage into the
1 John xvi. 12-15, xiv. 23. 8 Matt. xix. 28.
3 Acta iii. 21.
glorious liberty of the realm of mind ; for we know that

the whole creation travaileth as in birthpangs. waiting
anxiously for the adoption, to wit the redemption of its
corporeal elements.' 1
Which final accomplishment of the Redemptive pro
cess for both men and things will constitute the long-
desired ' Kingdom of God,' or reign of the Divine Ideas,
as accomplished facts throughout the universe. When
this reign will be established, in what way, with what
results, we cannot know ; but the establishment itself is
not only promised, but provided for, in the end for which
all things were at first created. To be sure of this, not
withstanding all seeming failures of the promised coming,
we must hold very fast the fundamental distinction be
tween Ideas and Conceptions—Ideas, which are the
eternal thoughts of God involved in successive phases of
gradual development, and containing in themselves the
presage and the promise of their ultimate fulfilment ;
and Conceptions, which are but the human representa
tives of these Ideas, subject to all the modifications of
time and place, and taking form and colour from the
ever-varying accidents of age, and country, and tradi
tional opinion, and historical development, and individual
genius and culture. The Idea, e.g., of a painter or a
poet is that which he has in mind to bring out in a form
intelligible and acceptable to his generation. His con
ceptions are the dress in which he clothes this Idea to
make it visible and impressive. And if we remember
the wondrously different forms in which different poets
and painters, of different ages and countries, and of
1 Eom. viii. 19-23.

CONCEPTIONS INADEQUATE TO IDEAS. 203
different genius, culture, and artistic skill, have clothed

the Ideas common to them all, we shall understand how
variously, how conventionally, how inadequately,1 with
what merely local and temporary modes of exhibition,
the Divine Ideas infused into the minds of Sages, Pro
phets, and Apostles, may be both conceived by themselves
and expressed to their compatriots.'2 And so it is with
the consummation imaged by those terms—' the kingdom
of heaven,' ' the reign of God on earth,' ' the coming of
Christ.' The Idea, in the mind of God from the first, is
that of the accomplishment, through all the realms of
Nature and of Mind, of the end for which they were
created, and to which they are made to tend. The Con-
1 Inadequately; for what imagination could ever clothe with fitting

drapery such a simple though sublime idea as {e.g.) 'Thy will be done on
earth as it is in heaven ' ?
' Do what we will, we cannot realise
Half we conceive—the glorious vision flies.
Go where we may, we cannot hope to find
The truth, the beauty pictured in our mind.'
3 Mr. Lewes says {Problems of Life) : ' Religion is rapidly tending to
one of two issues—either towards extinction or towards transformation. I
believe the latter—that religion will continue to regulate the evolution of
humanity ; but then to do this in the coming ages it must occupy a position
similar to the one it occupied in the past, and express the highest thought of
the time.' But it is not Religion which needs transformation, for its princi
ples are ever the same ; but only the Forms under which its successive nurses
have smothered, as with swaddling clothes, the divine child. When dis
engaged from its wrappings, needful perhaps, but only for a time, it will be
found shining out in perfect harmony with ' the highest thought.' For what is
this thought, when freed from the assumptions and conjectures of individual
fancy (for even scientific men may err !) but a reflection of those grand ideas
which gleam like guiding stars in the Book of God ? Subjective Truth is
but a ray from objective Truth ; for pure, impersonal thought is (to adopt
the words of Dr. Tyndall) ' a kind of inspiration by which we rise from the
contemplation of facts to the principles on which they depend. The mind is,
as it were, a photographic plate, which is gradually cleansed by the effort to
think rightly ; and when so cleansed, and not before, receives impressionsfrom
the light of truth.'
ceptions under which this Idea is represented to the

human understanding—conceptions about place, and
time, and mode, and circumstance—are different in
different Sages, Prophets, and Apostles, according to
their personal culture and their social surroundings.
They come with the time and go with the time. They
picture a series of figures draped in the garments of tran
sient fashion. They have therefore never been literally
realised, and never can be. But the Idea they represent
—this most certainly will be realised. For when the
intermediate ' process of the ages ' shall have run its
course and accomplished its purpose, then the Mediator,
to whom this process has been confided, will lay aside the
office entrusted to Him, and God Himself will be recog
nised as filling all things with his own immediate presence.
' Then cometh the end, when the Son shall have delivered
up his intermediate rule to God the Father, having put
down all opposing rule, authority, and power. For it is
given to this Son to reign till He have trampled all
opponents under foot, and the last of these opponents is
death. Then, when all things shall have been made sub
ject to the Son, the Son also Himself shall be subjected to
Him who gave Him rule, that God may be thenceforth the
All in all things ! ' 1
Thus there is presented to our hope that final triumph
of eternal good over temporary evil which is ever sus
taining the spirits of the Scripture writers, amidst all the
corruptions of this world. They rest in a metaphysic of
the future, even more than in a metaphysic of the past
and present. For with them faith is not merely a ' con-
1 1 Oor. xv. 24-28.

GOD'S KINGDOM PROMISED. 205
viction of things unseen,' but a ' confidence in things

hoped for.'1 And so these things hoped for are con
tinually made the theme of the most glowing prediction,
and the most intense prayer.
The prediction of great things to come recurs inces
santly, in proportion as the sacred writers find themselves
perplexed and depressed by the things around them.2
Thus, the subjugation of man under the power of the
Great Serpent gives rise to the consolatory prediction
that ' the seed of the woman shall ultimately bruise this
serpent's head.'3 The humiliations of God's people in
the times of the Prophets call forth the promises that
this people shall rule the world.4 And these promises
sometimes enlarge themselves into indefinite announce
ments of indescribable Eedemption and Recovery;5 some
times contract themselves into the more definite predic
tion of the Eedeemer Himself, by whom this recovery
is to be achieved ; 6 sometimes descend to the minutest
1 Heb. xi. l.
2 ' The feeling which lies at the base of the Messianic hopes is for the
most part an elegiac one ; it is the mournful contemplation of a dark pre
sent, leading to ardent desire for a brighter future.'—De Wette, Dogmatih,
i. 115.
3 Gen. in. 15.
* Isaiah viii. 22, ix. 2: ' They look upon the land, and behold, trouble and
darkness and dimness of anguish,—nevertheless the people that walk in dark
ness shall see a great light ! ' Psalm xxxvii. 11 : ' The oppressed shall inherit
the earth.'
5 Joel ii. 21-27 : 'Fear not, 0 land, be glad and rejoice, for the Lord
will do great things ; and ye shall know that I am in the midst of you, and
that I am the Lord your God.'
0 Amos ix. 11 : 'In that day will I raise up the tabernacle of David that
is fallen.' Hosea iii. 5 : ' And the children of Israel shall return and seek
the Lord their God, and David their King.' Isai. xi. 1-10 : ' In that day
there shall be a root of Jesse which shall stand for an ensign to the peoples.'
ix. 6, 7 : ' Unto us a child is born . . . and of the increase of his govern
ment and peace, there shall be no end, upon the throne of David andupoa
his kingdom to rule it for ever ! '
delineation of this recovery as a restored Theocracy, or

reign of God throughout the earth ; 1 sometimes rise to
the broadest foreshadowing of universal holiness, and
therewith happiness ; 2 and sometimes concentrate the
whole conception of this holiness and happiness in the
one Idea of God's presence and God's smile pervading a
regenerated world : • I saw a new heaven and a new
earth ; for the first heaven and the first earth were passed
away : and I heard a great voice out of heaven, saying,
Behold, the tabernacle of God is with men, and He will
dwell with them, and they shall be his people, and God
Himself shall be with them, and be their God ! ' 3
But these glorious prospects of better times too soon
fade aAvay from the prophetic gaze. They vanish like a
fleeting rainbow in the midst of gathering clouds. They
give way to alternate shadows of sin and sorrow which
chill the soid. And then prediction changes into prayer.
That which we hope for seems beyond all human possi
bility, and must be sought through divine interposition.4
We cannot know—we cannot even conjecture—the when
and the how of this final triumph of good over evil ; and
1 Ezekiel xL to xlvii.
s Isaiah xi. 6-8 : ' The wolf shall then dwell with the lamb, and they
shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain ; for the earth will be
full of the knowledge of the Lord.' lx. 17 : 'I will make thy officers peace
and thine exactors righteousness ;' and then ' thy sun shall no more go down,
neither shall thy moon withdraw itself, for the Lord shall be thine everlasting
light, and the days of thy mourning shall be ended.'
3 Rev. xxi. 1-4.
4 ' Die Liicken und Unzuliinglichkeiten aller menschlichen Verhaltnisse
in das Gefiihl religibser Ergebung muss aufgelbst werden . . . Die uns selber
fehlende Krafte miissen wir in einer iiber die Menschheit hinausliegenden
Erganzung suchen.'—I. H. Fichte, Ethic, ii. 70, 71. ('The blanks and insuf
ficiencies occurring in all human relations can be filled up only by the feeling
of religious resignation. The powers which are lacking in ourselves we cannot
but seek to get supplied by a Force altogether superhuman.')
GOD'S KINGDOM PRAYED FOR. 207
we fall back upon simple entreaty for its manifestation by

God's power, in God's time and way. ' It is not for you,'
said Jesus, ' to know the times and the seasons, which
God has reserved in his own power.' 1 And so He enjoins
us to pray for that which we cannot predict ; and places
in the very forefront of our daily supplications the
thrice-repeated entreaty, ' Hallowed be thy name ! Thy
kingdom come ! Thy will be done on earth as it is done
in heaven ! ' 2
In this last stage of our investigation of Bible Meta

physics, as much as in the former ones, we find the dis
closures of Eevelation shared in some degree by the
conjectures of Eeason. We have seen how these con
jectures harmonise with those disclosures as to the Being
and the Character of God ; travelling, as they do, from a
finite world known up to an infinite Unknown, as its
necessary ground ; and from the Order observable in this
finite world to an Intelligence in its infinite Ground, which
preconceives, predetermines, and brings out this Order
in the whole of being and all its parts.
But other thinkers have been struck as much as the
Scripture writers with the seeming interruption of this
Order in the actual state of the world. While from a
vast mass of facts they reason onward (and that justly) to
the wisdom, justice, and goodness of the Supreme, they
see so many and such wide-spread exhibitions of evil,
physical and moral, that they ask with consternation,
1 Acts i. 7. 2 Matt. vi. 9, 10.
Whence comes this? What is its remedy? By what

process of rectification shall the groaning earth be re
deemed out of its grasp ?
L 1. As to the evil itself it were quite unnecessary to
bring forward in detail the consentient complaints and
confessions of ancient poets, orators, moralists, and phi
losophers on this head. The wail of Ulysses is but the
key-note of the common feeling of all men :
No creature weak as man : for while the gods

Grant him firm health and plenty, neither fear
Nor thought hath he that he shall ever mourn:
But when these gods with evils unforeseen
Smite him, he bears them with a grudging mind.
For such as the complexion of his lot,
By the appointment of the Sire of all,
Such is the colour of the mind of man.1
And Homer, in another place, goes further and complains

that ' no other being, of all that breathe and creep on
earth, is so full of woe as man.' 2 And this, as others also
bewail, not only on account of physical but moral evil—
that evil ' so deeply seated in our nature, which grows by
what it feeds on into such bold badness ; ' 3 progressing
' from what is right to what is wrong, and from what is
wrong to what is execrable, and from what is execrable
into ruin.'4 For 'all men are sinners, some of darker,
some of lighter hue ; some from the circumstances round
them, some from the corruption within them ; some from
inward impulse, some from outward persuasion ; some
with a continuous yet vain struggle against corruption,
1 Homer, Odyssey, xviii. 129. * Iliad, xvii. 446.

3 Cicero, In Verr. : ' Serpit illud insitum in natura malum consuetudine
peccandi libera, finem ut audaciee statuere ipse eibi non possit.'
4 Velleius : ' Adeo mature a rectis in vitia, a vitiis in prava, a pravis in
preecipitia pervenitur.'
THE ACTUAL A FALL FROM TSE IDEAL. 209
forced into evil, against their will and effort to be

good!'1
And then, this miserable present has drawn many a
perplexed mind back to the traditions of the past, when
' the human race were exempt from evil, free from sin,
unworn by labour, and not hurried by sickness into de
crepitude ; ' 2 ' when they lived, like the gods, in a constant
spirit of gladness,' 3 ' full of love to those from whom they
sprang, to whom they were akin, with whom they held
sweet converse.'4 For then, ' heavenly beings were wont
to show themselves to their still pure offspring and enter
into their abodes as welcome guests.'5
2. Whence then the change from such a paradise as
that to such an earth as now exists ? Whence the descent
from likeness to the gods to all that is weak, and wretched,
and vile ? How was the whole phenomenal world brought
down from its original Idea into its actual degeneracy ?
Here was an opening for all sorts of conjectures, for end
less theories of declension from good to bad. Men saw
not that, though their view offacts was clear, no explana
tion of these facts could ever be clear ; that the chasm
between what is seen and what is not seen, the finite and
the infinite, the evil that is and the good that must he, can
never be bridged over ; that how the One can unfold him-
1 Seneca, De Clem. : ' Peccavimus omnes, alii gravia, alii leviora, alii fx
destinato, alii forte impulei aut aliena nequitia ablati, alii in bonis consiliia
parum fortiter stetimus et innocentiam inviti ac renitentes perdidimus.'
2 Hesiod, Op. et D. 79. 3 Ibid. 99.
* Plato, Ci-atyl.
5 Valerius, Argon. 85 :
' Prsesentes namque ante domos invisere castas
Ssepius et eese mortali ostendere ccetu
Ceelicolse, nondum spreta pietate, eolebant.'
Comp. Gen. iii. 8; Prov, viii. 31.
P
self into the many, the Absolute into the relative, the
Unconditioned into the conditioned, the Perfect into the
imperfect, is simply unthinkable. And hence, while the
Eastern thinkers—Hindoos, Parsees, Jewish Eabbin, and
Christian Gnostics—have wasted their time and strength
with theories of Emanation to account for the origin of
things, and theories of successive series of descending
emanations to account for the evil in things,1 the more
Western thinkers have equally deluded themselves with
conjecturing all sorts of physical originations and physical
combinations to explain the primary existence and the
subsequent degeneration of the universe.
Aristotle, for instance, tells us that ' the ancient poets
represented what is highest and best as not first in order
of time, but second ; not beginning with the birth of the
world, but following upon its gradual development.' And
so these thinkers assumed as their starting-point, ' some,
primeval Night ; some, Chaos ; some, the dust of the
ground, on which Zeus superinduced grace and dignity '
(made it into organised dust) ' and called it Earth.' 2
Anaximander posits a primitive matter (apxn) which
was altogether undetermined (dneipov), out of which there
are evolved the elementary contraries, warm and cold,
moist and dry; and thence, by condensation, first the
earth and then all living beings.
1 ' The Indian theory of the origin of evil supposes one original existence
of the highest purity, and represents evil as the final result oi successive degrees
of lower and less,'1—Mansel, Onostieism.
* Thus Pherecydes :
XOovlif 8e ovopa ryevrro yrj, eV«8i) avrrj Zdis yipas 8'801.
' The ground took the name of earth when Zeus had conferred on it dignity,'
ie. organised it. For the here is the unorganised element of earth,
what Moses calls ' the dust of the ground ' (Gen. ii. 7).
DEVELOPMENT BY CONTRARIES. 211
Heracfitus posits fire as the first principle, which he

identifies with the Divine Spirit knowing and ordering
all things ; 1 and hence are developed downwards (17 6Sos
koltw) water, earth, death ; and upwards (17 6Sds avco) life.
In his view the world is the differentiated Deity (ev Sia-
(f>epo[ievov clvto aura) ; and he assigns the development of
all things to the play of primitive antagonisms (yiyvecrdai
vavTa kclt ivavTiorr]ra), so that ' the harmony of the world
is produced by contraries, as music comes from the
scraping of the bow upon the lyre.'2 This implies a self-
differentiation inherent in the very nature of things, so
that life develops itself by divergencies ; health, beauty,
truth, lightness of all kinds, consist in a balance of oppo-
sites ; and strife is the father, and king, and lord of all.'3
3. And here, in this principle of development by con
traries, were introduced Ideas which while they seemed
to explain the past and present gave hope for the future.
For surely this process of antithesis and antagonism,
setting out from unity and working differentiation, must
1 For this 'fire' is inspired by a Xdyoy, and is (f>p6vipova.n& (ppevrjpes, and

is the cause of all order and law in the universe : rptyovrai yap irdvres oi
dvdpamivoi vopoi vi?i> evos Tov detov * Kpareei yap Too'OvTov 6K6(Tov ide\eij Kal
igapKeei irda-i Kal irepiyiyverai. ' For all the laws of men derive their strength
from the one law of God ; and this law governs with absolute will, and is
enough for all things and to spare.'
8 ira\lvrpoiros dppovirf Koo-pov, oKaaTrep Xupijs Kal To|ov. Ueberweg, i. 4] .
s iro\epov eirat iraripa Kal 0ao-tXea xai Kvpiov iravrav. See Blacliie, Hor.
Hellen. 265. Comp. Pope, Essay on Man, i. 160 :
' All subsists by elemental strife,
And passions are the elements of life.'
So the Fathers and Schoohnen term a world without antagonisms, a
picture with no shadows ; a piece of music without higher and lower notes ; an
oration without pauses ; a verse without short syllables ; a poem without
antitheses; a play without a plot; a dull sameness without variety. See
Augustin : ' Sicut pictura cum colore nigro, loco suo posito, ita universitas
rerum etiam cum peccatoribus pulchra est.'
p2
have the remedy for all abnormal results within itself.

The principle which has led to aberrations must ultimately
bring round all things once again into their proper orbit.
The circle must complete itself. Destruction must destroy
its own deeds. Life must spring forth out of death.
Hence, Pythagoras, Plato, the Stoics, all who had any
confidence in a ruling Intelligence, consoled themselves,
amidst perpetual change, with the hope that as all things
have degenerated, out of this degeneration shall they be
raised up again. Nay, they believed that such a redemp
tion was always, already, going on by the intervention of
divine teaching and divine help. They recognised the
voice of God Himself in their poets and philosophers
calling them out of darkness into light, and pointing out
to them the way back to Himself. ' All Philosophy,' says
Plato, 'is but a passion for divine illumination.'1 And
again : ' Philosophers could never teach, if they were not
themselves first taught by God.'2 ' God, therefore, seizing
on their minds, makes use of them as His instruments.'3
'And the best things have come to us from those who,
while their own faculties were suspended, have received
the truths, which they proclaim, as gifts from God. For
in this way the sacred prophets of Delphi and Dodona
have given much wise counsel to Greece.'4 The same is
true, according to Cicero, of Poets. ' Ennius,' he says,
' justly denominates all poets sacred personages, because
1 Plato, according to Diog. Laert. iii. 38 : (pi\oo-ofyia opeîs rijr fcias

o-cxpias.
3 Id. Apol. i. 09 : Oi8' tiv Hilid£eiv, et pr) de6s vcpqyoiro.
8 Id. Ion. iv. 187 : 'O de6s e£aipovpevos TovTiov vovv, TovTovs \prfrai vmj-
perais.
4 Plato, Phtedr. 244 a : Ta peyurra TS>v dyadav rlp1v yiyverai Sia pavlas,
deta pevroi floo-ei SiSopevrfs. "H re yap Srf ev Ae\(pois irpocprjns at T iv Aco8d>vrf
Upeiai paveio-ai pkv 7roX\a 8^ i«u fcaXa rr]v 'EXXa8a elpydo-avro,
REDEMPTION MUST BE FROM GOD. 213
they come before us accredited by divine gifts and func

tions.' 1 Nor is this all. Not only do the wisest acknow
ledge that all wisdom comes from divine revelation, but
they sigh and cry for a fuller manifestation of the heavenly
light, and thereby a fuller redemption from existing
darkness. Seneca confesses that ' no one is sufficient of
himself to emerge from this darkness ; there must be
some hand held forth to him ; there must be some friend
to draw him out. We need help from others than our
selves ; we cannot march till others have preceded us,
though we willingly follow such. You must not look
down upon the man who trusts to another to save him ;
it is much that he desires to be saved.'2 And when
Aristodemus gave utterance to such desire, and said to
Socrates, ' Would that the gods might send to me some
enlightenment concerning right and wrong, as they have
done to thee ! ' the answer of his friend was, almost in
the words, entirely in the spirit, of Jesus, when he said,
' Ask and ye shall have, seek and ye shall find, knock and
it shall be opened to you ; ' for Socrates replies : ' If thou
wouldst know for thyself the wisdom and the love of God,
make thyself worthy to be entrusted with his divine secrets;
for to all who consult, and worship, and obey Him, such
secrets He does impart.'3 And again, when Alcibiades
asked with youthful impatience, ' When will the time
1 Cicero, Pro Arch. yiii. 18 : ' Suo jure noster ille Ennius sanctos appellat
poetas, quod quasi deorum aliquo dono atque munere commendati nobis esse
videantur.'
3 Seneca, Ep. lii. 1 : ' Nemo per se satis valet ut emergat ; oportet manum
aliquis porrigat, aliquis educat . . . Quosdam, ait Epicurus, indigere ope
aliena, non ituros si nemo prascesseiit, sed bene secuturos. Nec hunc quidem
contemseris hominem qui alieno beneficio esse salvus potest ; et hoc multuui
est, velle servari.'
3 See Xenophon, Mem. i. 4, 4.
come that I shall be taught by God, and who will be my

teacher, for I long to know the man ? ' we find Socrates
suggesting in reply, ' He is one who loves you—with a
wonderful affection loves you ; one who, like Homer's
Minerva, when she removed the mist from the eyes of
Diomed that he might discern her presence, will disperse
the darkness which now enwraps your mind, that you
may discern the difference between good and evil.'
And with such a reply there rose in the bosom of
Alcibiades the fervent prayer : ' Oh, may this friend in
deed remove whatever keeps me blind! I will obey
him without reserve, if only he will make me a better
man ! '1
Such was the Gentile belief of our need of Redemp
tion ; of Divine Teaching ; of the love and care of God
to grant by such Teaching such Redemption. And this
belief extended to a final triumph of good over evil, a
final rescue of the whole creation from the aberrations
into which it has fallen. 'At last,' says Cicero, 'the
whole world shall be consumed by fire ; but then, from
this very fire, as from the life-giving God Himself, a new
world shall spring forth into order and beauty!'2 And
then (to apply the thought of Plato to this consummation)
—then shall the immediate vision of the divine beauty
1 Plato, 2nd Alctb. 150, d. c.
2 Cicero, Be Nat. Beor. ii. 46 : 'Ex quo eventurum nostri putant; ut ad
extremum omnis mundus ignesceret ; et relinqui nihil prseter ignem ; a quo
rursum animante ac Beo renovatio mundi fieret, atque idem ornatus oriretur.'
For the Stoics called God ' intellectual Fire' (irvp voepov). And Ileraclitus
declares that the ' world shall ba redintegrated out of its flames (At irvpbs
aldis a-wiarao-dai) into the order and beauty it at first possessed.' And this
restoration they called (like our Scriptures, Acts iii. 21, Matt. xix. 28)
the restitution (airoKarao-rcuns), and ' the regeneration (irahiyyeveo-la) of all
things.' See Anton, xi. 1 : ij irepioSiKrf ira\tyyevetrta ; and Gataker's notes
here.
EVIL IS DIVERGENCE. 215
fill all beholders with the radiance of the divine good

ness.1 Then, as Virgil sings—
The last great age, foretold by sacred rhymes,

Renews its finished course ; Saturnian times
Roll round again ; and mighty years, begun
From their first orb, in radiant circles run.
The base, degenerate, iron offspring ends ;
A golden progeny from heaven descends.
See to their base restored earth, seas, and air ;
And joyful ages, from behind, in crowding ranks appear.2
II. These divinations of ancient Philosophy have thus

struck many an accordant note with the disclosures of
Scripture concerning the process of Eedemption. Nor
less do the conclusions of modem thought point in the same
direction. Those who have most studied the problems of
Life and their solution have come to similar views of the
genesis of Evil, and to a similar hope of its final elimina
tion from the universe.
Coleridge has reduced the problem under the terras of
his Polar Philosophy in the following way : ' Every line
may be considered as a point produced, the two extremes
being its poles, while the point itself is represented by
the indifference of the two poles or correlative opposites.
The assumption of this point I call the Prothesis, or point
transcendent to all production, which it causes, but does
not partake in ; and this diverges into the correspondent
opposites, of Thesis and Antithesis, and then returns into
1 Plato, De Rep. vii. 517 c : ' Among things knowable the highest is the
idea of Goodness, which we can with difficulty reach to now. But when
beheld in its full-orbed splendour it will be the source to all of everything
right and lovely—'the sunlight of all nature and all mind.'
2 Virgil, Pollio, 5-10, 50-52.
' Magnus ab integro sseclorum nascitur ordo,
Jam redit et Virgo, redeunt Satumia regna ; ' &c,
harmony with itself in the final Synthesis of these oppo-

sites.'1
Hegel, similarly, represents all production as begin
ning with affirmation, going on to denial, and then rising,
through denial of this denial, into higher affirmation.
And it is in the light of such Divergences, Antitheses,
and Antagonisms in the elements which compose the
universe that Herbart endeavours to help our conception
of the mystery of Evil. Evil is not a real thing in the
constitution of the universe, for all reality is, in itself
alone, good; but evil is a disproportionate relation of
things as they manifest themselves to us.2 All the elements
of being are under a universal law of pressure and
counter-pressure. This interaction is complicated in
innumerable ways by the multiplicity of the elements thus
standing in relation to each other ; and the result, to our
experience, is disproportion, disorder, disease.3 But then
these are but intermediate and transitory phenomena.
It is with good and evil as with the metals, both precious
and vile ; not in the primary rocks, nor in the superficial
clay, but in the intervening deposits are they found.4
1 Coleridge, Aids to Reflection, 1st Edit., 172.

s Herbart, Gesprdche tiber das Bbse, 70 : ' Das Gute ist das Seyn, und das
Seyn, bloss als solches, ist gut.' And again, 158, ' Erst indem ein mannig-
faltiges Geschehen zusammentrifft, kann vom Bbsen die Rede seyn.' And 70,
Nur in wiefern eine Mehrheit von Dingen neben einander existire, kcinne
eins die Realitat des andern vermindern ; und Her entspringe ein relatives
tJbel odsr Boses, niimlich in Ansehung des Verlierenden.'
3 Herbart, ibid. 154 : ' Gutes und Boses sind nicht Begriffe der Erhenntniss,
sondern der Beurtheilung ; nicht Pradicate des Seyenden, so fern es ist, son-
dern Bezeichnungen der Art und Weise wie ein moglicher Gegenstand von
einem gegeniiberstehenden Zuschauer aufgefasst wird.' Comp. Dr. Johnson,
in his review of ' Soame Jenyns's Enquiry into Evil.' Works, xi. 259 :
' There is no Evil but must inhere in a conscious being, or be referred to it ;
that is, evil must be felt before it is evil. Pope might ask the weed why it
was less than the oak, but the weed would never ask the question for itself.
The bass and the treble differ only to the hearer.' 4 Ibid. 161.
EVIL IS PHENOMENAL. 217
So similarly Hitter : ' Only from the mutual inter

action of things proceeds the appearance of Evil. Evil is
no positive antithesis to Good. Good is the constant, of
which Evils are the variable, transient phases.1 And in
the working out of this constant good (which is the de
velopment of real essence through the changes of phe
nomenal existence) evils are the accidental, transitory
movements. The essence of all things is good ; it is only
in their manifestations that Evil shows itself. And as
Evil in Nature is the result of contradictory tendencies in
its elements, so Evil in the soul (or sin) is the result of
contradictory tendencies in its constitution. These ten
dencies are right in themselves, and in their due direction
and degree, but they produce in us the sense of sin when
working disproportionately to each other, and so discor
dantly with our moral judgment, which is the sense of
symmetry and fitness.' 2
The theory of I. H. Fichte concerning Evil is founded
on this same principle of development. ' The possibility
of evil is involved in that which constitutes the ground
of good ; and this possibility, therefore, accompanies all
the acts of any creature's self-development. The forces
which issue in improvement or degeneration, in happiness
or unhappiness, spring from the same source, and are in
constant interaction. Evil can spring up only in the
sphere of life because here there are working not simply
natural Forces, but a law of Self-development from an
inner centre. All living individuals are not only subjected
to external natural necessity, but have in them—besides
1 Cf. Augustin, Enchir. 14 : ' Mala oumino sine bonis et nisi in bonis esse
non possunt.'
2 H. Hitter, Uber dm Bote, 302-311.
their unchangeable tendency towards their proper end,

and those changing relations to other beings by which
their qualities are constantly modified—the possibility of
diverging from this proper end. And in proportion to
the delicacy of their structure is this possibility realised,
both by failing of their proper growth, and by falling
away from it into misgrowth ; that is, by functional or
structural disorder. The higher the scale of being, the
greater is the number of maladies and malformations
which may arise. And these maladies and malformations,
in the case of self-conscious beings, make themselves felt
as what ought not to be, as discomfort, as pain. This is
what we term Physical Evil. And the process is similar
in Moral Evil. The possibility of this arises from the
Soul being a self-developing Entity, and from the same
forces which impel to healthy evolution being capable of
unhealthy aberration.1 Man attains his proper end only
in proportion as he brings out into actuality his latent
spiritual nature, and unfolds his spiritual capacities. When
this is done he possesses moral order, or virtue ; and the
sense of this constitutes his moral comfort, or happiness.
But here, as before, there is room for moral disorder, and
therewith moral discomfort, or unhappiness. The end
for which we are made we may, in our course of self-
development, fall short of, or fall away from ; in the first
case we are conscious of imperfection, in the second of
perverseness, or having a will against the will of our
1 Cf. Hitter, 327: ' Entwicklungen anch Verwicklungen nach sich zieken
konnen. Die Entwicklungen sind etwas Gutes ; denn seine Krafte zu entwickeln
ist die Bestimmung des sittlichen Wesens ; die Verwicklungen aber sollen wir
meiden ; sie deuten auf Boses. Die natiirlichen Vermogen, welche zU beiden
fiihren konnen, sind daher weder fur gut noch fur bose zu halten. Nur die
Thaten der sittlichen Subjecte unterliegen dem Lobe oder dem Tadel.'
EVIL IS TRANSITIONAL. 219
Creator ; i.e. of sin. But then this very sense of imper

fection and of sin which results from conscious moral
disorder is that which renders this moral disorder repar
able. To feel that we are in conflict with God's will begets
the sense of needing reconciliation with this will ; or more
generally (if we adopt the Stoic formula), to feel that we
are out of gear with nature obliges us to seek replacement
into gear with nature (opoXoyovpevco? rrj fyvcru £fjv) ; the
discomfort of moral disorder drives us to the physician
who is revealed as the healer of such disorder ; and the
course which began in departure from God ends in return
to God.'1
Add to this the view of Pfleiderer: 'All discords
between single notes resolve themselves, in the diapason
of the universe, into perfect harmony. This assertion, so
often misapplied, is true when we believe man to be made
like God in faculty, in order to become like God in fact.
For then, we may regard all the unhappiness, deserved
or undeserved, through which he has to make his way
towards this, his destined consummation, as but a moment
of transition, which, being looked at from the point of
view of the Whole, appears not merely a vanishing point,
but a factor in the process of his development, and so in
the perfectionment of this Whole. For the highest per
fection is that which results from the integration of differ
entials, and the reconciliation of opposites.'2
On this same principle of universal Contrasts, Anti
theses, and Antagonisms, Blasche also constructs his theory
1 See I. H. Fichte, Speculative Theologie, 686-612. Note precisely this

process of Departure, Wretchedness, Remorse, Return, Restoration, in our
Lord's parable of the Predigal Son, Luke xv. 11-32.
8 Pfleiderer, Die Religion, i. 356.
of the development of the world, and of the evil which

in this development comes out, and by this development
will be at last eliminated. ' Looked at as an objective
fact, Evil begins with the origination of the sensuous
world, and manifests itself in its primitive chaotic state,
and in the wild war of the elements, and of their primary
products. But already, in this very war, the principle of
good is equally at work as a reuniting and organising
force, bringing out of chaos an order, and out of discord
a harmony, which shall ultimately correspond with the
original pattern in the divine mind. But this ultimate
result, of a sound and symmetrical Whole of things, can
be reached only by that path of development of which
evils are intermediate temporary stages. The crudeness
and confusion of immaturity are but the birth-throes of
the maturity to come.
' This is true, not only of objective evil (or the evil in
things), but of subjective evil (or the evil in persons). That
goodness which works implicitly in outward nature, un
folds itself explicitly in the human consciousness in its
highest form, as moral action, and moral character ; but
at the same time the evil in human consciousness gets
beyond instinctive impulse, and appears in its worst form
as moral evil, or vice. And it is in contrast with such
evil, and in conflict with it, both without us and within
us, that virtue uplifts itself from its merely instinctive to
its conscious form.
' At the same time we must never forget that evil is
evil only when looked at with reference to its immediate
workings ; while the total system in which it manifests
itself is nevertheless good. For this total system is one
of Development, stretching beyond each particular here
EVIL INDICATES DEVELOPMENT. 221
and now into all time. So then we must not judge of

our planet and all that unfolds itself thereon by any one
particular phase of it, for each phase is only a momentary
increment in its whole development. To this develop
ment belong all earlier, past phases, and all later, sub
sequent ones ; and even the crudest and wildest moments
of this development are equally necessary to the final
perfection of the planet. True it is, that the chaotic stage,
in its wild war of elements, cannot but seem to be evil
when compared with the order and the peace of its sub
sequent life. Nevertheless it was that wild war which
alone could bring about this later peace ; and consequently
it must be regarded as good in relation to the whole course
of the planet's life, and evil only in relation to its more
immediate workings. And this is equally true of the
Universe. That which presents itself as evil in its im
mediate effects reappears as good in relation to the final '
result. Every whole has its process of Development.
This Development has its epochs, stages, moments of in
crement ; among which one only (the final one) can be
perfect, while all the others, in relation to this, must be
imperfect. Yet each of these others, because of their
relation to this whole, must be in their very imperfection
tributary to the perfection of this whole. Evil, therefore,
is the surest sign that a process of development is going
on in the system of which it forms a part. The more we
accustom ourselves to look at it in connection with this
system as a whole, the more shall we recognise it as the
correlative of good ; the counterforce which renders pos
sible good ; the stimulus which calls forth good ; in short,
a means of the development and culture of good.
' But what then F Is evil itself good ? No ! In its
immediate workings it remains still bad ; must be regarded

by us as bad ; hated by us as bad ; fought against by us
as bad. For only when thus regarded and thus treated
will it subserve to ultimate good.'1
That is to say, Evil exists, not as a legitimate growth,
but as a misgrowth ; exists, therefore, only to be pruned
away. And it is only by this pruning away that it is
turned into good. Evil, of itself, is not good. It is
simply that divergence from good which accompanies the
development of good. Eor evil is no substantive entity,
a thing in itself; but a state of disproportion in the rela
tion of things. When the forces of divergency are out
of balance with the forces of development, then in this
want of balance we see and feel something wrong—some
thing needing amendment ; i.e. we see and feel evil and
sin. So that evil and sin, and their corresponding sorrow,
are not involved in the existence of contrasts, antitheses,
antagonisms, in things around us or thoughts and volitions
within us, but arise when these antagonisms are dispro
portionate to one another, and consequently cause disorder,
and with disorder disease.2 And it is the correction of
this disorder, the reduction of this disproportion, the
' pruning away ' (as St. James speaks) of this ' superfluity
(or abnormal growth) of naughtiness,' which alone con
duces to growth in good. Not the existence of evil (for
this is an irregularity), but the conflict ivith evil, to rectify
1 Blasche, Das Rose, 331-837. Comp. Henry Holbeach, i. : 'Evil dis

pleases me ; wrong-doing I wish to remove. There is no other meaning in
the word but a thing to be removed. This removal, therefore, is the absolute,
to which the remainder of your scheme must be relative.'
2 Pressure and counterpressure do not necessarily put things out, disinte
grate them. "When proportionate, each to each, they maintain the whole in
peace. As Seneca says, ' Societas nostra lapidum fornicationi simillima est,
quae casura nisi invicem obstarent, hoc ipso sustinetur.' Ep. xcv. 53.
EVIL IS SUBSERVIENT. 223
this irregularity—this works out greater good.1 And

evil is then ultimately conquered when man is no longer
conquered by it, but is enabled so to deal with it as to
become master over it.2 Whence Fichte affirms : ' By
the Divine redemptive energy, not only is good advanced
along all its stages of development, but evil is transformed
into good, and the worst things into the best ; so that
what ought not to have been, but yet came to be through
man's perverseness—even this, by the all-conquering
power of God, has for its issue the greater glory and
establishment of good. For by the continuous working of
the Spirit of God in the spirit of man, not only is wrong
rectified, but made subservient to the triumph of right.5 So
that we may say with Leibnitz, that without this triumph
of good over evil, and therefore without the evil to be
1 Cf. Martineau, Disc. i. 86: ' The Christian penetrates through the shell
of Evil to the kernel and the seed of good ; he perceives in suffering and
temptation the resistance which alone can render virtue manifest and con
science great and existence venerable ; and he recognises even, in the gigantic
growth of guilt, the grasp of infinite desires, and the perversion of godlike
capacities.' Add T. a, Kempis, i. 11, 4: 'Deus nobis certandi occasiones
procurat ut vincamus.' And James i. 2-3 : ' Rejoice when ye fall into trials
of your faith, because such trials work out perseverance {iiropovrf).'
2 This would be simply the fulfilment of the promise in 1 Cor. x. 13 :
' God is faithful, and will not suffer you to be tempted beyond your power of
resistance, but will along with the temptation bring you the strength to bear
up under it' (n-oujo-ei o-vvra ireipaa-p^ <al rffv eKfiao-iv, Tov Svvao-&ai xmeveyKeiv) ;
where the txfkuns promised is not deliverance out of the evil, but such a
result of it as shall leave you master over it. The antagonisms ofevil shall be
made to you simply gymnastic exercises in good (such as are called in 1 Tim.
iv. 7, yvpvcuria irphs evvefieiav), which go no further than to breathe and brace
the soul.
3 Of. Thomson, Seasons :
I cannot go
Where universal Love not smiles around ;
From seeming evil still educing good,
And better thence again, and better still
In infinite progression.
triumphed over, the redemptive power of God could never

have been known.'1
And this agrees with Mr. Spencer's theory of evolution
as ' a change from an indefinite, incoherent homogeneity,
through continuous differentiations and integrations, to a
definite, coherent, heterogeneity ; ' throughout which pro
cess there is a continuous advance towards ultimate
equilibrium, because ' that universal co-existence of anta
gonist forces which necessitates the universality of rhythm,
and which necessitates the decomposition of force into
divergent forces, at the same time necessitates the ultimate
establishment of a balance. The changes which Evolution
presents cannot end until equilibrium is reached; and
that equilibrium must at last be reached. Evolution can
end only in the establishment of the greatest perfection
and the most complete happiness.' 2
Which ' ultimate establishment of the greatest per
fection and happiness ' (the same that Scripture calls ' the
kingdom of heaven,' and ' the restitution of all things '),
Spencer affirms elsewhere, more at length. ' The eva
nescence of evil is certain, because all imperfection is
unfitness for the conditions of existence ; and unfitness,
by the law of increase of the fit and decrease of the
unfit, must finally disappear. Progress, therefore, is not
an accident but a necessity. Instead of civilisation being
artificial, it is a part of nature ; all of a piece with the
development of the embryo or the unfolding of a flower.
As surely as the tree becomes bulky when it stands alone,
and slender if one of a group; as surely as the same
1 I. H. Fichte, Spec. Theol. 651.

" Spencer, First Principles, 216, 441-486. See the whole chapter on
' Equilibrium.'
EVIL IS EVANESCENT. 225
creature assumes the different forms of cart-horse and

race-horse according as its habits demand strength or
speed ; as surely as a blacksmith's arm grows large, and
the skin of a labourer's hand thick ; as surely as the eye
tends to become long-sighted in the sailor and short
sighted in the student ; as surely as the blind attain a
more delicate sense of touch ; as surely as a clerk acquires
rapidity in writing and calculation ; as surely as the
musician learns to detect an error of a semitone amidst
what seems to others a very Babel of sounds ; as surely
as a passion grows by indulgence and diminishes when
restrained ; as surely as a disregarded conscience becomes
inert, and one that is obeyed active ; as surely as there is any
efficacy in educational culture, and any meaning in such
terms as habit, custom, practice; so surely must the human
faculties be moulded into complete fitness for the social
state ; so surely must the things we call evil and immorality
disappear ; so surely must man at last become perfect.'1
Nor does this principle, affirmed by Science, lack con
firmation from the domain of Art. ' Poets of the highest
1 Spencer, Social Statics, p. 78 : ' Whatever the theories by which it is at-

tempted to indicate the law of human progress, the fact of such progress, and
the belief of its indefinite prolongation remains certain.' This is affirmed by
M. L. Carrau, in his paper on the Philosophy of History, in Rev. d. d. M.
October 1, 1875: ' Le meilleur signe de progrès dans notre siècle, c'est peut-
être qu'on y parle beaucoup de progrès . . . rejouissons-nous toutefois que,
mal ou peu compris, il soit sur toutes les lèvres ; on en peut conclure qu'il
exprime une tendance sérieuse de toutes les âmes. Vous pouvez tenir pour
certaines la médiocrité d'un artiste qui trouve bonne son œuvre telle qu'elle
est, l'insuffisance d'une vertu qui ne se souhaite pas plus parfaite. Augurez
de même d'un siècle ou d'un peuple qui n'aspire pas à sortir de soi pour
s'élever plus haut.' And his conclusion is (in accordance with M. Bouiller,
Morale et Progrès), ' Le progrès est un fait, incontestable et indiscutable,
pour qui contemple la marche du genre humain. Ce fait, comme tous les
autres, a une loi ; mais elle n'est pas nécessitante ; elle est l'obligation sentie
d'abord comme un besoin, accepteé plus tard comme un devoir, de tendre dans
toutes les directions vers un idéal de beauté, de vérité, de bonheur, de perfection.'
Q
class have all agreed in tending to peace and ultimate

repose as the state in which alone a sane constitution of
feelings can finally acquiesce. This may be one reason
why Homer closed the Iliad with the funeral rites of
Hector. He felt the death of Hector as an afflicting
event ; and the attending circumstances more as agitating
than triumphant ; and added the last book as necessary to
regain the key of a disturbed equanimity. In Paradise
Lost, again, this principle is still more distinctly recog
nised by the vision placed before Adam, which brings
together the Alpha and Omega of time ; the last day of
man's innocence and the first of his restoration ; and so
contrives that a double peace—the peace of resignation
and the peace of hope—should harmonise the key in
which the departing strains of the poem roll off, and its
last cadences leave behind an echo which, with the solem
nity of the grave, has also the halcyon peace of the grave
and its austere repose. And so in the Samson Agonistes ;
though a tragedy of most tumultuous catastrophe, all
terminates " in peace and quiet and sublime repose."
Peace then, severe tranquillity, the brooding calm or
yaXrfvrj of the Greeks, is the final key. All tumult is
for the sake of rest ; tempest but the harbinger of calm ;
and suffering good as the condition of permanent repose.'1
And thus, artistically, as well as historically, how true
and grand is the growth and evolution of the series of
1 De Quincey . Yet the ' rest ' to which things tend is not precisely ' the
peace of the grave : ' it is rather the rest, not of inaction, but of balanced
action, of life flowing full, uninterrupted—of a living to God. Cicero has
well argued that stagnant rest is no peace to any living being. 'Sunt
clariora vel plane perspicua nec dubitanda indicia naturee, maxume scilicet
in homine, sed in omni animali, ut adpetat animus aliquid agere semper, neque
ulla conditione quietem sempiternam possit pati . . . Ergo hoc quidem
adparet, nos ad agendum esse natos.' De Fin. v. 20-21.
THE BIBLE A RECORD OF EVOLUTION. 227
books put together as ' The Bible.' They begin with the
Prothesis of all things ; the pattern idea in the Divine
Mind, in conformity with which its first presentments
are already 'very good.' They go on to show in indi
viduals, families, clans, tribes, nations, and the whole
world, how divergence from this Prothesis into the oppo
site poles of Thesis and Antithesis involves present mis
chief and yet evolves subsequent benefit. They show
how the whole work of Eedemption is a process of return
from these Antitheses into a higher Synthesis. They show
especially how the One great Factor in this process, the
Author of this Eedemption, passed, in his earthly course,
through conflict, disappointment, death, into victory, satis
faction, life. They show by innumerable practical appli
cations how this same principle must work in the members
equally as in the Head—through all the vicissitudes of his
Community as in Himself. And then, they come round
at the close to the recovering of the lost keynote, the
restitution of the interrupted harmony, and the ultimate
completion of the wondrous theme, through imperfection
to perfection, through discord to concord, through suffer
ing to triumph. The garden of Eden is restored. The
pure river of the water of life flows everywhere with its
refreshing streams. The trees of life bloom again with
immortal fruits. The Lord God descends anew to dwell
with men. And there is no more need of sun or moon
to shine on the New Jerusalem, for ' the glory of God
doth lighten it, and the Lamb is the light thereof ! '
There, they who meet shall never part,
There grace completes its plan \
And God, uniting every heart,
Dwells face to face with man !
CONCLUSION.
Such then are the Metaphysics of the Bible. They

are the articulate utterances of a wide-spread Faith in
light behind the Veil. Faith, as being ' the conviction of
things not seen,' must always transcend the ever-expanding
horizon of science to peer into the equally expanding
sphere of nescience, and with telescopic eye discern in
the Past the origin of all things in God ; in the Present
the actuation of all things by God ; in the Future the
consummation of all things by God. For it is sure that
' of Him, and through Him, and to Him are all things ;
to whom be glory for ever, Amen ! ' 1
And such Faith springs from a practical necessity, and
supplies a practical want. It is no play of speculative
curiosity. It does not explore the heavens, like the
Sophists of old ; but, like Socrates, it descends from
aerial heights to the haunts of daily life, and comes home
to the business and bosoms of men ; for the solution of
human perplexity, the calming of human anxiety, the
soothing of human sorrow, and the elevation of human
sentiment from the pleasures and cares of earth to trust
and hope in an all-encircling heaven.
1 Rom. xi. 30. Mark the concords with the sacred writer in the so-called
profane. Paul writes :
'e£ avrov, Kal Bt' avrov, /cat els avrbv ra iravra.
Antoninus writes, iv. 23 :
'EK crov irdvra, iv o-o! 7raxra, «iy ere irdvra,
TRUST IN GOD. 229
1. For, if all things have their Vrigin in a Being,

unknowable, indeed, in essence, but known to us in cha
racter through his self-manifestations in the world, with
what Adoration does such a faith inspire us of this great
Supreme ! We bow before his Intelligence, his Justice,
his Goodness ; and we assure ourselves that what He is in
perfection, such, with all its seeming imperfections, must
be the universe which springs from him. It must be
good in its Idea, good in its essence, good in its design,
good in its end. And so we join with the saints on earth
in exclaiming : ' The Lord is good and doeth good ! The
earth is full of the goodness of the Lord ! The Lord is
good to all, and his tender mercies are over all his works !
All thy works praise thee, 0 Lord, and thy saints give
thanks unto Thee ! ' 1 Nay, we rise higher still to mingle
with the Host of Heaven in their hymn of adoration :
' Thou art worthy to receive glory and honour and
power ; for Thou hast created all things, and at thy
pleasure they came into being and were made ! '2
2. Then, next, if all things are being carried through
a long process of Development by God, and this Develop
ment involves not only the bringing out the primary
Idea of the Divine Mind, but therewith the imperfections
and divergencies which must accompany all concretions
of this Idea in the present phenomenal world ; then this
truth sustains in us the Assurance that for whatever
wounds our sense of order, proportion, harmony, sanctity,
whether in nature or in man, in physics or in morals,
there exists a reason in the Divine wisdom.3 And this
truth guarantees to us that this Divine wisdom, as it ever
1 Psalm xxxiii. 5 ; cxlv. 9, 10. 2 Rev. iv. 11.

3 &(Td' iva ylyve(rdai iravrav \6yov atkv eovra.—Cleanthes.
has been, so ever will be at work to redeem every one

who trusts in it from the perplexities of imperfect appre
hension, from the tyranny of fierce desires, from the
terrors of a guilty conscience, from the agonies of a cease
less struggle, into the calm repose of perfect Acquiescence
in the mind, the will, and the ways of the Supreme.
3. And finally, if all things, by means of this De
velopment, shall be raised at last to the Perfection destined
for them by God—the permanent in them made to
triumph over the transient, the real over the apparent,
the essential good over the accidental evil, the ever-living
over every intermediate phase of death—then, we may
rest in Hope amidst all the unexplainable imperfections,
abnormities, sins, and sorrows of a merely inchoate stage
of being, awaiting patiently the full maturity which is to
come. For we know that God's faithfulness is equal to
His wisdom and His love. We know that ' He hath sworn,
As I have thought so shall it come to pass, and as I have
purposed so shall it stand.' 1 We know that we are not
alone, like desolate orphans in a wilderness, but our
Father is ever with us.2 We may cheerfully do our part
in the culture of this wilderness as ' fellow-workers with
God,'3 'labouring according to His working which worketh
in us mightily.'4 And we may be sure that not the
slightest contribution towards this culture, in ourselves or
others, can be without effect, for 'He who has begun a
good work in us will go on completing it up to the day
of Christ.'5
1 Isaiah xiv. 24. 2 John xiv. 18; xvi. 82.
5 2 Cor. vi. 1 ; 1 Cor. iii. 9. 4 Coloss. i. 29 ; Phil. ii. 13.
6 Phil. i. 6.
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PAGE PAGB
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INDEX.
Acton s Modern Cookery 40 Burke's Vicissitudes of Families 8

A ird's Blackstone Economised 39 Busks Folk-lore of Rome 35
Airy's Hebrew Scriptures 29 Valleys of Tirol 33
Alpine Club Map of Switzerland 34
Alpine Guide (The) 34
Amos's Jurisprudence 10
Primer of the Constitution 10 Cabinet Lawyer 40
Anderson's Strength of Materials 20 Campbell's Norway 35
Armstrong's Organic Chemistry 20 Cates's Biographical Dictionary 8
Arnolds (Dr.) Christian Life 29 and Woodward's Encyclopaedia ... 5
Lectures on Modern History 2 Changed Aspects of Unchanged Truths ... 14
'- Miscellaneous Works 13 Chesney's Indian Polity 3
School Sermons 29 Modern Military Biography 4
Sermons 29 Waterloo Campaign 3
(T.) Manual of English Literature 12 Codrington's Life and Letters 7
Atherstone Priory 36 Colenso on Moabite Stone &c 32
Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson ... 14 's Pentateuch and Book ofJoshua. 32
Ayre's Treasury of Bible Knowledge 39 Collier's Demosthenes on the Crown 13
Commonplace Philosopher in Town and
Country, by A. K. H. B 14
Bacon's Essays, by Whately 11 Comte's Positive Polity 8
Life and Letters, by Spcdding ... II Congreve's Essays 9
Works 10 Politics of Aristotle n
Bain's Mental and Moral Science 12 Conington's Translation of Virgil's Êneid 37
on the Senses and Intellect 12 Miscellaneous Writings 13
Emotions and Will 12 Contanscau"s Two French Dictionaries ... 15
Baker's Two Works on Ceylon 34 Conybeare and Howson's Life and Epistles
Ball's Guide to the Central Alps 34 of St. Paul 30
Guide to the Western Alps 35 Corneille's Le Cid 3°
Guide to the Eastern Alps 34 Counsel and Comfort from a City Pulpit... 14
Bancroft's Native Races of the Pacific 23 Cox's (G. W.) Aryan Mythology *
Barry on Railway Appliances 20 ——^— Crusades
Becker's Charicles and Gallus 35 History of Greece 4
Black's Treatise on Brewing 4° General History of Greece 4
Blackley's German-English Dictionary 16 School ditto 4
Blaine's Rural Sports 37 Tale of the Great Persian
Bloxam's Metals 20 War 4
Boultbce on 39 Articles 29 . Tales of Ancient Greece ... 3°
Bourne's Catechism of the Steam Engine . 27 Crawley's Thucydides 4
Handbook of Steam Engine 27 Creighton's Age of Elizabeth 6
Treatise on the Steam Engine ... 27 Cresy's Encyclopaedia of Civil Engineering 27
Improvements in the same 27 Critical Essays of a Country Parson r4
B0wdier s Family Shakspeare 37 Crookes's Chemical Analysis 25
Bramley-Moore's Sin Sisters of the Valley . 36 Dyeing and Calico-printing 28
Brande's Dictionary of Science, Literature, Culley's Handbook of Telegraphy 27
and Art 23
Brinkley's Astronomy 12
Browne's Exposition of the 39 Articles 29
Buckle's History of Civilisation 3 Davidson's Introduction to the New Tes
Posthumous Remains 12 tament 31
Buckton's Health in the House 24 D'Aubignis Reformation 31
Bull's Hints to Mothers 4° De Caisne and Le MaouCs Botany 24
Maternal Management of Children. 40 De Morgan's Paradoxes 13
Burgomaster's Family (The) 34 De TocqutvilUs Democracy in America... 9
Burke's Rise of Great Families 8 Disraeli's Lord George Bentinck 8
A6
42 NEW Vv'ORKS published by LONGMANS & CO.
Disraeli's Novels and Tales 35 Hartwig's Sea and its Living Wonders ... 22
Dobson on the Ox 38 Subterranean World 22
Dove's Law of Storms 18 Tropical World 22
Doyle s (R.) Fairyland 25 Haughton's Animal Mechanics 20
Haywards Biographical and Critical Essays 7
Heathcote's Fen and Mere 28
Heine's Life and Works, by Stigand 7
Eastlake's Hints on Household Taste 26 Helmholtz on Tone 23
Edwards's Rambles among the Dolomites 34 Helmholtz's Scientific Lectures 19
— Nile 32 Helmsley's Trees, Shrubs, and Herbaceous
Elements of Botany 23 Plants 24
Ellicott's Commentary on Ephesians 30 HerschePs Outlines of Astronomy 18
Galatians 30 Hinchliff's Over the Sea and Far Away ... 33
Pastoral Epist. 30 Holland's Fragmentary Papers 21
Philippians,&c. 30 Holms on the Army 4
Thessalonians . 30 Hullah's History of Modern Music 23
Lectures on Life of Christ 29 Transition Period 23
Elsa : a Tale of the Tyrolean Alps 36 Hume's Essays 12
Evans' (J.) Ancient Stone Implements ... 23 Treatise on Human Nature 12
(A. J.) Bosnia 33
Ewala"s History of Israel 30
Antiquities of Israel 31
Ihne's History of Rome 5
Indian Alps 32
Ingelmo's Poems 37
Fairbairn's Application of Cast and
Wrought Iron to Building... 27
Information for Engineers 27
Life 7 Jameson's Legends of Saints and Martyrs . 26
Treatise on Mills and Millwork 27 Legends of the Madonna 26
Farrar's Chapters on Language 13 Legends of the Monastic Orders 26
. Families of Speech 13 Legends of the Saviour
Telf on Confession 26
30
Fitzwygram on Horses and Stables 38
Forbcs's Two Years in Fiji 33 'enkin's Electricity and Magnetism 20
Francis's Fishing Book 37 *erram's Lycidas of Milton 35
Freeman's Historical Geography of Europe 6 ferrold's Life of Napoleon 2
Frcshficld's Italian Alps 33 Johnston's Geographical Dictionary 17
Froude's English in Ireland 2 rukes's Types of Genesis 31
History of England 2 on Second Death 31
Short Studies 12
Kalisch's Commentary on the Bible 30
Gairdner's Houses of Lancaster and York 6 Keith's Evidence of Prophecy 30
Ganot's Elementary Physics 20 Kerts Metallurgy, by Crookes and Kbhrig. 27
Natural Philosophy 19 Kingsley's American Lectures 13
Gardiner's Buckingham and Charles 3 Kirby and Spence's Entomology 21
Thirty Years'War 6 Kirkman's Philosophy 11
Gcffcken's Church and State 10 Knatchbull - Hugessciis Whispers from
German Home Life 13 Higgledy-Piggledy
Fairy-Land ... 35
Gibson's Religion and Science 29
Gilbert &- Churchill's Dolomites 34
Girdlestone's Bible Synonyms 29
Goodcve's Mechanics 20
Mechanism 20 Lamartine's Toussaint Louverture 36
Grant's Ethics of Aristotle II Landscapes, Churches, &c. by A. K. H. B. 14
Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson 14 Lang's Ballads and Lyrics 36
Greville's Journal 2 Latham's English Dictionary 15
Griffin's Algebra and Trigonometry 20 Handbook of the English Lan
Grohman's Tyrol and the Tyrolese 32 guage 15
Grove (Sir W. R. ) on Correlation of Phy Laughton's Nautical Surveying 19
sical Forces 19 Lawrence on Rocks 22
(F. C.) The Frosty Caucasus 32 Lecky's History of European Morals 5
Gwilt's Encyclopaedia of Architecture 26 Rationalism 5
Leaders of Public Opinion 8
Lee's Kesslerloch 22
Harrisons Order and Progress 9 Lefroy's Bermudas 33
Hartley on the Air 19 Leisure Hours in Town, by A. K. H. B.... 14
Hartwig's Aerial World 22 Lessons of Middle Age, by A. K. H. B.... 14
Polar World 22 Lewes's Biographical History of Philosophy 6
Lnais on Authority 12 Mill's Dissertations and Discussions 9

LiddtU and Scott's Greek-English Lexicons 16 Essays on Religion &c 29
Lindley and Moore's Treasury of Botany... 23 Hamilton's Philosophy 9
Lloyd's Magnetism 21 System of Logic 9
— Wave-Theory of Light 21 Political Economy 9
Longman's (F. W.) Chess Openings 40 Unsettled Questions 9
— German Dictionary ... 15 Miller's Elements of Chemistry 24
(W.) Edward the Third 2 Inorganic Chemistry 20
Lectures on History of Minto's (Lord) Life and Letters 7
England - 2 Mitchell's Manual of Assaying 28
Old and New St. Paul's 26 Modem Novelist's Library 36
Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agriculture ... 28 Monsell's ' Spiritual Songs ' 32
Gardening 28 Moore's Irish Melodies, illustrated 26
Plants 24 Morant's Game Preservers 22
Lubbock's Origin of Civilisation 22 Morell's Elements of Psychology 11
Lyra Germanica 32 Mental Philosophy 11
Mailer's Chips from a German Workshop. 13
Science of Language 13
Science of Religion 5
Macaulay s (Lord) Essays 1
History of England 1
Lays of Ancient Rome 25, 36 Nelson on the Moon 18
Life and Letters 7 New Reformation, by Theodoras 4
Miscellaneous Writings 12 New Testament, Illustrated Edition 25
Speeches 12 Northcott's Lathes and Turning 26
Works 2
McCnlloch's Dictionary of Commerce 16
Macleods Principles of Economical Philo
sophy 10 O' Conor's Commentary on Hebrews 31
Theory and Practice of Banking 39 —Romans 31
Elements of Banking 39 St. John 31
Mademoiselle Mori 36 Owen's Comparative Anatomy and Physio
Mulet's Annals of the Road 37 logy of Vertebrate Animals 21
Malleson's Genoese Studies 3
Native States of India 3
Marshall's Physiology 25 Packe's Guide to the Pyrenees 35
Marshman s History of India 3 Paget's Naval Powers 23
Life of Havelock 8 Pattison's Casaubon 7
Martincau's Christian Life 32 Payen's Industrial Chemistry 26
Hymns 31 Pewtner's Comprehensive Specifier 40
Maunders Biographical Treasury 39 Pierce's Chess Problems 40
Geographical Treasury 39 Plunket's Travels in the Alps 33
Historical Treasury 39 Pole's Game of Whist 4°
Scientific and Literary Treasury 39 Preece & Sivewright's Telegraphy 20
Treasury of Knowledge 39 Prendergast's Mastery of Languages 16
Treasury of Natural History ... 39 Present-Day Thoughts, by A. K. H. B. ... 14
Maxwell's Theory of Heat 20 Proctor's Astronomical Essays 17
May's History of Democracy 2 Moon 17
History of England 2 - Orbs around Us 18
Melville's Digby Grand 36 Other Worlds than Ours 18
General Bounce 36 Saturn 17
Gladiators 36 Scientific Essays (New Series) ... 21
Good for Nothing 36 Sun 17
Holmby House 36 Transits of Venus 17
Interpreter 36 Two Star Atlases 18
Kate Coventry 36 Universe 17
Queens Maries 36
Menzies' Forest Trees and Woodland Public Schools Atlas of Ancient Geography 17
Scenery 24 Atlasof Modern Geography 17
Merivale's Fall of the Roman Republic ... 5 Manual of Modern Geo
General History of Rome 4 graphy 17
Romans under the Empire 4
Merrifields Arithmetic and Mensuration... 20
Miles on Horse's Foot and Horse Shoeing 38 Rawlinson's Parthia 5
on Horse's Teeth and Stables 38 Sassanians 5
Mill (J.) on the Mind 10 Recreations of a Country Parson 14
(J. S.) on Liberty 9 Redgrave's Dictionary of Artists 25
on Representative Government 9 Rcilly's Map of Mont Blanc 34
Utilitarianism 9 Monte Rosa 34
Autobiography 7 Reresby's Memoirs 8
Reynardson's Down the Road 37 Thorpe and Muir's Qualitative Analysis ... 20
Rich's Dictionary of Antiquities IS Todd (A.) on Parliamentary Government... 2
River's Rose Amateur's Guide 23 Trench's Realities of Irish Life 13
Rogers's Eclipse of Faith 30 Trollope's Barchester Towers 36
Defence of Eclipse of Faith 30 Warden 36
Essays 9 Twiss's Law of Nations 10
Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Tyndalis American Lectures on Light ... 20
Phrases IS Diamagnetism 20
Ronald's Fly-Fisher's Entomology 38 Fragments of Science..- .' 20
Roscoe's Outlines of Civil Procedure 10 Lectures on Electricity 21
Rothschilds Israelites 30 Lectures on Light 21
Russell's Recollections and Suggestions ... a Lectures on Sound 20
Heat a Mode of Motion 20
Molecular Physics..! 20
Sandars's Justinian's Institutes 10
Savile on Apparitions 13 Ueberweg's System of Logic n
on Primitive Faith 30 Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures,
Schellen's Spectrum Analysis 19 and Mines 27
Scott's Lectures on the Fine Arts 35
Poems 25
Papers on Civil Engineering 28 Voltaire's Zaire 36
Seaside Musing, by A. K. H. B 14
Scebohm's Oxford Reformers of 1498 4 Walker on Whist 4°
Protestant Revolution 6 Warburton s Edward the Third 6
Sewell's Questions of the Day 31 Watson's Geometry 20
Preparation for Communion 31 Watts's Dictionary of Chemistry 25
Stories and Tales 36 Webb's Objects for Common Telescopes ... 18
Thoughts for the Age 31 Weinhold's Experimental Physics 19
History of France 3 Wellingtons Life, by Gleig 8
Shelley's Workshop Appliances 20 Whately's English Synonymes 15
Short's Church History 6 Logic it
Simpson's Meeting the Sun 34 . . Rhetoric 11
Smith's (Sydney) Essays 12 White and Riddle's Latin Dictionaries ... 16
Wit and Wisdom 13 Wilcocks's Sea-Fisherman 38
(Dr. R. A.) Air and Rain 19 Williams's Aristotle's Ethics 11
Soulhey's Doctor 13 Woods (T. G. ) Bible Animals 22
Poetical Works 37 Homes without Hands ... 21
Stanley's History of British Birds 22 Insects at Home 21
Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography 8 Insects Abroad ..... 21
Stockmar's Memoirs 7 Out of Doors J*. 22
Stonehenge on the Dog 38 Strange Dwellings 21
on the Greyhound 38 (J. T.) Ephesus -3. 33
Stoney on Strains 28 Wyatt's History of Prussia 3
Sunday Afternoons at the Parish Church of
a University City, by A. K. H. B 14
Supernatural Religion 32
Swinbourne's Picture Logic 11 Yonge's English-Greek Lexicons 16
Horace 37
Youatt on the Dog 33
on the Horse > 38
Taylor's History of India 3
Manual of Ancient History 6
Manual of Modern History 6
{Jeremy) Works, edited by Eden. 31 Zeller's Plato °
Text-Books of Science 20 Socrates 5
Thomson's Laws of Thought 11 Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics... 5
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Behind The Veil

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Behind The Veil

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This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized

by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the

OUTLINE OF BIBLE METAPHYSICS

BEHIND THE VEIL

AN OUTLINE OF BIBLE METAPHYSICS

COMPARED WITH ANCIENT AND MODERN THOUGHT

THOMAS GRIFFITH, A.M.

' 0 for thy voice to soothe and bless

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' The hope set before us entereth in within the veil.'

The writer of the following pages has no quarrel with

ment and base of these phenomena. And further, that

1. The Scripture Doctrine.

1. The Scripture Doctrine.

It has been justly said concerning the times of Cicero,

1 Reid, The Academica of Oicero, p. xxvii.

intelligible forms : ' 1 and, secondly, that better systems

stance.1 Whence Schopenhauer rightly affirms that

1 See my Fundamentals, pp. 8 and 234 : and Herbart, Hauptpunkte der

table,'1 and what Plato enforced when he distinguished

1 ' Omnia exeunt in mysterium.' An equivalent thought is that of Dr.

barriers of nature, and penetrating far within the surface,

means of which the perplexities vanish. This something

1 Herbart, Lehrb. d. Phil. § 6.

constitutes the differentia or distinguishing mark of man.

1 Arriaris Epict. i. 6. Comp. Seneca, Nat. Qu. Preef. 9 : ' Sursum

faith is therefore as strong as the authority of that capacity

And of just the same nature and validity is Religious

world, and so on, without any translation of the moral

1 Ethik, ii. 71.

pre-existing or co-existing in our minds. ' Feeling,' says

object which I believe to be injurious to me ? What, of

who is an infinitely more than adequate object to our

1 Bishop Butler, Sermon on the Love of God.

before either emotion or confession can take place, is

his Master in this, wherever he went. In Thessalonica,

1 Acts xvii. 2 ; xviii. 4. 3 1 Cor. ii. 6, 7. 3 Prov. ii. 1-4.

deduction from received facts. It has its rise, and its

1 ' La demiere demarche de la Raison.'

There we find St. Paul declaring, first, that the essence

1 2 Cor. iv. 13, 18.

to us when we reason onward from their visible results

Such are the utterances of the Divine Spirit in Holy

body to be true being.' 1 And again : ' Such men, unini

1 Plato, Sophist. 246 a. 3 Plato, Theeetet. 155,

divine knowledge, when we gracefully move hand in

Now it is just this Law of the Invisible whose fuller

lying all passing appearance. They unveil to us, in

THE EEALITIES IN NATTJEE.

Nature is the sum total of what is observable by sense.1

nothing but appearance ; show as opposed to substance,

1 As Seneca has it, Troad, 393 :

phenomenal existence is compared to ' temporary struc

results of these phenomena themselves. They must

things of earth.1 And the same distinction he insists

In inquiring what lies behind the veil of the world of

1 Acta xiv. 17 ; xvii. 27.

Plato were different from those of Christ, but because

1 Justin Martyr, Apol. ii. 13. 2 Clemens Alex. Stromata, i. 1, 6.

this distinction became clear to Parmenides, who tells us

worth's presentation of it from the Thecetetus : ' We can

1 Plato, Thetetetus, in Cudworth, Int. Syst. iii. 568.

devoted many chapters of his Destiny of Man,1 and