Electric & hybrid vehicles

BITS Pilani, Work-Integrated Learning Programmes Division

SESSIONS 7 & 8
MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROLLERS
Simple “Brushed DC motor”
Cross section of a four pole DC motor
 Torque-speed characteristic
of DC motors - 1
• Force F on a coil of length L carrying current I in a
magnetic field B is F=BIL
• If the radius of the above coil is R, the torque T on the
coil is T = 2FR (FR on each coil) = 2RBIL
• For an armature coil of n turns, T= 2nRBIL.
• Area of the coil A=2LR. Hence T= 2nRBIL=nABI
• Magnetic flux Φ = 𝐴𝐵
• Hence torque on the armature coil T=nΦI – this is the
max torque when the field is normal to the coil. If there
are more poles, this will change.
• Hence T=𝐾𝑚 Φ𝐼, 𝐾𝑚 is the motor constant. i.e.; the
motor torque is proportional to the armature current
 Torque-speed characteristic
of DC motors - 2
• The back emf on the armature coil of n turns due to
its motion in the stator field 𝐸𝑏 = 𝐵 2𝐿𝑛 𝑣 =
2𝐵𝐿𝑅𝑛𝜔, where the speed of the rotor 𝑣 = 𝑅𝜔
• From A=2LR and Φ = 𝐴𝐵, we get 𝐸𝑏 = nΦ𝜔.
• Using the motor constant, 𝐸𝑏 = 𝐾𝑚 Φ𝜔
• If the supply voltage is 𝐸𝑠 and the armature
resistance is 𝑅𝑎 , the armature current I is
𝐸𝑠 −𝐸𝑏 𝐸𝑠 𝐾𝑚 Φ
I= = − 𝜔
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝐾𝑚 Φ𝐸𝑠 𝐾𝑚 Φ 2
• Hence T = 𝐾𝑚 Φ𝐼 = − 𝜔
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎
 Torque-speed characteristic
of DC motors - 3
𝐾𝑚 Φ𝐸𝑠 𝐾𝑚 Φ 2
• T = 𝐾𝑚 Φ𝐼 = − 𝜔 tells us that the torque
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎
is max at zero speed. The torque-speed characteristic is
plotted below (for constant magnetic flux DC motors).
• The graph ignores losses
• At large torques, the current
tends to be very high
(potentially causing motor
damage) and is limited by an
electronic controller (in large
motors) or by the internal
resistance of the battery (in
small motors)
 Example problem

A DC motor runs off a 24 V supply. Its no load speed

is 70 rpm/V (expressed as speed per unit of input
voltage). If its armature resistance is 0.016 Ω ,
determine its torque-speed characteristic. If the max
armature current permitted is 250 A, determine the
max power of the motor.
 Example problem solution - 1
A DC motor runs off a 24 V supply. Its no load speed
is 70 rpm/V (expressed as speed per unit of input
voltage). If its armature resistance is 0.016 Ω ,
determine its torque-speed characteristic. If the max
armature current permitted is 250 A, determine the
max power of the motor.
𝐾𝑚 Φ𝐸 𝐾𝑚 Φ 2
Solution: From T = − 𝜔, the no-load
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎
speed is obtained when T = 0. i.e.;
𝐸 𝐸 1 1
𝜔= ⇒ 𝐾𝑚 Φ = = 𝜔 = = 0.136
𝐾𝑚 Φ 𝜔 2𝜋
𝐸 60 70
𝐾𝑚 Φ𝐸 𝐾𝑚 Φ 2
T= − 𝜔 = 205 − 1.163𝜔
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎
 Example problem solution - 2
A DC motor runs off a 24 V supply. Its no load speed is 70
rpm/V (expressed as speed per unit of input voltage). If its
armature resistance is 0.016Ω, determine its torque-speed
characteristic. If the max armature current permitted is 250 A,
determine the max power of the motor.
Soln (contd.):
𝐾𝑚 Φ𝐸 𝐾𝑚 Φ 2
T= − 𝜔 = 205 − 1.163𝜔
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎
Let us find the current required for max torque (=205 Nm).
205
From T = 𝐾𝑚 Φ𝐼, we find 𝐼 = = 1500 𝐴‼
0.136
Limiting the current to 250 A, we find the max torque to be
T = 𝐾𝑚 Φ𝐼 = 0.136 × 250 = 34 𝑁𝑚 . This occurs when
205 − 1.163𝜔 = 34 ⇒ 𝜔 = 147 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 . Hence the max
power 34 × 147 = 5 𝑘𝑊
Hence the revised characteristic equation is:
T = 205 − 1.163𝜔 𝑖𝑓 𝜔 > 147 & 𝑇 = 34 𝑖𝑓𝜔 < 147
Controlling the brushed DC motor-1
𝐾𝑚 Φ𝐸𝑠 𝐾𝑚 Φ 2
•T= − 𝜔 , the characteristic equation
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝐾𝑚 Φ𝐸𝑠
indicates that the max torque is controlled by
𝑅𝑎
the supply voltage 𝐸𝑠 . Changing 𝐸𝑠 (armature voltage)
changes the max torque but the slope of the
characteristic is unaltered.
• Question is how do we use the magnetic flux Φ to
control the torque. This is possible if coils (field
windings) are used in the stator instead of permanent
magnets, and the current through the coils (field
current) is changed. Changing Φ (field current) changes
the max torque and the slope of the characteristic. This
provides better control at higher speeds than just
voltage control (which works only to reduce the max
torque). It also enables losses at high speeds and strong
magnetic fields to be reduced.
Controlling the brushed DC motor-2
Controlling the brushed DC motor-3
• The field current leads to heat generation in the
stator (unlike in permanent magnet stator) and
hence reduced efficiency. The additional control
due to the field current can be used to reduce iron
losses and improved efficiency (note the two
opposing influences)

• We briefly considered the series wound, shunt

wound and separately excited DC motors earlier
Controlling the brushed DC motor-4
• The series and shunt wound motors do not provide adequate
control on torque and speed (so not used in EV’s)

• In a shunt wound motor, reducing the supply voltage reduces the

field current (weakening the field) and reduces the back emf
(𝐸𝑏 = 𝐾𝑚 Φ𝜔) with little effect on speed
• The series wound motor provides very high torque at low speeds
that falls off rapidly (again not much use in EV but finds use as
starter motor in ICE)
• The separately excited motor allows torque and speed control
flexibility by means of field current and armature voltage
(possible to use in EV’s)
 Efficiency of DC motors-1

• The losses discussed here apply to all electric

motors. These are:
• Copper losses
• Iron losses
• Friction and windage losses
• Constant losses
 Efficiency of DC motors-2

• Copper losses
• 𝐼 2 𝑅 loss due to heating of the wires and brushes caused
by their electrical resistance
• As T & I are proportional (recall T = 𝐾𝑚 Φ𝐼), copper
losses = 𝑘𝑐 𝑇 2 (𝑘𝑐 is a constant).
• Copper losses are very significant in smaller motors
 Efficiency of DC motors-3

• Iron losses
• Caused by the magnetic effects in the iron of the rotor
• Consists of hysteresis loss and eddy current loss
• Hysteresis loss is the energy loss in the iron due to its
continuous magnetization and demagnetization as it
rotates in the stator field
• Eddy current losses in iron are caused as a result of
induced current. It is reduced by laminating the core or
by using thin sheets connected together
• Iron losses are proportional to the frequency at which
the magnetic field changes. i.e.; iron losses = 𝑘𝑖 𝜔
 Efficiency of DC motors-4

• Friction and windage losses

• Caused by friction in the bearings and brushes and by
wind resistance (possibly from a cooling fan)
• Friction losses are nearly constant
• Wind resistance increases with the square of the speed
• Hence loss due to friction (= friction torque multiplied by
speed) is proportional to 𝜔
• Windage loss (wind torque multiplied by speed) is
proportional to 𝜔3 . i.e.; windage loss = 𝑘𝑤 𝜔3
 Efficiency of DC motors-5

• Constant losses
• Occur whether the motor is running or not, and these
losses are independent of speed and torque. e.g.; power
supplied to field coils for generating magnetic field,
power consumed by electronic control circuits etc.
• It is zero in permanent magnet brushed DC motors
 Efficiency of DC motors-6

• Total losses = 𝑘𝑐 𝑇 2 + 𝑘𝑖 𝜔 + 𝑘𝑤 𝜔3 + C
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
• Motor efficiency = . i.e.; motor
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟+𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝜔𝑇
efficiency =
𝜔𝑇+𝑘𝑐 𝑇 2 +𝑘𝑖 𝜔+𝑘𝑤 𝜔3 +C
• The constants in the total loss are determined from
experiments
• The efficiency depends on the operating point
• Curves of constant efficiency (called efficiency map)
can be drawn on the torque vs. speed graph
Efficiency map of a DC motor
 Motor losses and power produced
• Power produced can be increased by increasing the
supply voltage (hence the torque). This cannot be
indefinitely done as heat removal becomes hard and
the motor overheats
• Hence specific power (power per unit mass) and power
density (power per unit volume) are controlled by heat
removal than electrical limitations
• Since heat losses in brushless DC motor are in the rotor,
it is difficult to cool (rotating part).
• If the losses occur in the stator (as in most motors),
heat removal is easier.
• Liquid cooling is used (as against air cooling) in large
motors
• Note that a DC motor can run above its rated capacity if
thermal breakdown is not an issue. At least it can run
above rated capacity for short duration, making it
useful in EV’s during acceleration.
 Dynamic braking
• It is the slowing down of an electric motor using a
resistor
• Consider the DC motor (sketch below) connected to
a battery and providing
2
torque T at speed 𝜔 as per
𝐾𝑚 Φ𝐸𝑠 𝐾𝑚 Φ
T= − 𝜔
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎

• Toggle the switch S to the right. The motor

generates an emf as per 𝐸𝑏 = 𝐾𝑚 Φ𝜔. The current I
𝐾𝑚 Φ𝜔
thro the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 is 𝐼 = , 𝑅𝑎 being
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝐿
the armature resistance. I decreases as the motor
slows down.
 Regenerative braking-1
• All the energy in dynamic braking is lost as heat
• Regenerative braking is the recovery of the braking
energy and storing it in a battery. i.e.; the resistor used
in dynamic braking is replaced by a battery of voltage
𝑉𝑏
• The current produced by the motor during
𝐸𝑏 −𝑉𝑏 𝐾𝑚 Φ𝜔−𝑉𝑏
regeneration 𝐼 = = .
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎
• When 𝐸𝑏 reaches 𝑉𝑏 for a certain speed, no further
charging is possible. Also, 𝑉𝑏 cannot very low as it
becomes difficult to use the stored energy, and
moreover high speed braking becomes very strong then
𝐸𝑏 −𝑉𝑏 𝐾𝑚 Φ𝜔−𝑉𝑏
(because current 𝐼 = = becomes huge)
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎
• Hence we need a booster
 Regenerative braking-2
• Regenerative braking circuit with booster
 Brushless DC (BLDC) motors

• Current to the BLDC is supplied from a DC source as

alternating current of variable frequency and its torque
speed characteristic is similar to that of the brushed DC
motor. Hence it is called a brushless DC motor rather
than an AC motor.
• Uses permanent magnet as rotor and stator coils that
are powered from a DC source through an inverter and
sensor circuits
• It is also sometimes called a self-synchronous AC motor,
variable frequency synchronous motor, permanent
magnet synchronous motor or electronically
commutated motor (ECM)
 Operation of BLDC motors
• Stator current is turned on in (a)
• Stator current is switched off in (b)
• Stator current is turned on in reverse in (c)
• Momentum of the rotor carries it between
(a) & (b) AND (b) & (c)
• Needs a rotor position sensor to time the
switching of the stator current
• The torque is very unsteady. This is
improved by having multiple stator coils as
shown below (3 coils)
 Characteristics of BLDC motors

• The rotating magnet generates a back emf

proportional to its rotational speed as it
approaches a coil. This reduces the current in the
coil and hence the field and the torque. When the
back emf equals the supply voltage, max speed
would be reached.
• Torque speed characteristic is similar to that of the
brushed DC motor
Operation of Switched Reluctance (SR) motors
• Rotor is just soft iron
• Coil current does not alternate
• (a) to (b): When the rotor is not
aligned with the field, a torque is
produced to minimize the reluctance
(i.e.; minimize the air gap) and the
rotor tries to align with the field.
• (b) to (c): Coil current is switched off
at (b). The inertia of the rotor takes it
forward to (c)
• At (c), the field is re applied in the
same direction as before. The torque
carries the rotor forward. This
continues.
 Characteristics of SR motors
• Speed is controlled by the duration for
which the current is turned on.
• No back emf in rotor (it is not a
magnet) unlike in BLDC. Hence higher
speeds are possible.
• Torque variability in SR motors
produces noise. It can be made
smoother by adding more stator coils
as shown.