Industrial Safety

Industrial Safety
Board of Studies
Prof. H. N. Verma Prof. M. K. Ghadoliya

Vice- Chancellor Director,
Jaipur National University, Jaipur School of Distance Education and Learning
Jaipur National University, Jaipur
Dr. Rajendra Takale
Prof. and Head Academics
SBPIM, Pune
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Subject Expert Panel
Prof. Milind M. Kulkarni Ashwini Pandit

Professor, Sinhgad College of Engineering Subject Matter Expert
Pune
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Content Review Panel
Tejaswini Mulay
Subject Matter Expert
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Copyright ©
This book contains the course content for Industrial Safety.
First Edition 2013
Printed by
Universal Training Solutions Private Limited
Address
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All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not, in any form or by any means including electronic
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___________________________________________________________________________________________
Index
I. Content....................................................................... II
II. List of Figures......................................................... VII
III. List of Tables...........................................................IX
IV. Abbreviations........................................................... X
V. Case Study.............................................................. 160
VI. Bibliography.......................................................... 165
VII. Self Assessment Answers................................... 167
Book at a Glance
I
Contents
Chapter I........................................................................................................................................................ 1
Material Handling Techniques and Instructions....................................................................................... 1
Aim................................................................................................................................................................. 1
Objectives....................................................................................................................................................... 1
Learning outcome........................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Safeguarding of Machines........................................................................................................................ 3
1.2.1 Permanently Fixed Barriers...................................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Interlocked Physical Barriers.................................................................................................... 4
1.2.3 Physical Barrier Securely Fixed in Position............................................................................. 4
1.2.4 Physical Barriers....................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.5 Presence-Sensing Systems........................................................................................................ 5
1.2.6 Two Handed Controls............................................................................................................... 6
1.2.7 Combination of Guards............................................................................................................. 6
1.2.8 Safe System of Work for Unguarded Areas.............................................................................. 7
1.3 Manual Handling: Storage of Material..................................................................................................... 7
1.3.1 Work Station Design................................................................................................................. 8
1.3.2 Work Practices.......................................................................................................................... 8
1.3.3 Storage.....................................................................................................................................11
1.3.4 General Precautions.................................................................................................................11
1.4 Mechanical Handling...............................................................................................................................11
1.4.1 Types of Equipment.................................................................................................................11
1.4.2 Safety Inspection of Lifting Devices...................................................................................... 16
1.4.3 Statutory Requirements........................................................................................................... 16
1.4.4 Mechanical Handling of Materials at Dockyards................................................................... 19
1.4.5 Safety Requirement for Material Handling through Conveyers............................................. 19
1.5 Training and Competency....................................................................................................................... 20
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 21
References.................................................................................................................................................... 21
Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................. 21
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 22
Chapter II.................................................................................................................................................... 24
Working at Height...................................................................................................................................... 24
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 24
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 24
Learning outcome......................................................................................................................................... 24
2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 25
2.1.1 Impact on Industry.................................................................................................................. 25
2.1.2 The Main Agents Behind Accidents....................................................................................... 25
2.2 Legal Duties............................................................................................................................................ 26
2.3 Scaffolds................................................................................................................................................. 27
2.3.1 Selecting Equipment............................................................................................................... 27
2.3.2 Safety Instructions.................................................................................................................. 27
2.3.3 Safety Instruction Scaffold Erection....................................................................................... 27
2.3.4 Safe Use of Scaffolds.............................................................................................................. 28
2.3.5 Scaffold Inspection................................................................................................................. 28
2.4 Ladders.................................................................................................................................................... 28
2.4.1 Safety Instructions for Ladders............................................................................................... 29
2.4.2 Ladder Stays can Provide Additional Security....................................................................... 29
2.4.3 Roof Work.............................................................................................................................. 30
2.4.4 Working on Fragile Roof........................................................................................................ 31
2.5 Hand Tools and Portable Tools- Basic Safety Rules............................................................................... 34
II
2.5.1 Safety Rules............................................................................................................................ 34
2.5.2 Hand Tools.............................................................................................................................. 34
2.5.3 Portable Power Tools.............................................................................................................. 36
2.5.4 Pneumatic Powered Tools....................................................................................................... 37
2.6 Safety at Work Place............................................................................................................................... 38
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 40
References.................................................................................................................................................... 40
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 41
Chapter III................................................................................................................................................... 43
Design Codes for Plant............................................................................................................................... 43
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 43
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 43
3.1 Introduction to Plant Design................................................................................................................... 44
3.2 General Principles................................................................................................................................... 44
3.3 Codes and Standards............................................................................................................................... 44
3.4 Inherently Safer Design.......................................................................................................................... 45
3.5 Design Assessments................................................................................................................................ 46
3.6 General Considerations........................................................................................................................... 46
3.6.1 Temperature and Pressure....................................................................................................... 47
3.6.2 Materials of Construction....................................................................................................... 47
3.6.3 Corrosion and Erosion............................................................................................................ 48
3.7 Specific Equipment - Mechanical Design............................................................................................... 49
3.7.1 Pressure Vessels...................................................................................................................... 49
3.7.2 Other Vessels (including Storage Tanks)................................................................................ 52
3.7.3 Reactor Design........................................................................................................................ 53
3.7.4 Furnaces and Boilers............................................................................................................... 54
3.7.5 Rotating Equipment................................................................................................................ 55
3.8 Maintenance, Inspection and Monitoring............................................................................................... 57
3.8.1 Critical Machines.................................................................................................................... 57
3.8.2 Structural Design Considerations........................................................................................... 57
3.8.3 Lightning................................................................................................................................. 57
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 60
References.................................................................................................................................................... 60
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 61
Chapter IV................................................................................................................................................... 64
Plant Maintenance...................................................................................................................................... 64
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 64
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 64
4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 65
4.2 Housekeeping.......................................................................................................................................... 65
4.3 Industrial Lighting.................................................................................................................................. 66
4.4 Ventilation and Heat Control.................................................................................................................. 70
4.4.1 Temperature............................................................................................................................ 70
4.4.2 Ventilation............................................................................................................................... 71
4.5 Electrical Hazards................................................................................................................................... 73
4.5.1 Electrical Hazards Classification............................................................................................ 74
4.5.2 Human Resistance to Current................................................................................................. 76
4.5.3 Electrical Fire Hazard............................................................................................................. 76
4.5.4 Safety Instructions.................................................................................................................. 77
III
4.5.5 Electrical Equipment for Use in Hazardous Area................................................................... 78
4.6 Noise and Vibration................................................................................................................................ 78
4.6.1 Noise Magnitude..................................................................................................................... 78
4.6.2 Hearing Loss Measurement.................................................................................................... 79
4.6.3 Engineering Noise Controls.................................................................................................... 79
4.6.4 Noise Monitoring.................................................................................................................... 80
4.6.5 Statutory Requirements for Protection Against Noise at the Factory..................................... 80
4.7 Fire and Explosion.................................................................................................................................. 81
4.7.1 Basic Principles....................................................................................................................... 82
4.7.2 Controlling Sources of Ignition.............................................................................................. 82
4.7.3 Prevention of Spread of Fire................................................................................................... 82
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 85
References.................................................................................................................................................... 85
Self Assessments.......................................................................................................................................... 86
Chapter V..................................................................................................................................................... 88
Safety in Chemical Industry...................................................................................................................... 88
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 88
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 88
5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 89
5.2 Instructions for Safe Plant Operations.................................................................................................... 89
5.3 Work Permit Applications - Control Precautions.................................................................................... 90
5.3.1 Work Permit System Requirements........................................................................................ 90
5.3.2 Work Permit System - Responsibility of the Worker.............................................................. 90
5.3.3 Work Permit System - Selection and Training........................................................................ 91
5.3.4 Essentials of the Permit-to-Work Form.................................................................................. 91
5.3.5 Working in Confined Spaces.................................................................................................. 92
5.4 Assessment of Dow Index....................................................................................................................... 93
5.4.1 Determination of Fire and Explosion Index F and Toxicity Index T...................................... 93
5.4.2 Determination of the Material Factor (MF)............................................................................ 93
5.4.3 Determination of General Process Hazards............................................................................ 95
5.5 Handling and Transfer of Materials........................................................................................................ 96
5.6 Determination of Special Process Hazards............................................................................................. 96
5.6.1 Process Temperature............................................................................................................... 96
5.6.2 Low Pressure........................................................................................................................... 96
5.6.3 Operation in or Near Flammable Range................................................................................. 96
5.6.4 Operating Pressures................................................................................................................ 96
5.6.5 Low Temperature.................................................................................................................... 97
5.6.6 Quantity of Flammable Material in Process........................................................................... 97
5.6.7 In Storage................................................................................................................................ 98
5.6.8 Loss of Material through Corrosion and Erosion................................................................... 99
5.6.9 Leakage of Joints and Packing................................................................................................ 99
5.6.10 Toxic Release...................................................................................................................... 100
5.6.10.1 Forms of Toxic Materials..................................................................................... 101
5.6.10.2 Measuring and Monitoring of Toxic Chemicals Exposure.................................. 102
5.7 Engineering Controls............................................................................................................................ 102
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 103
References.................................................................................................................................................. 103
Recommended Reading............................................................................................................................ 103
Self Assessment.......................................................................................................................................... 104
IV
Chapter VI................................................................................................................................................. 106
Textile Industry Safety.............................................................................................................................. 106
Aim............................................................................................................................................................. 106
Objectives................................................................................................................................................... 106
Learning outcome....................................................................................................................................... 106
6.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 107
6.2 Textiles Operations............................................................................................................................... 107
6.2.1 Spinning Preparatory and Spinning...................................................................................... 108
6.2.2 Weaving Preparatory and Weaving........................................................................................111
6.2.3 Processing and Finishing.......................................................................................................112
6.2.4 Material Handling..................................................................................................................113
6.2.5 Handling of Chemicals..........................................................................................................114
6.2.6 Use of Pressure Vessels..........................................................................................................114
6.2.7 Fire Hazards...........................................................................................................................114
6.2.8 Work Environment.................................................................................................................116
6.3 Manufacture of Viscose Rayon Yarn.....................................................................................................116
6.4 Hazards at Various Stages of Production: Mainly Chemical Hazards...................................................117
6.5 Health and Welfare.................................................................................................................................119
6.5.1 Carbon Disulphide.................................................................................................................119
6.5.2 Hydrogen Sulphide................................................................................................................119
6.5.3 Chlorine................................................................................................................................ 120
6.5.4 Mercury................................................................................................................................. 120
6.6 Safety Performance Calculation........................................................................................................... 120
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 122
References.................................................................................................................................................. 122
Self Assessment.......................................................................................................................................... 123
Chapter VII............................................................................................................................................... 125

Engineering Industry Part I..................................................................................................................... 125
Aim............................................................................................................................................................. 125
Objectives................................................................................................................................................... 125
7.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 126
7.2 Operations in the Foundry.................................................................................................................... 126
7.3 Hot Working Foundry Manual.............................................................................................................. 127
7.3.1 Gangways and Pouring Aisles.............................................................................................. 127
7.3.2 Work near Cupolas and Furnaces......................................................................................... 128
7.3.3 Dust and Fumes.................................................................................................................... 128
7.3.4 Knockout Operations............................................................................................................ 129
7.3.5 Dressing/Fettling Operations................................................................................................ 129
7.3.6 Maintenance and Examination of Exhaust Plant.................................................................. 129
7.3.7 Protective Equipment............................................................................................................ 129
7.3.8 Washing and Bathing Facilities............................................................................................ 129
7.3.9 Disposal of Dross and Skimming......................................................................................... 130
7.3.10 Medical Facilities and Records of Examinations and Tests................................................ 130
7.3.11 Medical Examination by Certifying Surgeon..................................................................... 130
7.4 Various Manufacturing Processes......................................................................................................... 130
7.5 Approach to Hazard Control................................................................................................................. 131
7.5.1 Identification of Hazards...................................................................................................... 131
7.5.2 Training................................................................................................................................. 131
7.5.3 Maintenance Culture............................................................................................................. 131
7.5.4 Chemical and Environment Hazards.................................................................................... 131
7.5.5 Noise..................................................................................................................................... 131
7.5.6 Heat....................................................................................................................................... 132
V
7.5.7 Fire Safety............................................................................................................................. 132
7.5.8 Ergonomics........................................................................................................................... 132
7.5.9 Shrub Control........................................................................................................................ 133
7.5.10 Disaster Management Planning.......................................................................................... 133
7.5.11 Planning, Project and Construction..................................................................................... 133
7.5.12 Construction........................................................................................................................ 133
7.6 The Safety Policy and its Fulfillment................................................................................................... 134
7.6.1 Hot Working Foundry - Forging........................................................................................... 134
7.6.2 Cold Working Bending, Rolling and Turning Safety............................................................ 136
7.6.3 Safety in Painting Operations............................................................................................... 136
7.6.4 Painting Solvents.................................................................................................................. 136
7.6.5 Painting Varnishes and Lacquers.......................................................................................... 136
7.6.6 Accident Causes in the Forging and Steel Industry.............................................................. 137
7.6.7 Maintenance.......................................................................................................................... 138
7.6.8 Degree of Risk...................................................................................................................... 138
7.7 Safety Requirements in the Painting Industry...................................................................................... 138
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 139
References.................................................................................................................................................. 139
Self Assessment.......................................................................................................................................... 140
Chapter VIII.............................................................................................................................................. 142

Engineering Industry Part II................................................................................................................... 142
Aim............................................................................................................................................................. 142
Objectives................................................................................................................................................... 142
8.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 143
8.2 Printing Industry................................................................................................................................... 143
8.2.1 Causes of Accidents.............................................................................................................. 143
8.2.2 Safety Instructions................................................................................................................ 144
8.2.3 Decide on the Appropriate Safe System for Cleaning.......................................................... 144
8.2.4 Additional Precautions.......................................................................................................... 145
8.2.5 Safe Systems of Work for Press Cleaning............................................................................ 145
8.2.6 Train and Instruct Employees............................................................................................... 145
8.3 Safety Requirements in the Printing Industry....................................................................................... 145
8.4 Safety in the Power Industry................................................................................................................. 146
8.4.1 Safety Aspects of Thermal Power Generation...................................................................... 146
8.4.2 Case Studies.......................................................................................................................... 147
8.4.3 Causes of Injuries.................................................................................................................. 148
8.4.4 Prevention of Injuries............................................................................................................ 148
8.5 Sugar and Cement Industry................................................................................................................... 150
8.5.1 Factors Contributing to Heat Problems................................................................................ 151
8.5.2 Possible Control Measures for Heat Stress........................................................................... 151
8.6 Noise Hazards in Sugar and Cement Industry...................................................................................... 152
8.6.1 Monitoring............................................................................................................................ 152
8.6.2 Possible Control Measures for Excessive Noise in Sugar and Cement Industry.................. 153
8.7 Accident Prevention Techniques in the Cement Industry..................................................................... 153
8.8 The Safety Passport System.................................................................................................................. 154
8.9 Airport Safety........................................................................................................................................ 155
8.10 Safety in Hotel Industry...................................................................................................................... 156
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 157
References.................................................................................................................................................. 157
Self Assessment.......................................................................................................................................... 158
VI
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Range of guards................................................................................................................................. 3
Fig. 1.2 Food mixer with an interlocking guard............................................................................................. 4
Fig. 1.3 Fixed guard........................................................................................................................................ 4
Fig. 1.4 Perimeter fence guard with fixed panels and interlocking access door............................................. 5
Fig. 1.5 Types of presence sensing guards...................................................................................................... 5
Fig. 1.6 Photoelectric light curtain used as a trip guard.................................................................................. 6
Fig. 1.7 A photoelectric light curtain used as a trip guard.............................................................................. 6
Fig. 1.8 Paper cutting guillotine...................................................................................................................... 7
Fig. 1.9 Lifting and lowering of materials...................................................................................................... 9
Fig. 1.10 Biomechanics................................................................................................................................... 9
Fig. 1.11 Assisted one-hand lift...................................................................................................................... 9
Fig. 1.12 Pushing and pulling of loads......................................................................................................... 10
Fig. 1.13 Cryogenic handcart.........................................................................................................................11
Fig. 1.14 Two-wheeled hand truck................................................................................................................ 12
Fig. 1.15 Power trucks.................................................................................................................................. 14
Fig. 1.16 Elevated overhead transport cranes............................................................................................... 15
Fig. 1.17 Electric wire rope hoists................................................................................................................ 15
Fig. 1.18 Jib crane......................................................................................................................................... 18
Fig. 1.19 Safety features of jib cranes........................................................................................................... 18
Fig. 1.20 Four key stages in achieving competency..................................................................................... 20
Fig. 2.1 Categories of injury......................................................................................................................... 25
Fig. 2.2 Main agents behind accidents/injuries............................................................................................. 25
Fig. 2.3 Hierarchy of control measures to consider during an assessment................................................... 26
Fig. 2.4 Scaffold............................................................................................................................................ 27
Fig. 2.5 Ladder . ............................................................................................................................................ 28
Fig. 2.6 Work at roof..................................................................................................................................... 30
Fig. 2.7 Steel purlins structure...................................................................................................................... 32
Fig. 2.8 Wrench............................................................................................................................................. 34
Fig. 2.9 Hammer........................................................................................................................................... 35
Fig. 2.10 Types of pliers................................................................................................................................ 35
Fig. 2.11 Radial arm saws............................................................................................................................. 36
Fig. 3.1 Pressure vessel................................................................................................................................. 49
Fig. 3.2 Protection layer concept.................................................................................................................. 59
Fig. 4.1 Types of workplace ventilation........................................................................................................ 72
Fig. 4.2 Basic electrical circuit diagram....................................................................................................... 74
Fig. 4.3 Categories of electrical hazards....................................................................................................... 74
Fig. 4.4 An electrocution accident circuit..................................................................................................... 75
Fig. 5.1 Penalty for operating pressure......................................................................................................... 97
Fig. 5.2 Penalty for quantity of energy present in flammable in process..................................................... 98
Fig. 5.3 Penalty for the quantity of energy present in the flammable material in storage............................ 99
Fig. 6.1 Profile of a textile industry............................................................................................................ 107
Fig. 6.2 Blow room machinery................................................................................................................... 108
Fig. 6.3 Carding machine............................................................................................................................ 108
Fig. 6.4 Comber ......................................................................................................................................... 109
Fig. 6.5 Drafting machine........................................................................................................................... 109
Fig. 6.6 Mule spinning frame.......................................................................................................................110
Fig. 6.7 Flyer frame.....................................................................................................................................110
Fig. 6.8 Spool winding machine..................................................................................................................111
Fig. 6.9 Warping machine............................................................................................................................111
Fig. 6.10 Conventional loom.......................................................................................................................112
Fig. 6.11 Shearing machine..........................................................................................................................113
Fig. 6.12 Laser cutting machine . ................................................................................................................113
Fig. 6.13 Cotton contamination cleaning machine and metal detector........................................................115
VII
Fig. 6.14 Layout diagram showing sample installation...............................................................................115
Fig. 7.1 Inbuilt hazards of an industry........................................................................................................ 126
Fig. 7.2 A modern cupola and cupolas at hermit industries in upper Gornal.............................................. 128
Fig. 8.1 Monitoring for effectiveness of noise management programme................................................... 152
Fig. 8.2 The safety passport system............................................................................................................ 154
VIII
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Fixed guards: advantages and limitations....................................................................................... 3
Table 3.1 Materials required for construction............................................................................................... 51
Table 4.1 The 5 S concept of housekeeping.................................................................................................. 65
Table 4.2 Types of industrial lighting .......................................................................................................... 70
Table 4.3 Dry and wet bulb temperature readings........................................................................................ 71
Table 4.4 Effects of progressively increasing current................................................................................... 75
Table 4.5 Human resistance to electrical current.......................................................................................... 76
Table 4.6 Noise levels of commonly used equipment.................................................................................. 79
Table 4.7 Permissible exposure in cases of continuous noise....................................................................... 80
Table 4.8 Permissible exposure levels of impulsive or impact noise........................................................... 80
Table 4.9 Fires classification and extinguishing media................................................................................ 83
Table 5.1 Instructions for safe plant operations............................................................................................ 90
Table 5.2 Determination of fire and explosion index F, and toxicity index T.............................................. 94
Table 7.1 Safety hazards and emergency steps........................................................................................... 135
Table 8.1 Types of accidents in operation and maintenance activities ...................................................... 149
Table 8.2 Unsafe actions of workers in operations and maintenance activities ........................................ 149
Table 8.3 Unsafe conditions in operations and maintenance activities ..................................................... 150
IX
Abbreviations
ALA - Aminolevulinic Acid
ANSI - American National Standards Institutes
API - American Petroleum Institute
ASME - American Society of Mechanical Engineers
CEI - Corporate Equality Index
CKD - Cement Kiln Dust
D.P. - Degree of Polymerisation
dBA - Decibel A-weighted filter
EOT - Electric Overhead Transport
FRP - Fibre Reinforced Plastic
GPH - General Process Hazards
GRP - Glass Reinforced Plastic
HRC - High Rupture Capacity
HSE - Health Survey for England
HV - High Visibility
HVLP - High-Volume Low- Pressure
L.E.L. - Lower Explosive Limit
lb - Pounds
LDO - Light Diesel Oil
LOLER - Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations
LOPA - Level of Protection Analysis
MAAP - Maximum Allowable Accumulated Pressure
MEWP - Mobile Elevated Working Platform
MF - Material Factor
MHSWR - Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations
MSDSs - Material Safety Data Sheets
NFPA - National Fire Protection Association
OSH - Occupational Safety and Health
PEL - Permissible Exposure Limit
PHA - Process Hazard Analysis
PIAC - Printing Industry Advisory Committee
PPE - Personal Protective Equipment
PUWER - Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations
PVC - Polyvinyl Chloride
SPH - Special Process Hazard
STC - Slag Transfer Car
TEMA - Tubular Heat Exchanger Manufacturers Association
U.E.L. - Upper Explosive Limit
V.R.R. - Viscose Ripening Room
WAH - Work at Height Regulations
WISHA - Washington Industrial Safety and Health Act
X
Chapter I
Material Handling Techniques and Instructions
Aim
The aim of this chapter is to:
• explain material handling methods
• elaborate protection measures against injuries
• describe machine safeguards
Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to:
• analyse safety instructions
• explain safety requirement for material handling through conveyers
• discuss the concept of biomechanics
Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• understand safety at work place
• comprehend manual and mechanical handling of materials
• identify the key stages in achieving competency
1
Industrial Safety
1.1 Introduction
The safety of employees and workers is one of the major concerns of management within the industry premises.
Negligence on anybody’s part can lead to catastrophic results ranging from minor accidents to mass scale tragedy.
The memories of Bhopal gas leak and Japan’s recent encounter with nuclear plant’s radiation leak is fresh in the
minds of all. Many times workers in the industry premises have befallen with accident while handling material in
production activities in automobile, steel and iron, dockyards and construction industries. This chapter explains the
manual and mechanical handling safety methods for any hazardous plant such as oil and gas, mines and construction
as survival and prosperity decide the success of any business activity. In this newfound knowledge, industrial safety
has become paramount.
Risk is inherent in all the tasks that we undertake including business activity; no one likes to face adversity while
taking some risks, particularly the non-speculative or pure risks.
The non-speculative or pure risks involve only loss such as:

• physical harm to the employees
• property damage to the organisation
• physical harm to or property damage of the public
• capital income loss
• security loss
In order to reduce the risk, the potential hazards that are likely to result in losses are to be eliminated or controlled
to the possible extent. To decide on the loss control approaches, the hazards are to be identified. At present,
comprehensive safety and health statutes for regulating OSH (Occupational Safety and Health) of persons at work
exists only in respect of four sectors namely, mining, factories, ports and construction.
• Mining
On the status of safety in mines, it can be said that over the years accident figures have come down
considerably. Serious injuries in mines have showed a steady decline. While examining accidents in detail,
it could be seen that similar causes of accidents repeated themselves in a disturbing manner.
In view of this, it was found necessary to apply scientific and technological research findings more in
containment of accidents. Training and re-training of workforces also need to be emphasised. The time is
now ripe to introduce new initiatives and stress upon areas of high risk in order to minimise them.
• Industrial sector
In case of industrial sector, there has been a decreasing trend in injuries during the period 1994-1999,
whereas there was an increasing trend in the number of registered factories during the same period. The
percentage reductions in injuries were estimated at 6.8% per annum on an average. However, these rates
are comparatively higher than those of developed countries.
Although a major percentage of the total workforce is engaged in unorganised sectors like, agriculture,
construction, shops and establishments, house work, eating places and waste management, etc. Excepting
a few pilot surveys in some of these segments of unorganised sector, no authentic statistics at the national
level are available on accidents and occupational diseases. Construction is considered as one of the highly
hazardous industries and the rate of fatal accidents is 4 to 5 times that in the factories sector.
The injuries increase significantly when lifting or moving bulky, heavy objects that cannot be held close
to the body. Injuries can also occur when conducting repetitive lifts of lighter objects over long periods
of time. Therefore, supervisors and workers should perform appropriate analyses to determine the proper
technique or lifting device required for all material-handling activities. As part of the analysis, consider
whether a worker is able to carry out the materials-handling task or not.
2
1.2 Safeguarding of Machines
Employees often look upon machine guards as obstacles. However, guards wherever they are placed for protection,
specially machine guards are used to protect against direct contact with moving parts. There are also guards designed
to protect against flying chips, kickbacks and splashing of metal or harmful liquids. Mechanical and electrical failures
are also guarded in many situations. The Factory Act section 21 has given sufficient guidelines about protection
from injury caused by the moving parts of machines.
Types of guards
The list below shows the range of guards:
Permanently fixed physical barriers
Interlocked physical barriers
Physical barriers securely fixed in position
Physical barriers securely fixed in position
Presence-sensing systems
Two Handed Controls
Combination of Guards
Safe system of Work for Unguarded Areas
Fig. 1.1 Range of guards
1.2.1 Permanently Fixed Barriers

Permanently fixed barriers are permanently fixed physical barriers that are welded or incorporated into the body of
the machine for cases in which, during normal operation, maintenance or cleaning, no person would need complete
or partial access to the dangerous area.
Safeguarding
Advantages Limitations
Action
Provides a Can be constructed to suit many
May interfere with visibility
barrier specific applications
In-plant construction is often
Can be limited to specific operations
possible
Machine adjustment and repair often
Can provide maximum protection
require its removal, thereby necessitating
usually requires minimum
other means of protection for
maintenance.
maintenance personnel
Can be suitable to high
production, repetitive operations
Table 1.1 Fixed guards: advantages and limitations
3
Industrial Safety
1.2.2 Interlocked Physical Barriers

Interlocked physical barriers like enclosure guards, are known as ‘movable guards’ and are interconnected with
power or control system of the machine. The interlock prevents the machinery from operating unless the guard is
closed. They cannot be opened until the dangerous parts of the machine has come fully to rest.
• Interconnections are usually mechanical, electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic. They provide an effective safeguard
where access to the point of operation is required between each cycle of the machine or regular access is
needed.
• In the event of electrical failure, loss of power or malfunction, the machine’s guarding system should ‘fail to safe’,
and render the machine or part inoperable until the power is restored or the guarding mechanism is repaired.
• Interlocked guards and their components must be designed in such a way that any failure does not expose people
to danger. The design also needs to consider the possibility of a person being inside the area covered by the
guard when an attempt is made to start the machine.
Interlocking
mechanism
Interlocking
Emergency
guard
stop button
Fig. 1.2 Food mixer with an interlocking guard
1.2.3 Physical Barrier Securely Fixed in Position

Physical barriers securely fixed in position (fixed guards) should be easy to remove and replace but only with the
aid of a special tool such as a spanner, allen key or similar tool and only when the machine is not in operation.
Wing nuts, wedge inserts or similar fixing devices, which can be operated with the fingers or become stuck, should
not be used.
The design of guards may have to take into account the need to adjust drive belts and transmission chains.
Fixed
guard
Fig.1.3 Fixed guard
4
1.2.4 Physical Barriers
Adequate physical barriers or fences securely fixed in position may prevent access to dangerous areas. Any access
points through the barrier, for example gates and doors, should be secured with a lock or interlocking system.
Machine activities can often harm people working in close proximity of the machine. For instance an interlocked
door is accidentally closed and re-activates the machine.
Perimeter
fence guard
Fig. 1.4 Perimeter fence guard with fixed panels and interlocking access door
1.2.5 Presence-Sensing Systems

There are two types of presence-sensing guards. These are:
Laser guards Light guards

• These are photoelectric safety systems • These are light beams used in guarding of
that detect an obstruction in the path taken machinery. They may be a scanning beam
by a beam or beams of light. If the field or beams, or a number of fixed beams
of light is broken, the machine stops and • The light may be visible or invisible, for
will not cycle. example infra-red, and may be continuous
• The invisible barrier operated by this or modulated.
system may consist of a single beam,
multiple of beams of light, a curtain of light
or any combination of these necessary to
provide the required safeguard.
• T his device should be used only on
machines that can be stopped before the
worker can reach the danger area
Fig. 1.5 Types of presence sensing guards
• When properly maintained, presence-sensing systems stop the machine before a person moves into a position
where they could be injured, that is before access can be gained to a dangerous area surrounding the machine.
• The systems can prevent a person or part of the body gaining access to a dangerous area of the machine as a
result of the design, placement or junction of machine controls. They rely on sensitive trip mechanisms and the
machine being able to stop quickly, which may be assisted by a brake. Photoelectric curtains, laser scanners
and pressure mats are examples of these types of guards.
• Effective presence-sensing safeguard systems require selection of a trip device appropriate for the work being
done, and the correct location of beams with light activated devices, taking into account speed of entry and
machine stopping time.
5
Industrial Safety
• Presence-sensing safeguard systems must be operated and maintained according to the manufacturers’
instructions. Records must be kept of any maintenance, inspection, commissioning and alteration to a presence
sensing system, as well as any test results, while it is at the workplace. These records are required to be accessible
at all reasonable times to workers and, where they exist, safety and health representatives at the workplace.
Light
Guarding beams
Shrouded
controls
Fig. 1.6 Photoelectric light curtain used as a trip guard
When any of the beams is blocked by intrusion towards the hazard area, the light curtain control circuit switches
off the power to the hazard.
Guarding
Light
beams
Fig. 1.7 A photoelectric light curtain used as a trip guard
1.2.6 Two Handed Controls

Two-handed control devices force the operator to use both hands to operate the machine controls. However, they
only provide protection for the operator and are usually easy to defeat. They do not provide protection for anyone
else who may be near the danger point.
• Two-handed controls should only be used in conjunction with other guarding types and not on their own. Guards
installed must be arranged to protect all people, as far as practicable. Where two-handed controls are provided,
they should be spaced well apart and/or shrouded.
• The machine should only operate when both controls are activated together and the control system should require
resetting between each cycle of the machine. It should not be possible to tape or weigh down one of the control
buttons, nor should it be possible to operate one button with the knee, elbow, forehead or foot.
1.2.7 Combination of Guards

There may often be a need for more than one type of guarding system to ensure the safe operation of machinery or
plant. Illustrated below is an example where a combination of guarding and safety devices has been used.
6
Lightbeams from
photolectric guard
Fixed guard
Two handed
push button
controls
Fig. 1.8 Paper cutting guillotine
1.2.8 Safe System of Work for Unguarded Areas

In cases where guarding of any moving part does not eliminate the risk of entanglement or where it is not practicable
to guard it, the law requires workplaces to ensure that people do not operate or pass close to the moving part unless
a safe system of work is in place to reduce the risks as far as practicable.
1.3 Manual Handling: Storage of Material

Manual material handling operations are carried out in most industrial plants. Each handling task poses unique
demands on the worker. However, workplaces can help workers to perform these tasks safely and easily by
implementing and upholding proper policies and procedures.
To assess the hazards of manual material handling operations, consider the load, the task, the environment in which
the task is performed, and the operator. When these factors interact with each other, they can create hazards that result
in injuries. A load may be hazardous because of weight, size, shape (making it awkward to handle), coupling (type
of grip on the load), slippery or damaged surfaces, absent or inappropriate handles, and imbalance (i.e., changing
centre of gravity)
The task or method of handling may be hazardous when it involves:

• Lifting or lowering
repetitively
quickly
for extended periods of time
while seated or kneeling
immediately after prolonged flexion
shortly after a period of rest
• An inability to get close to the load
• Moving the load over large distances
• Accuracy and precision required because of
fragile loads
specific unloading locations
• Materials positioned too low or too high
• Hazardous movements or postures (e.g., twisting, extended bending and reaching)
• Multiple handling requirements (e.g., lifting, carrying, unloading)
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Industrial Safety
Environmental factors include:

• Temperature (beyond 19–26°C range)
• Relative humidity (beyond 35–50% range)
• Lighting
• Noise
• Time constraints (e.g., machine–paced work or deadline pressures)
• Physical conditions such as
obstacles
floor surfaces (e.g., slippery, uneven or damaged)
Operator characteristics that affect the handling of loads include:

• General health
• Physical factors
height
reach
flexibility
strength
weight
aerobic capacity
• Pre-existing musculoskeletal problems
• Psychological factors
motivation
stress
1.3.1 Work Station Design

Reduce the distance over which the load has to be moved by relocating production and storage areas. Design work
stations so that workers can store and handle all material between knuckle and shoulder height; waist height is most
desirable. They can begin and end handling material at the same height and can face the load and handle materials
as close to the body as possible. Design the work station so that the workers do not have to handle loads using
awkward postures or an extended reach, and do not handle loads in confined spaces that prevent them from using
good body mechanics
Facilitate access to material by providing workbenches and other work stations with toe cut-outs, so that workers
can get closer to the load. Supply bins and totes with removable sides along with removing obstructions, such as
unnecessary railings on bins.
1.3.2 Work Practices

Lifting and lowering
Eliminate the need to lift or lower manually by providing and ensuring proper use of:
• lift trucks, cranes, hoists, scissor lifts, drum and barrel dumpers, stackers, work dispensers, elevating conveyors,
articulating arms and other mechanical devices
• gravity dumps and chutes
• power lift tail gates on trucks, and hand trucks to ensure easy transfer of material from the truck to ground
level
• portable ramps or conveyors to lift and lower loads on to work stations
8
Fig. 1.9 Lifting and lowering of materials
Biomechanics - good handling techniques for lifting

Here are some practical tips, suitable for use in training people in safe manual handling. Materials can be handled
using biomechanics using skills explained as below to avoid injury and minimise occupational hazards.
Fig. 1.10 Biomechanics
Two-hand squat lift

Lifting is a part of many everyday jobs but is often done improperly, resulting in pulled muscles, disc lesions and
other injuries.
Assisted one-hand lift
Fig. 1.11 Assisted one-hand lift
9
Industrial Safety
The assisted one-hand lift is a safe method for lifting objects from containers and is also a viable lifting alternative
when the two handed squat lift cannot be used. For a good assisted one-hand lift, follow the three steps below: Place
the non-lifting hand on top of the container, bend over the container and assume the lift position.
Reach and grasp the object to be lifted

With the non-lifting hand, push down on the container top, raising the upper body to a vertical position. Be sure to
let the non-lifting hand, not your back, do the work. Assisted one-hand lifts assume that the object to be lifted can
be grasped with one hand and that the duration of the lift is not so long that the object becomes awkward to handle.
In general, loads weighing 7-9 kg (15-20 lb) would not be excessive for most workers.
Team lifts
Two or more workers transporting a large load should adjust the load to ride level so that each person carries equal
weight. Long objects (e.g., pipe or lumber) should be carried on the same shoulder, and the workers should walk in
step. Shoulder pads should be used to prevent shoulder injuries (e.g., cuts) and to help reduce fatigue. When team
lifting is required, make sure that the individuals involved are similar in size and physique. One person should act
as the leader and give commands on when to lift or lower the object.
• Pushing and pulling

Eliminate pushing or pulling by ensuring the use of powered conveyors, powered trucks, slides, chutes,
monorails, air tables and similar mechanical aids. Make loads easier to push or pull by ensuring the use of
carts, hand trucks and dollies with large diameter casters and good bearings, and use of grips or handles on
loads or mechanical aids, placed to provide optimal push force and prevent awkward postures.
Instruct employees to push rather than pull and avoid overloading – limit the load pushed or pulled at one
time. Ensure the load does not block vision and never push one load and pull another at the same time
Fig. 1.12 Pushing and pulling of loads
Carrying and holding

Reduce carrying and holding forces by:
• evaluating the work flow – determine if heavy loads can be moved mechanically over any distance
• converting the operation into a pushing or pulling task
• providing carts, slings or trolleys
• providing portable containers in which to place awkward loads
• providing grips or handles on loads
• limiting the distance over which the load is moved
10
Environmental factors
Maintain an optimum environment by ensuring that the temperature of the work area is at an acceptable level. In hot
environment workers take frequent breaks away from heat and drink frequently from liquids provided near the work
site. In cold environment, workers should wear good insulating clothing. Loads are easy to handle when gloves and
heavy clothing are worn. Humidity should be at an acceptable level. Lighting levels are adequate for work place
and the layout of work area provides better access to load. The aisles are clear of obstacles. Signs are posted where
there are gradients in the slope of the floor; whenever possible, limit such slopes to 10 degrees.
1.3.3 Storage
Provide proper storage facilities such as storage boxes and containers that can be lifted mechanically rather than
requiring manual handling. Avoid deep shelving that make retrieving or placing a load difficult. Racks or shelf trucks
to store material thus eliminate the need for lifting the containers. Storage bins and containers with fold down sides
for easier access to loads. When storing loads, employees should store loads in easy to access locations and store
loads between knuckle and shoulder height.
1.3.4 General Precautions

Instruct employees to take the following precautions when handling loads:
• Test the weight of the load to ensure it can be lifted securely; if not, make adjustments
• Grip the load securely
• Protect hands against pinch points
• Practice good team lifting
• Get help with awkward loads
• Always use the mechanical devices and aids provided
• Don’t rush or cut corners
1.4 Mechanical Handling

Because of their hazardous nature, lifting and mechanical handling activities can and do result in serious harm to
personnel, damage to plant, equipment or the environment, and business loss. Here we discusses about the key
components necessary to ensure that such activities are carried out safely such as the Lifting Operations and Lifting
Equipment Regulations (LOLER). It also helps in meeting the requirements of other relevant regulations including
the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations (MHSWR) and the Provision and Use of Work Equipment
Regulations (PUWER).
1.4.1 Types of Equipment

Many special types of hand trucks, dollies and wheelbarrows are available. The type of equipment most suitable
for a task should be used. For instance, a handcart designed to move liquefied gases also could be used to move
cryogenic vessels. When working with mechanical lifting devices, workers should wear gloves and safety shoes to
reduce hazards to the hands, toes and feet. Equipment that is not in use should be stored in a designated area, not
parked in aisles or other places where the equipment would create a tripping hazard or traffic obstruction.
Fig. 1.13 Cryogenic handcart
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Industrial Safety
Two-wheeled trucks
Two-wheeled trucks may appear easy to handle, but the procedures and precautions below shall be followed to
ensure safety.
• To place a load onto a two-wheeled truck, tip the load slightly forward so that the tongue of the truck can be
easily slid under the load.
• Keep the load’s centre of gravity as low as possible.
• Place heavy objects under light ones.
• Position the load so that it does not slip, shift or fall. If possible, stack objects only to a height that allows a
clear view ahead.
• Let the truck carry the load.
• The operator should only balance and push.
• Avoid walking backwards with a hand truck.
• Secure bulky or pressurised items (e.g., gas cylinders) to the hand truck.
• When going down an incline, keep the truck ahead so that it can be observed at all times. Move the truck at
safe speeds. Do not run.
• Keep the truck constantly under control.
Fig. 1.14 Two-wheeled hand truck
Pallet jacks
Before using a jack for lifting, check the manufacturer’s capacity plate or stenciled capacity to make sure the jack can
support the load. Jacks shall be visually inspected before each use. Any sign of hydraulic fluid leakage is sufficient
reason to remove a jack from use. The surface on which a jack is used shall be level.
Crowbars
The principal hazard associated with crowbars is slippage. A dull or broken crowbar is more likely to cause injury
than a sharp one. The point or edge of a crowbar should have a good bite. During material handling with a crowbar,
workers should be positioned to avoid falls or pinched hands if the crowbar slips. When not in use, crowbars should
be stored to avoid a trip/fall hazard.
12
Power trucks and hand trucks
The Factory Act describes safety requirement of power truck as all trucks and trailers and tractor equipment shall
be of good material, sound construction, sufficiently strong for the purpose for which it is used and maintained in
good state of repair. Provided that trucks and trailers employed for transporting freight containers shall be of the
size to carry the containers without overhanging and provided with twist locks conforming to national standards at
all the four corners and these shall be:
• Approved by a competent person
• Inspected, by a responsible person once at least every month and record maintained.
• All trucks and other equipment shall be inspected at least once a week by a responsible person and when any
dangerous defect is noticed in equipment, it shall be immediately taken out of use.
• Power trucks and tractors shall be equipped with effective brakes, head lights and tail lamps and maintained
in good repair and working order stanchions on power trucks and trailers for carrying heavy and long objects
shall be of substantial construction and free from defects.
• Provided with tie chains attached to the top across the loads for preventing stanchions from spreading out.
• Wherever necessary the stanchions shall be in position while loading and, unloading.
• Safe gangways shall be provided for to and fro movement of dock workers engaged in loading and unloading in
lorries, trucks, trailers and wagons. Trucks and other equipment shall not be loaded beyond their safe carrying
capacity which shall be clearly and plainly marked on them.
• Handles of hand trucks shall be so designed as to protect the hands of the dockworkers or else be provided with
knuckle guards
• Safe operating arrangements and built-in safety systems provided like
Emergency off switch
Protection through lowering brake valve
Overload protection through overload brake valve
Load chains covered preventing pinching threat
Electrically interlocking during loading process
Secured battery compartment opens upwardly
Stable buffering of steering arm in upright position
Safe working conditions

Double sided compulsory steering with different steering angles with continual, smooth, optimal wheel base is
provided to the battery operated stacker. The steering wheels of polyurethane material and fork rollers of nylon material
are used in construction. A foot brake on the steering wheel is necessary in accordance with safety guidelines.
Safe operation and secure working conditions

Battery operated stacker should be sensitive to lifting and lowering movements. An automatic braking system is
advisable when the steering arm is in either horizontal or vertical position. Overload protection through overload
pressure valve and load chains are advisable to prevent pinching threat. The battery operated stacker must be
provided with a signal horn and safety switch on the steering arm control box with strengthened mast of special
profile steel.
• Safety requirements for power trucks and hand trucks
Unauthorised persons shall not ride on transport equipment employed in connection with dock work
Provision of mechanical ventilation to power trucks
Suitable fire fighting equipment is readily available
Exhaust pipes, connections and mufflers are kept tight
Exhaust is directed in such a way that it does not cause inconvenience to the operator and dockworkers. It
is ensured that no explosives, inflammable liquids, gases or similar dangerous cargo are present.
A spark arrestor is fitted on the exhaust of the engine and the bare heated surfaces of the engine that are
13
Industrial Safety
liable to ignite spilled fuel are suitably protected.

The internal combustion engine shall be switched off when not in use.
The Factory Act has generalised guidelines for mechanical handling of power trucks, vehicles, hoists and lifts for
mechanical handling. The rules are elaborated under section 28.
Pulling a load Pushing a load

Raise the handle towards the Lower the hamdle to the
load to itsa furthermost position. bottom position. Lower the
squeeze the handgrip and pump handgrip and raise the handle
the handle to launch the truck in to launch the truck in the pallet
the walking direction. direction.
Fig. 1.15 Power trucks
Hoists and lifts

Lifts and hoists are used for transporting people and goods vertically between floors. If properly designed and
maintained, there is relatively little risk to the user. There can however, be a much greater risk to the person who
services and repairs the lifts. Most lifts are required by law to be thoroughly examined by a competent person.
The examination is required to determine if the design, construction and condition of the lift is such that the lift can
continue to be safely used. A written report of the examination has to be made and given to the owner or user of the
lift. If the examination has revealed that repairs are required, this must be stated, together with any time limits in
which the repairs have to be made.
Passenger lifts are required to be examined every six months and goods lifts every twelve months or alternatively
at intervals detailed in an examination scheme drawn up by a competent person based on an assessment of risks.
The lift should be regularly serviced by a reputable maintenance company (approximately every three months).
Some examples are as follows:
Elevated overhead transport cranes

Overhead cranes are built to consistently high specifications conforming to IS 807, ARE 3177 and ARE 4137 box
type construction for bridge girder for strong mechanical strength. A tapered plate design is incorporated for joining
the end carriages to the girders, thereby ensuring smooth flow of stresses. The end carriages are incorporated with
L.T. wheels machined out of En-8 forged blanks and mounted on ‘L’ type bearing housings with antifriction bearings.
Smooth operation is ensured by gears having precision hobbed teeth subject to heat treatment. Anti-friction bearings
on all high speed rotating parts and machined components checked by limit gauges.
14
Fig. 1.16 Elevated overhead transport cranes
Rigid inspection and testing: Raw materials undergo ultrasonic testing while important weldments are radio
graphed for material handling safety.
Rigid inspection procedures at all stages of manufacture to ensure unfailing dependability.
Remote control or computerised EOT cranes: Remote control operation is offered with infra-red remote
controls or radio frequency remote controls. Infra-red remote range - up to 50 meters and radio frequency
remote range - up to 500 meters.
Electric wire rope hoists
Fig. 1.17 Electric wire rope hoists
Safety parameters of electric wire rope hoists:

• Design: Hoists are designed as per IS-3938 for Class-II, III, IV, operations specifications.
• Motors: Totally enclosed motors conforming to IS-325 with comparatively higher H.P and high starting torque,
flange mounted type to suit Class F insulation.
• Gear box: Reductions are through helical gears for efficient and smooth running of hoist. Complete gear train
is oil immersed.
• Rope drum: Rope drum is manufactured from seamless pipe, machined and grooved on working surface. The
drum should be supported on two deep groove ball/roller bearings.
• Bearings: Ball/Roller- antifriction bearings of reputed make should be used on all rotating parts. Heavy duty
bearings to be selected so that rated life of bearings is more than 9000 hrs.
• Trolleys: Push-pull, hand geared or motorised trolleys of adjustable type and fitted with ball bearings are made
to suit recommended size of beams.
15
Industrial Safety
• Hoisting speed: Hoisting speed considering safety requirement.

• Limit switches: Snap action type limit switches are provided to avoid over hoisting and over lowering, actuated
by Rope Guide. C.T Limit switches also can be provided as an optional feature.
• Control panel: To be housed in sheet metal covering rovided with efficient Triple Pole reversing contractors,
Triple pole thermal overload relays of auto-reset type in the power circuit. Cartridge type fuses in control circuit
for safety.
• Additional attachments: We can also provide extra special attachments on request like flexible trolley to
negotiate curved tracks, slow hoisting/ travel speeds or brakes on cross-travel motors.
• In hazardous areas, flameproof equipment and electrical fittings satisfying international standards or Director
General of Mine Safety (Dhanbad), India GMS standards are applicable.
1.4.2 Safety Inspection of Lifting Devices

The service report provided should relate to efficient working of the lift and is not a substitute for thorough examination
mentioned above. Any remedial work identified should receive prompt attention. The safety steps given below will
reduce the risk of accidents caused by or at lifts and you may find them useful as a safety checklist.
Step 1: Ensure that the lift is thoroughly examined by a competent person (generally this will be an engineering
surveyor) and carry out any remedial work which may be required.
Step 2: Ensure that a reputable company regularly services the lift. The maintenance contract should include the
removal of rubbish and debris from the lift shaft as it may contribute to the risk of a fire.
Step 3: Develop a system for rescuing people trapped in the lift car and where this is to be carried out by your
staff, provide adequate training on this procedure. Written rescue procedures should be displayed at appropriate
locations.
Step 4: Ensure that the alarm bell activated in the lift car can be heard by persons who are aware of the appropriate
action to take.
Step 5: Ensure that there is adequate lighting at all lift landings to reduce the risk of persons tripping or falling. Ensure
that within the lift car, there is emergency lighting which is activated in the event of a mains power failure.
Step 6: Ensure that the lift plant room door is secured and locked in order to prevent unauthorised access. A notice
indicating that access is restricted should be placed on the door. The key to the plant room and the lift landing doors
should be kept in a secure position, controlled by a responsible person and be available at all times.
Step 7: Ensure that unauthorised persons cannot open the landing doors to the lift shaft unless the lift car is level
with landing floor.
Step 8: Inform people not to use the lifts during a fire evacuation, e.g. by placing a sufficient number of notices in
conspicuous places and where available by public address system announcements.
1.4.3 Statutory Requirements

The following machines and equipments are mandatory keeping in mind the safety of workmen and have been
categorised under statutory requirements.
Hoist and lifts

In pursuance of provisions of sub-section (4) of section 28, in respect of any class or description of hoist or lift
specified in first column of the following schedule, requirements of section 28 of the Factory Act specified in second
column of the said schedule and set opposite to that class or description of hoist or lift shall not apply.
16
Lifting machines, chains, ropes and lifting tackles
Rules prescribed by the Factory Act under sub-section (2) of Section 29 as,
• No lifting machine and no chain, rope or lifting tackle, except a fibre rope or fibre rope sling, shall be taken
into use for the first time in any factory unless it has been tested and all parts have been thoroughly examined
by a competent person and a certificate of such a test and examination specifying the safe working load or
loads and signed by the person making the test and the examination, has been obtained and is kept available
for inspection.
• Every jib-crane should be constructed in a way that the safe working load may be varied by raising or lowering
of the jib, shall have attached thereto either an automatic indicator of safe working loads or an automatic jib angle
indicator and a table indicating the safe working loads at corresponding inclinations of the jib or corresponding
radii of the load.
• A table showing the safe working loads of every kind and size of chain, rope or lifting tackle in use, and, in
case of a multiple sling, the safe working loads at different angles of legs, shall be posted in the store in which
the chains, ropes or lifting tackles are kept, and in prominent positions on the premises.
• The register to be maintained under clause (a) (iii) of sub-section (1) of section 29 of the Act shall contain the
following particulars and shall be kept readily available for inspection.
• No person under 18 years of age and no person who is not sufficiently competent and reliable shall be employed
as driver of a lifting machine whether driven by mechanical power or otherwise, or to give signals to a driver.
• Mechanical lifting devices (rather than manual effort) should be used to lift and move objects whenever practical.
The type of equipment used, however, shall be appropriate for the task. Workers are always encouraged to use
mechanical equipment to lift heavy or bulky objects.
Forklifts, electric trucks or cars

Rules prescribed by the Factory Act under sub-section 59 explain safety requirements for the use of forklifts, electric
trucks or cars as;
• Electrically driven trucks or cars, forklifts, etc. shall be fitted with at least one effective mechanical braking
device and mechanically operated current cut-off that comes into operation automatically when the operator
leaves the vehicle.
• Forklift trucks shall be fitted with overhead guard to protect the operator from falling objects.
• Forklift trucks or electric cars shall have their gross weight conspicuously marked upon them.
• When a forklift truck or electric car is operated in an intermediate deck, steps shall be taken to ensure that the
working surface can support the load and the movement of the truck will not dislodge the hatch covers.
• All fork-lift trucks and electric cars should be tested for stability as per the National Standards Section 60 of
the Factory Act. Jib Cranes - Safety Feature of Jib Cranes should confirm to IS 807 and 3177 with reference
to Fabrication from Pipe and Rolled Steel Sections and M. S. Gusset plates and thick base plate giving added
rigidity to the column. Generally Jib arm is fabricated from heavy I-section which reduces deflection to acceptable
limits.
17
Industrial Safety
Hoist
Boom
Mast
FLOOR LINE
Floor Mounted Jib Crane
Fig. 1.18. Jib crane
SPAN TRACK
100 DEPTH
MAXIMUM HEIGHT
MAST DIA.
HEIGHT UNDER
C BOOM
DEPTH OF FOUNDATION
480
Fig. 1.19 Safety features of jib cranes
• Safety features of jib cranes

Double roller self aligned type bearings with thrust and roller bearings to take care of horizontal and vertical
loadings as well as radial thrust.
Through chain at the end of jib arm and hand cranking for easy manual swivel, with alternately electrically
operated swiveling. For positive full 360 degree rotation, suitably insulated brass swing springs with
pantograph current collectors are provided.
Manufacturing standard cage lifts as well as flame-proof cage lifts. The cage should be fabricated from
rolled steel section and Mild Steel plates. These are strong enough and of robust construction.
The hoisting arrangement should give absolute vertical movement to the cage. The push pull trolley will
compensate misalignment in the cage guide track if any.
Electro mechanical door interlocks are provided on each floor collapsible gate. Lever type limit switches are
provided on each floor. In addition to the above limit switches, a counter limit switch is provided (in power
circuit) for over hoisting and over lowering as an additional safety feature. Spring buffers are provided on
the ground floor as a safety feature. Special care is taken to suit any hazardous environment.
18
1.4.4 Mechanical Handling of Materials at Dockyards
Rules prescribed under The Indian Dock Workers Act, 1990 discusses the statutory requirements for mechanical
handling of materials at dockyards as
• Sufficient clearance to ensure safety shall be allowed between the structures or piles of cargo and the railway
track.
• Locomotive drivers shall act only on signals given by an authorised person: Provided that, stop signals shall
always be acted upon, irrespective of their source.
• Locomotives pulling or pushing wagons shall move dead slow and shall be preceded by a man on foot when
passing through an area where dock workers are employed.
• No locomotive or wagon shall be moved on a railway line until an efficient sound signal as a warning has been
given by the man following the line on foot while approaching any curve where the sight is intercepted and might
endanger dock workers. When a railway wagon or a group of wagons not directly connected to a locomotive is
being moved, a person shall be appointed to control each wagon or a group of wagons.
• Cranes, ship’s winches and derricks shall not be used to move railway wagons.
• Fly shunting in the premises where dock workers are engaged in dock work shall be prohibited and all trains
shall be brought to a full stop before any wagons are cut loose.
• As far as possible, idle wagons shall not be left standing on quays with short distances between them.
• When dock workers are required to work between or beneath railway wagons, they shall be provided with a
lookout man responsible for giving them necessary warning.
• Dock workers shall not be employed inside open wagons when bulk cargo is being handled by means of grabs;
or steel cargo is being handled by means of electromagnets.
• Locomotive used for pulling or pushing wagons shall be maintained in good repair and working order.
• Before moving railway wagons, train crews shall make sure that all dock workers are out of the wagons and
the danger zone.
1.4.5 Safety Requirement for Material Handling through Conveyers

Rules prescribed under The Indian Dock Workers Act, 1990 discusses statutory requirements for material handling
through conveyers at the dockyard as
• Conveyers shall be of sound material, good construction and sufficient strength to support safely the loads for
which they are intended and shall be kept in good repair.
• Conveying machinery shall be so constructed and installed as to avoid hazardous points between moving and
stationary parts or objects. When a passage way is adjacent to an open conveyer, a clearance of at least 90 cm
shall be provided between the inner edge of the walkway and the conveyer.
• When dockworkers have to cross over conveyers, regular crossing facilities affording safe and adequately
lighted passage shall be provided.
• When conveyers that are not entirely enclosed cross over places where dock workers are employed or might
pass beneath them, sheet or screen guards shall be provided to catch any material which might fall from the
conveyers.
• Power driven conveyers shall be provided at loading and unloading stations, at drive and take-up ends and at
other convenient places, with devices for stopping the conveyer machinery in an emergency.
• Adequate fencing shall be provided at transfer points.
• Conveyers which carry loads up inclines shall be provided with mechanical devices that will prevent machinery
from reversing and carrying the loads back towards the loading point in the event of the power being cut off.
• Where two or more conveyers are operated together, the controlling devices shall be so arranged that no conveyer
can feed on to a stopped conveyer.
• Where the tops of hoppers for feeding conveyers are less than 90 cm above the floors, the openings shall be
adequately guarded.
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Industrial Safety
• Where conveyers extend to points not visible from the control stations, they shall be equipped with gongs,
whistles or signal lights, to be used by the operators before starting the machinery so as to warn dock workers
who might be in positions of danger.
1.5 Training and Competency
Stage 1
Onshore Initial
Training and
Stage 2
Assessment
Supervised
Workplace
AUDIT Training
Stage 4 PROCESS
Ongoing
Performance
Development Stage 3
Workplace
Assessment
Fig. 1.20 Four key stages in achieving competency
All personnels involved in mechanical handling operations should be trained, have the required experience for the
type of lift to be undertaken and be formally assessed as competent. The first stage of all training comprises initial
training and assessment. This is normally carried out at an onshore training establishment.
• At the completion of Stage 1, the level of competency is deemed sufficient for that person to conduct lifting
operations under the direct supervision of a competent person as part of their Stage 2 training.
• Stage 2 is supervised training and the practical application of the learning obtained in Stage1.
• Stage 3 is the workplace assessment of competency with Stage 4 as the ongoing performance development.
In order to conduct safe lifting operations to today’s high standards, it is important that employers have a system
in operation which permits personnel to progress through the stages to become competent to undertake lifting
operations and to maintain this competence. It is recognised that lifting and mechanical handling competencies will
differ across the industry. For example, lifting operations carried out by drilling contractors may involve different
skills from those carried out by construction or marine contractors.
20
Summary
• Accidents are preventable if we follow the above safety procedures and think that safety is everybody’s
responsibility.
• To prevent an accident, there are certain obligations involving the employer, employees and manufacturers such
as to provide, maintain and periodically inspect buildings, plants and equipment and to organise work so as to
protect workers against accidents and injury to the health.
• Manual material handling operations are carried out in most industrial plants. Each handling task poses unique
demands on the worker. However, workplaces can help workers to perform these tasks safely and easily by
implementing and upholding proper policies and procedures.
• Interlocked physical barriers like enclosure guards, are known as ‘movable guards’ and are interconnected with
power or control system of the machine.
• Adequate physical barriers or fences securely fixed in position may prevent access to dangerous areas. Any access
points through the barrier, for example gates and doors, should be secured with a lock or interlocking system
• Rules prescribed under The Indian Dock Workers Act, 1990 discusses statutory requirements for material
handling through conveyers at the dockyard.
References
• MIAC, Commission for occupational safety and health, 2009. Safeguarding of machinery and plant. [Online]
Available at: <http://www.commerce.wa.gov.au/worksafe/PDF/Codes_of_Practice/Safeguarding_of_machinery_
and_plant.pdf.> [Last accessed on 26 April 2011]
• Industrial Accident Prevention Association, 2008. Manual Materials Handling [Online]Available at:
<Handlinghttp://www.iapa.ca/pdf/manmat.pdf.> [Last accessed on 27 April 2011]
• Step Change in Safety. Lifting & mechanical handling guidelines [Online]Available at: <http://info.ogp.org.uk/
liftingandhoisting/RPR/StepChange.pdf.> [Last accessed on 27 April 2011]
Recommended Reading
• Blockley, D.I., 1992. Engineering Safety (Mcgraw-Hill International Series in Civil Engineering), Mcgraw-
Hill.
• Spellman, F.R., 2004. Safety Engineering: Principles and Practices, 2nd ed., Government Institutes.
• Lars Harms-Ringdahl, 2001. Safety Analysis: Principles and Practice in Occupational Safety, 2nd ed., CRC
Press.
21
Industrial Safety
Self Assessment
1. _________________ such as enclosure guards are known as movable guards and are interconnected with the
power or control system of the machine.
a. Permanently fixed barriers
b. Interlocked physical barriers
c. Physical barrier securely fixed in position
d. Physical barriers
2. Laser guards and light guards are two types of ____________ guards.
a. presence-sensing
b. interlocked guards
c. physical guards
d. locked guards
3. ____________ device forces the operator to use both hands to operate the machine controls.
a. Combination of guards
b. Manual material handling
c. Two-handed control
d. Lifting
4. The task or method of handling may be hazardous when it involves accuracy and precision required because of
___________ lifting or lowering.
a. heavy loads
b. fragile loads
c. light weight loads
d. immovable load
5. Physical factors, general health and psychological factors are included as _____________ that affect the handling
of loads.
a. operator characteristics
b. environment characteristics
c. lifting features
d. pulling features
6. Match the following:

1. Permanently Fixed A. Securely fixed in position by means of fasteners or other
Barriers suitable devices may prevent access to dangerous areas.
2. Interlocked Physical B. Should be easy to remove and replace but only with the aid of
Barriers a special tool such as a spanner.
3. Physical Barrier Securely C. Are known as ‘movable guards’ and are interconnected with
Fixed in Position the power or control system of the machine.
D. Are permanently fixed physical barriers that are welded or
4. Physical Barriers
incorporated into the body of the machine.
a. 1-C, 2-A, 3-D, 4-B
b. 1-D, 2-C, 3-B, 4-A
c. 1-B, 2-A, 3-D, 4-C
d. 1-D, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C
22
7. Which of the following statements is true?
a. The principal hazard associated with crowbars is breaking.
b. The principal hazard associated with crowbars is slippage.
c. The principal hazard associated with crowbars is workmen accident.
d. The principal hazard associated with crowbars is lifting problem.

a. Crowbar is a part of many everyday jobs but is often done improperly, resulting in pulled muscles, disc
lesions and other injuries.
b. Load is a part of many everyday jobs but is often done improperly, resulting in pulled muscles, disc lesions
and other injuries.
c. Lifting is a part of many everyday jobs but is often done improperly, resulting in pulled muscles, disc lesions
and other injuries.
d. Use of crane is a part of many everyday jobs but is often done improperly, resulting in pulled muscles, disc
lesions and other injuries.

a. Cranes are used for transporting people and goods vertically between floors.
b. Electric wires are used for transporting people and goods vertically between floors.
c. Trolleys are used for transporting people and goods vertically between floors.
d. Lifts and hoists are used for transporting people and goods vertically between floors.

a. Two-wheeled trucks may appear easy to handle, but the procedures and precautions below shall be followed
to ensure safety.
b. Pallet jacks may appear easy to handle, but the procedures and precautions below shall be followed to
ensure safety.
c. Crowbars may appear easy to handle, but the procedures and precautions below shall be followed to ensure
safety.
d. Power trucks may appear easy to handle, but the procedures and precautions below shall be followed to
ensure safety.
23
Industrial Safety
Chapter II
Working at Height
Aim
• describe the concept of working at heights
• explain the use of scaffolds
• elucidate the safety instructions while erecting a scaffold
Objectives
• highlight the use of ladder
• analyse the safety steps while using a ladder
• discuss hand tools and portable tools
Learning outcome
• understand the work on roof at height
• identify safety instructions for working on fragile materials
• explain the need for safety at work place
24
2.1 Introduction
The term ‘Work at Height’ refers to work at any place, including a place at, above or below ground level where a
person could be injured if they fell from that place. This can also include means of access and outlet to a place of
work. The legislation no longer specifies a minimum height, ‘the 2m rule’.
It has been observed that falling from height is the number one cause of fatal injuries to workers. It accounted for
53 of the 220 work-related fatalities in 2004/05. Falls from height has alarmingly contributor to major injuries,
accounting for 3,783 (13%) of the 30,213 reported in 2004/05. The perception of work at height is that it often relates
to tasks such as roof work or scaffolding. Whilst this is true to an extent, it is perhaps surprising that 59% of major
injuries occur following a fall from height of less than two meters and 61% of over 3 day injuries occur within the
service industry. These statistics highlight that all industries are exposed to risks of falls from height. In this issue’s
forum we examine the main agents and causes of these falls and suggest practical controls to assist compliance to
the Work at Height Regulations 2005.
2.1.1 Impact on Industry

Health and Safety Executive statistics demonstrate that higher hazard industries produce the most severe falls from
height but that the greatest incidence is within lower hazard industries. In 2004/05, following are the categories of
accidents:
Fatal Accidents Major Injuries Over 3 day Injuries

Of 3,783 major injuries Of 4,604 over 3 day
Of 53 fatal accidents injuries
• 53% occurred in the • 32% occurred in the
construction industry • 18% occurred in the
construction industry construction industry
• 13% in manufacturing • 15% in manufacturing
• 18% in manufacturing
• 9% in transport and • 14% in transport
• 21% in transport and
• 13% in other service • 36% in other service
industries • 40% in other service
industries industries
• Agriculture accounted • Agriculture and
extraction or utilities • Agriculture and
for the remaining 12%. extraction or utilities
accounted for the
accounted for the
remaining 3%. remaining 3%.
Fig. 2.1 Categories of injury
2.1.2 The Main Agents Behind Accidents

The main agents behind these accidents were as follows:
• 23% roofs
Fatal
• 19% ladders
Accidents
• 19% vehicles
• 31% ladders
Major
• 28% other building access equipment
Injuries
• 21% vehicles
Fig. 2.2 Main agents behind accidents/injuries
25
Industrial Safety
The above agents give some steer to the main risk areas an employer should focus on to reduce the number and
severity of falls from height. However, this data does not indicate the root cause behind the falls. This may often be
attributed to a slip, trip or behavioural issue such as an employee not following a safe system of work.
To effectively manage falls from height a robust health and safety management systems is required.
2.2 Legal Duties

Notwithstanding, a specific Work at Height Regulations (WAH) was introduced under the Health and Safety at Work
Act and Management of Health and Safety, Work Regulations, in April 2005. TheWAH regulations consolidated
elements of the existing Workplace (Health, Safety & Welfare) Regulations, the Construction (Health, Safety and
Welfare) Regulations and Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER).
A key part of the WAH Regulations was the removal of the two meter rule and its replacement with a requirement
to assess risks where ‘a person could fall a distance liable to cause personal injury’. This includes falls from any
height and also those from ground level in to hazards like cellars or inspection pits.
The WAH regulations require best management practice. Insured needs to ensure their health and safety management
system:
• enables them to plan all work at height
• applies the hierarchy of control measures
• selects the right people and equipment for the task
• trains persons doing the work
• inspects and maintains equipment used
• ensures supervision and monitoring of work as per the plans set out
Duty
holders must:
 avoid work at height where

they can.
 use work equipment or other

measures to prevent falls where they
cannot avoid working at height; and
where they cannot eliminate the risk of a fall, use work

equipmwent or other measures to minimise the distance
and consequences or a fall should one occur.
Fig. 2.3 Hierarchy of control measures to consider during an assessment
With regard to legal liability the WAH regulations impose an absolute duty to manage the risk by consistent use of
the word ‘shall’ with regard to aspects such as planning, competence and supervision. ‘Reasonably practicable’ only
appears in relation to the fact that work at height must be ‘carried out in a manner which is so far as is reasonably
practicable safe’.
If there is an opportunity to defend a fall from height claim, every risk analyser will need to critically examine
whether it was not reasonably possible to apply a better control measure, in line with the hierarchy of control.
26
2.3 Scaffolds
Falls from heights continue to be the biggest killers on construction sites. The following section provides advice
for users of access scaffolds. It will also help those who select and specify equipment. Work at height should be
carried out from a platform with suitable edge protection. Occasionally this may not be possible and a ladder may
have to be used. However, ladders are best used as a means of getting to a workplace. They should only be used at
a workplace for light work of short duration.
Horizontal
bracing
omitted for
clarity
Fig. 2.4 Scaffold

http://www.csao.org/uploadfiles/magazine/vol14no3/falls.htm
2.3.1 Selecting Equipment

When deciding what equipment to use, think about what the job includes, how long it will last and where it needs to
be done. It is tempting to use a ladder for all sorts of work but you should always consider a working platform first,
for example, a properly erected mobile scaffold tower or a Mobile Elevated Working Platform (MEWP). Jobs such
as removing or installing guttering, installing replacement windows, painting or demolition work should usually be
carried out from scaffolds or mobile access equipment.
2.3.2 Safety Instructions

Contact the appropriate authority before erecting a scaffold on a public highway or on any roads, pavements, paths
or routes used by the public.
• Ensure that the scaffold is designed to carry load from stored material and equipment.
• Scaffolds should be designed to prevent materials falling. You may need to provide brick guards, netting or
sheeting. Where the risk is high, or for example during demolition or facade cleaning, you should provide extra
protection in the form of scaffold fans or covered walkways.
• In populated areas such as town centres, erecting and dismantling scaffolds should preferably be undertaken
during quiet times. People should be prevented, with suitable barriers and signs, from walking under the scaffold
during erection or dismantling.
• Stop unauthorised access onto the scaffold, for example by removing all ladders at ground level, whenever it
is left unattended.
• Never bomb materials from a scaffold. Use mechanical hoists or rubbish chutes to move materials and waste.
2.3.3 Safety Instruction Scaffold Erection

A scaffold should be designed, erected, altered and dismantled by competent people with all scaffolding work under
the supervision of a competent person.
• Scaffolders should always adopt a safe system of work during the erection, altering and dismantling. This will
usually include the use of fall arrest equipment.
27
Industrial Safety
• All scaffolds require bracing to prevent them from collapsing. The platform of a general purpose scaffold should
be at least four boards wide.
2.3.4 Safe Use of Scaffolds

Do not take up boards, move handrails or remove ties to gain access for work.
• Changes should only be made by a competent scaffolder.
• Never work from platforms that are not fully boarded.
• Do not overload scaffolds. Make sure they are designed to take the loads put on them. Store materials so the
load is spread evenly.
• Make sure there is suitable stair and ladder access onto the working platform.
2.3.5 Scaffold Inspection

Scaffolds must be inspected by a competent person:
• Before first use
• After substantial alteration
• After any event likely to have affected their stability, for example, following strong winds
• At regular intervals not exceeding seven days. Any faults found must be put right
• Before contractors allow their workers to use someone else’s scaffold, they must make sure it is safe
2.4 Ladders
Ladders are best used as a means of getting to a workplace at height. They should only be used at a workplace for
short-term work. They are only suitable for light work. If ladders are to be used, make sure that work only requires
one hand to be used. The work can be reached without stretching, the ladder can be fixed to prevent slipping; and
a good handhold is available. However, this kind of work can still be dangerous - many ladder accidents happen
during work lasting less than 30 minutes. The longer the ladder, the more problems there are in using it safely.
Fig. 2.5 Ladder

http://www.labsafety.com/WERNER-Telescoping-Multi-Ladders_24550582/
28
Ladders should be in good condition and examined regularly for defects. They should be secured so they cannot
slip, usually by tying them at the top. The ladder should be angled to minimise the risk of slipping outwards and
as a rule of thumb, needs to be ‘one out for every four up’.5Ladders should extend about 1 m above the working
platform. This provides a handhold for people getting on and off.
2.4.1 Safety Instructions for Ladders

Following are few safety instructions while using ladders:
• Ladders should be correctly angled one out for every four up.
• Do not overreach. If you are working from a ladder, make sure it is long enough and positioned to reach the
work safely.
• Do not climb or work off a ladder unless you can hold onto it.
• Do not use the top platform of a stepladder unless it is designed with special handholds.
• Ensure stepladders are positioned on level ground and used in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions.
2.4.2 Ladder Stays can Provide Additional Security

In order to use a ladder safely, the person should be able to reach the work from a position 1 m below the top of the
ladder. Many accidents result from using ladders for a job when a tower scaffold or mobile access platform would
have been safer and more efficient. Make sure light tools are carried in a shoulder bag or holster attached to a belt
so that both hands are free for climbing. Heavy or bulky loads should not be carried up or down ladders; a gin wheel
or other lifting equipment should be used instead.
For safe use, the ladder needs to be strong enough for the job and in good condition:
• Check the stiles are not damaged, buckled or warped, no rungs are cracked or missing and any safety feet are
not missing
• Do not use makeshift or homemade ladders or carry out makeshift repairs to a damaged ladder
• Do not use painted ladders, as the paint may hide faults
• Do not attempt to repair ladders. Check the ladder is secure. More than half of the accidents involving ladders
happen because the ladder was not prevented from falling or slipping. Ladders are only safe when they rest
on a firm, level surface. Do not place them on loose bricks or packing. They should also be secured by rope or
other suitable stabilisation devices.
Such securing devices must ensure that the ladder does not:
• Run sideways
• Slide away from the wall
• The ladder is angled to minimise the risk of slipping outwards; as a rule of thumb the ladder needs to be one
out for every four up
• The top of the ladder rests against a solid surface; ladders should not rest on fragile or other insecure materials
such as cement sheet, or plastic guttering 0
• The ladder is placed on a board to prevent it sinking into soft ground and tied to stop it slipping
• Both feet of the ladder are on firm footing and cannot slip
• If the ladder is more than 3 m long, or used as a way to and from a workplace, it is secured from falling. this
will usually be by fixing at the top, or sometimes the base
• If the ladder cannot be fixed, a second person should footstep the ladder while it is being used (this also applies
while the ladder is being fixed)
• The ladder extends a sufficient height (about 1m) above any landing place where people will get on and off it
unless some other adequate handhold is available.
29
Industrial Safety
• Where ladders are used in a run measuring a vertical distance of more than 9 m, suitable landing areas or
platforms are provided. The only exception to this relates to some steeplejacks’ ladders, which may not often
have landing places, nevertheless, provide as many landing places as possible.
2.4.3 Roof Work

Working on a roof can be dangerous. Falls account for more deaths and serious injuries in construction than anything
else. Nearly half of them are from or through roofs and frequently involve fragile materials. Any fall from a roof
inevitably involves at least serious injury. The risks are substantial however long or short the work. Many people
have been killed who only meant to be on the roof for a few minutes to have a quick look.
Fig. 2.6 Work at roof

(http://chestofbooks.com/home-improvement/repairs/How-to-Take-Care-Home/Chapter-2-How-To-Make-Roof-
Repairs.html)
• Falls occur
from the edges of roofs
through gaps or holes in roofs
through fragile roof materials and roof lights
In addition, many people have been seriously injured by material falling or thrown from roofs. Accidents occur not
only to those building roofs, but also to people maintaining, cleaning, demolishing and inspecting them. Any work
on a roof is high-risk. High safety standards are essential however long or short term the work is. The nature of the
precautions needed may vary from one job to another, but not providing any safeguards is simply unacceptable.
Precautions for all roof work

The best way to prevent a fall from or through a roof is to make sure nobody ever goes on or near it. For instance,
if a roof is sound, is there any need to clean it for purely cosmetic reasons? If work does need to be done, can it be
done without going on the roof?
Risk assessment and method statements

A risk assessment should be carried out for all roof work. Simple jobs may not require a great deal. More complex
ones need to be assessed in much more depth. But all roof work is dangerous and it is essential that the risks are
identified before the work starts and that the necessary equipment, appropriate precautions and systems of work
are provided and implemented.14
30
Except for the simplest jobs, where the necessary precautions are straightforward and can be easily repeated (e.g.
use a proper roofing ladder to replace a ridge tile) safety method statements should be prepared. They should be
specific and relevant to the job in hand and describe clearly the precautions and system of work identified during
risk assessment. Diagrams or pictures can often say more and be clearer than text. Everyone involved in the work
needs to know what the method statement says and what they have to do. This might need someone to explain the
statement for more complicated jobs. There will usually need to be some supervision during the work to check that
the correct procedures are followed.
Getting on and off the roof

Getting on and off the roof is a major risk. A secure means of entry and exit is essential. A properly secured ladder
is the minimum requirement.
Edge protection
Wherever anyone could fall more than 2 m, the first line of defense is to provide adequate edge protection. It needs
to meet minimum legal standards of, or be equivalent to:
• A main guard rail at least 910 mm above the edge;
• A toe board at least 150 mm high; and
• An intermediate guard rail or other barrier so that there is no gap more than 470 mm. Sometimes a roof parapet
may provide equivalent protection but if it does not, extra protection will be required.
Work platforms
Edge protection is just as important to provide an adequate and secure working platform. In many cases the roof
itself will provide this. If it does not e.g., when working on a chimney on a pitched roof, a platform should be
provided.
Fall arrest equipment

Providing adequate platforms and edge protection may not always be possible or reasonably practicable. If so, either
safety nets or harnesses will be required. They do not stop people falling, but minimise the potential injuries if they
do fall. If nets are used, make sure that they are properly installed by competent riggers as close as possible below
the roof involved to minimise the distance fallen. Installing a net does not mean that proper working platforms and
edge protection can be ignored, because the first priority is to stop people falling in the first place. If harnesses are
used, make sure that they are securely attached to a sufficiently strong anchorage point and that they are always
worn. This requires user discipline and active management monitoring.
Falling material
Keep a tidy site; stop accumulating material which could fall. Nothing should ever be thrown from a roof. Use
enclosed rubbish chutes or lower material to the ground instead. Prevent access to danger areas underneath or
adjacent to roof work. Where this cannot be guaranteed, consider using debris netting, fans, covered walkways
or similar safeguards to stop falling material causing injury. Particular care is needed where there is public access
close to roof work.
If possible, try to arrange for work to be carried out when passers-by will not be there e.g., carry out repairs tat
schools during the school holidays. If a rubbish chute and skip positioned to take waste materials cannot be arranged,
minimise the public access to danger areas. In some cases, physical protection to catch falling material, e.g. fans
may be appropriate. Remember that even fine material such as dust can cause discomfort or injury to eyes.
2.4.4 Working on Fragile Roof

A fragile material is one that does not safely support the weight of a person or any load they are carrying. The
fragility of a roof does not depend solely on the composition of material in it. Steel Purlins are widely used on steel
roof structures and steel deckings and are light in weight, but designed to take maximum hurricane winds.
31
Industrial Safety
Fig. 2.7 Steel purlins structure

<http://www.tradenote.net/keyword/Pre-engineered/?type=products>
The following factors are also important:

• thickness of the material
• the span between supports
• sheet profile
• the type, number, position and quality of fixings
• the design of the supporting structure, e.g. purlins
• the age of the material.
Sometimes the entire roof surface is fragile, such as many fibre cement roofs. Sometimes part of the roof is fragile,
e.g., when fragile roof lights are contained in an otherwise non-fragile roof. Sometimes a roof is temporarily fragile,
such as during ‘built up’ roof construction when only the liner is installed or sheets have not been secured. Sometimes
the fragility of a roof can be disguised, for instance when old roofs have been painted over. This guidance applies
to all these situations.
The fragility of a roof should be confirmed before work starts. If there is any doubt, the roof should be treated as
fragile unless or until confirmed that it is not. It is positively dangerous to assume that a roof is non-fragile without
checking this out beforehand. Prevent unauthorised access. Make sure that unauthorised access to the roof is
prevented by, for instance, implementing a permit-to-work regime or blocking off roof access ladders. Make sure
that appropriate warning signs are displayed on existing roofs, particularly at roof access points.
Safety instructions for working on fragile materials

At no time may anyone work on from or pass over fragile material, unless platforms, coverings or other similar
means are provided that adequately support them. Properly installed safety netting beneath the roof surface will
provide collective fall protection within the protected area. Harnesses can also be an effective solution but if used,
they require adequate attachment points which may be difficult to arrange in work on fragile roofs. They also rely
on user discipline, training and constant supervision to ensure that they are consistently and correctly used.
Support platforms should be at least 600 mm wide and more when the work requires it. Make sure that support
platforms are long enough to provide adequate support across roof members. They should span across at least two
purlins. Using a platform may spread the load, but that will not provide enough support if the only thing supporting
it is the fragile material. Walking on the lines of purlin bolts gives no protection whatsoever. It is like walking a
tightrope and must never be allowed or condoned.
32
Workers should not constantly move platforms on the roof. It is not acceptable to rely on using a pair of boards to
‘leap-frog’ across a fragile roof. Make sure there are enough platforms provided to avoid this. Precautions are needed
to prevent a person falling from the platform. If possible, provide the platform with edge protection comprising top
rail, intermediate rail (or equivalent protection) and toe board.
Working on height-systems
Good planning can significantly reduce the risks involved in industrial roofing. The key elements are as follows.
• Reduce the need for workers to travel about the roof by:
Arranging for the right sheets to be delivered, as they are needed to be at the right place at the right time;
Arranging access points that are convenient for the working position
Making full use of loading bays.
• Minimise the potential for falls by providing a safe place of work (e.g. properly guarded working platforms or
powered access equipment) rather than relying on fall arrest equipment to restrict a fall.
Falls from the roof edge

Full edge protection (comprising top rail, toe board and intermediate protection) is required whenever the work
requires access within 2 m of the roof perimeter.29
Falls through gaps

If work involves any likelihood of access within 2 m of such gaps, they should be covered. If this is not possible,
provide edge protection or as a last resort, install safety netting beneath the gap.
Falls through liner panels

Liner panels on their own should be considered fragile unless it has been conclusively confirmed that they are not.
Try to avoid ‘lining out’ the shell to weatherproof the site. This will avoid the need for a second pass at a height
as well as the presence of a large expanse of potentially fragile material. Consider the use of composite panels to
reduce the need for work at heights.
Falls from the leading edge

Whatever system of work is chosen, the presence of dangerous gaps is always a possibility as space is created to
place the next leading edge sheet. Options to deal with this include temporary barriers at the leading edge such as
trolley systems, birdcage scaffolds, safety nets and safety harnesses used with running line systems.
Safety nets are the least problematic and hence the preferred option. Trolley systems can be a useful aid, but are not
appropriate for all roofs, e.g. where there are hips or dormers. Remember that installing and moving such systems
can involve significant risks.
Where trolley systems are used, make sure that:

• There is a safe system of work for installing and dismantling them
• The trolley system is compatible with the purling design
• There is a safe system of work for moving the trolleys
• The trolley can move freely - if it jams it can be dangerous trying to release it
• There is safe access to the trolley
• The trolley is locked in position so that it does not overturn if someone falls onto it
• There is a suitable barrier at the trolley end if someone could fall from it. If trolley systems are used, the system
of work needs to be carefully thought out to avoid unnecessary risks, e.g. can roof workers lock the trolley in
position after it has been moved forward without stepping over the newly created gap?
33
Industrial Safety
Demarcating safe areas

Full edge protection may not be necessary if limited work on a larger roof involves nobody going any closer than
2 m to an open edge. In such cases, demarcated areas can be set up outside where nobody goes during the work or
access to it.
Short-duration work on flat roofs

Short-duration means a matter of minutes rather than hours. It includes such jobs as brief inspections or adjusting a
television aerial. Work on a flat roof is still dangerous even if it only lasts a short time. Appropriate safety measures
are essential.
2.5 Hand Tools and Portable Tools- Basic Safety Rules

Employees who use hand and power tools and who are exposed to the hazards of falling, flying, abrasive and
splashing objects or exposed to harmful dusts, fumes, mists, vapours or gases must be provided with the particular
personal equipment necessary to protect them from the hazard. Employees and employers have a responsibility to
work together to establish safe working procedures. If a hazardous situation is encountered, it should be brought to
the attention of the proper individual immediately. Hand tools are non-powered. They include anything from axes
to wrenches. The greatest hazards posed by hand tools result from misuse and improper maintenance.
2.5.1 Safety Rules

Around flammable substances, sparks produced by iron and steel hand tools can be a dangerous ignition source.
Where this hazard exists, spark-resistant tools made from brass, plastic, aluminum or wood will provide safety.
“Non-sparking”, “spark-resistant” or “spark-proof” tools are names given to tools made of metals such as brass,
bronze, monel metal (copper-nickel alloy), copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum bronze), copper-beryllium alloys
(beryllium bronze) and titanium. Preferred “non-sparking” metals have less tensile strength than steels usually used
to make tools.
• Employees using electric tools must be aware of several dangers; the most serious is the possibility of
electrocution. Among the chief hazards of electric-powered tools are burns and slight shocks which can lead
to injuries or even heart failure.
• When not in use, tools should be stored in a dry place. Electric tools should not be used in damp or wet locations.
Work areas should be well lighted. Pneumatic tools are powered by compressed air and include chippers, drills,
hammers and sanders.
• Eye protection is required and face protection is recommended for employees working with pneumatic tools.
2.5.2 Hand Tools

A hand tool is a device for performing work on a material or a physical system using only hands. The hand tools
can be manually used employing force, or electrically powered, using electrical current. Virtually every type of tool
can be a hand tool and many have also been adapted as power tools, which get their motive power from motors or
engines rather than from human mechanical action.
Wrenches
Fig. 2.8 Wrench

<http://chadzilla.typepad.com/chadzilla/2008/12/wrenches.html>
34
When placing an adjustable wrench on a nut, make sure the adjustable jaw faces the operator; then pull the wrench
toward the operator. Use socket wrenches for hard-to-reach places. Never use a pipe wrench on nuts because
the corners of the nuts or bolts are likely to break the teeth of the wrench jaws, making it unsafe for future use.
Manufacturers make wrenches of different sizes. So the amount of leverage obtained with the wrench handle is the
maximum application; it is unsafe to add more leverage with a length of pipe.
Hammers
Fig. 2.9 Hammer

http://www.cksinfo.com/construction/tools/hammers/index.html
• When replacing hammer handles make sure they fit the hammer head.
• Wedge the handle securely in the head and make sure that it is free of splinters and cracks.
• Never strike hardened steel surfaces with a steel hammer.
• Use a soft metal hammer or one with a plastic, wood or raw hide head when striking steel surfaces.
• Always wear safety glasses to protect your eyes from flying objects.
• Inspect sledge hammers carefully before each use.
• Use the right type of hammer for the specific job.
Pliers
Fig. 2.10 Types of pliers
Keep these pointers in mind while working with pliers.

• Never substitute pliers for another tool such as a wrench to complete the task. It may cause the bolt heads to
become chewed.
• Pliers cannot grip nuts and bolts securely and will slip.
• If working with electricity, use hand insulated grips. Make sure the protective coverings are free from cracks
or holes.
• Use a vise when cutting wire with the pliers.
35
Industrial Safety
• Hold the open end of the wire with your free hand to prevent the cut off piece from flying through the air.
• If a vise is not available, use your foot to secure the wire and always use safety glasses.
Other tools available in the shop are to be used for the specific job intended. Crowbars should be used only for jobs
that require prying. Files must be cleaned with a file card after use. Do not strike the file against another piece of
metal. Hand hooks must be kept sharp to prevent slipping when in use. They should be stored with the point in cork
to reduce accidents. Scrapers must be kept in good, sharp condition for best results.
2.5.3 Portable Power Tools

A power tool is a tool powered by an electric motor, an internal combustion engine, a steam engine, compressed air,
direct burning of fuels and propellants, or even natural power sources like wind or moving water. Power tools are
classified as either stationary or portable, where portable means handheld. They are used in industry, in construction,
and around the house for driving, drilling, cutting, shaping, sanding, grinding, polishing, painting, and heating.
Following are some of the portable power tools:
Drills
• Use non-powered drills in muddy or wet locations if possible. If not, stand on something dry and avoid contact
with a grounded object.
• Use double-insulated or properly grounded drills.
• Use only good quality bits. Select the proper size and type of bit for the job.
• Make sure it is sharp and not damaged.
• Do not over-force the drill into hard material as the bit might break.
• If the speed can be varied, operate the drill at the correct speed and do not lock the switch of a hand-held drill
in the on position.
Table saws
• Adjust the table saw blade to project about 1/8 inch above the wood.
• Make certain the work piece is out of contact with the blade when starting or stopping the saw.
• Keep the body out of the way.
• Use a push stick when ripping narrow strips.
• Lower the saw blade below the table top when work is finished.
Radial arm saws
Fig. 2.11 Radial arm saws

http://www.incra.com/images/macc_incratracks_pic8_zoom.jpg
36
• When cross-cutting wood laid the stock solidly on the table and against the back guide, the saw blade should
rotate downward as viewed by the operator.
• Pull the saw with one hand while the stock is held with the other hand.
• Never reach across the line of cut.
• When making miter cuts, secure the locking devices to prevent the saw from changing angles or digging in.
• Return the saw to the rear position after completing a cut.
Band saws
Keep the saw blade set evenly and with the correct tension. Push the stock through the blade with the hands on both
sides of the line of cut.
Hand-held circular saws

• Do not work in wet areas unless standing on a dry surface and make certain that the saw is properly
grounded.
• Do not clamp or wedge the guard in open position.
• Keep your finger off the trigger when carrying the saw.
• Do not cut the power cord.
• Wait until the blade stops before laying down the saw.
• When finished, unplug the saw and put it out of the reach of children.
• Saber Saws
• Select the proper blade for the job.
• Make sure it is sharp, undamaged and securely tightened in place.
• Do not turn on the saw when the blade is in contact with the work piece.
• Hold the saw firmly with one hand and steady the work with the other.
• Keep your hand and other objects clear of the blade.
Grinders
• Never operate grinders without protecting your eyes with safety glasses, goggles or a face shield.
• If the material being worked on will produce a lot of dust or other particles, wear a dust mask or filter
respirator.
• Make sure the grinder has guard housing.
• Place the tool rest 1/8 inch from the wheel on bench-mounted units.
• Before starting a portable grinder, look to see where the sparks might fall. Clean the work area if necessary.
• Allow the wheel to reach full speed before stepping into the grinding position.
• Grind on the face of the wheel unless otherwise designed. Use a vise-grip plier or clamp to hold small pieces.
• Move the work piece slowly across the wheel face.
• Allow the wheel to stop naturally when turning it off.
• Periodically check for soundness of grinding wheels.
• Replace badly worn, cracked or out-of-round wheels.
2.5.4 Pneumatic Powered Tools

Pneumatic power tools shall be secured to hose or whip by some positive means to prevent the tool from becoming
accidentally disconnected. Safety clips or retainers shall be securely installed and maintained on pneumatic impact
(percussion) tools to prevent attachments from being accidentally expelled. All pneumatically driven nailers, staplers
and other similar equipment provided with automatic fastener feed, which operate at more than 100 psi (pound per
square inch)
37
Industrial Safety
• Pressure at the tool shall have a safety device on the muzzle to prevent the tool from ejecting fasteners, unless
the muzzle is in contact with the work surface.
• Working with noisy tools such as jack-hammers requires proper, effective use of hearing protection. When
using pneumatic tools, employees must check to see that they are fastened securely to the hose.A short wire or
positive locking device attaching the air hose to the tool will serve as an added safeguard. To avoid accidents in
the work place resulting from the incorrect use of hand tools, it will be important that the employee understands
the proper use of these items.
• Encourage employees to discuss their concerns about the dangers involved in using hand tools. During the
session, have each employee practice the correct methods for operating hand tools. It is important that everyone
has an opportunity to use the tools in the practice session.
• Have exercises prepared in advance that will allow each employee to use the hand tools in the shop area.
2.6 Safety at Work Place

Keeping workshop and storage spaces clean and dry can help to prevent many accidents. Sparks can ignite scraps,
sawdust and solvents. Water can conduct electricity. Do not stand in water, on damp floors or in the rain when
working with electrical tools. Keep hands and tools dry.
• Make sure workshops and storage areas have the proper electrical wiring and outlets needed to run power
tools. Install adequate wiring to handle the electrical load required. All outlets should have three pronged
plugs or be double insulated. Any outlets that may come in contact with water should have ground fault circuit
interrupters.
• Never use indoor tools outside. Use only approved outdoor extension cords. Use one long extension cord instead
of several short ones. Do not damage or cut extension cords.
• When working on ladders or scaffolding, rest power tools on a flat surface or in a bin secured to the ladder
itself. A falling tool can seriously injure a co-worker or bystander. Never carry heavy power tools up and down
ladders.
• Stop working and turn off the power tool you are working with if distracted by something or someone. Never
look away from your work when operating a power tool.
• Cutting tools can be particularly dangerous. If one stalls, switch off the power and unplug the tool before trying
to restart it. When using a power saw, let the saw reach full speed before cutting and support the work firmly so
it won’t shift. Never use your hands to clear the scraps from a sawing work-table. Use a long stick instead. When
working with metal, secure the metal materials with clamps or in a machinist’s vise to keep it from moving.
• Wear proper clothing for the type of work being done. When using a grinder do not wear gloves. Do not wear
loose-fitting clothes or jewellery that can get caught in moving parts. Do not roll up long sleeves. Do not wear
highly flammable clothes. Wear safety-toed shoes to protect your feet and toes.
• Protect your eyes, face, head and scalp. Wear industrial-quality safety glasses or a safety shield. Safety glasses
should have the Z87.1 logo on them to assure they are industrial quality. Pull back long hair in a band or a cap
to keep it from getting caught in tools.
• Use a respirator. When working in dusty conditions, use a filter type respirator.
• Avoid distractions. Keep your mind on your work. Talking, running, pushing and scuffling can lead to
accidents.
• Work only at operating speed. Do not use a power tool before it has reached operating speed or while it is coming
to a stop. Never force a tool by applying too much pressure.
• Never stop moving parts abruptly. Once a power tool has been turned off, allow it to coast to a stop. Never
force an object into moving parts to stop a machine. Be sure the tool has come to a complete stop before laying
it down.
• Do not leave a machine running unattended. Make sure all moving parts have come to a complete stop before
you leave the work area or before you make minor adjustments.
• Know the machine. Read the operator’s manual and learn the applications, limitations and potential of each
power tool before you begin to use it.
38
• Know the switch location(s). Remember where the switch is located so you can turn off the machine quickly.
Keep a first aid kit at hand and if possible, a telephone with a list of emergency numbers. Install an all-purpose
fire extinguisher and smoke alarms in the area where tools are used.
39
Industrial Safety
Summary
• Work at Height is work in any place, including a place at, above or below ground level where a person could
be injured if they fell from that place. This can also include means of access and outlet to a place of work. The
legislation no longer specifies a minimum height, ‘the 2m rule’.
• Ladders are best used as a means of getting to a workplace at height. They should only be used at a workplace
for short-term work.
• A power tool is a tool powered by an electric motor, an internal combustion engine, a steam engine, compressed
air, direct burning of fuels and propellants, or even natural power sources like wind or moving water.
• A key part of the WAH Regulations was the removal of the two meter rule and its replacement with a requirement
to assess risks where ‘a person could fall a distance liable to cause personal injury’.
• A scaffold should be designed, erected, altered and dismantled by competent people with all scaffolding work
under the supervision of a competent person.
• Keeping workshop and storage spaces clean and dry can help to prevent many accidents.
References
• Science and Technology, Facilities Council, Work at height, 2007 [Online]. Available at: <http://www.shepublic.
stfc.ac.uk/Codes/STFC/SC09%20Work%20at%20Height/PDF%20version.pdf.> [Accessed on 29 April 2011]
• QBE Insurance issues forum, Working at height, 2006 [Online]. Available at: <http://www.qbeeurope.com/
documents/casualty/risk/issues/working_at_height.pdf.> [Accessed on 29 April 2011]
• Government of South Australia, Safe Work SA, 2006. Working at heights [Online]. Available at: <http://www.
safework.sa.gov.au/uploaded_files/wah_booklet.pdf.> [Accessed on 2 May 2011].
Recommended Reading
• James, M., 1998. Working at Heights, Thomas Telford Ltd.
• Byrne, T., 2001. The International Working at Height Handbook, North Sea Lifting Ltd.
• Warner, J., 2002. Working Safely at Heights, Human Resource Development Pr.
40
Self Assessment
1. A specific Work at Height Regulations (WAH) was introduced under the Health and Safety at Work Act and
Management of Health and Safety, Work Regulations, in _________.
a. May 2005
b. April 2005
c. July 2005
d. April 2006
2. What does PUWER stands for?

a. Provision and Utilise of Work Equipment Regulations
b. Proper Use of Work Equipment Regulations
c. Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations
d. Provision and Use of Work Equipment Restore
3. A _____________ should be designed, erected, altered and dismantled by competent people, with all scaffolding
work under the supervision of a competent person.
a. ladder
b. hammer
c. plier
d. scaffold
4. ____________ should only be used at a workplace for short-term work.

a. Ladders
b. Scaffolds
c. Wrench
d. Drills
5. ______________ tools shall be secured to the hose or whip by some positive means to prevent the tool from
becoming accidentally disconnected.
a. Hand
b. Pneumatic power
c. Portable
d. Electric

1. Wrenches A. Portable power tool
B. A instrument with two handles and two grasping jaws, usually long and
2. Hammers
roughened, working on a pivot
3. Pliers C. Hand tool
D. It is the hand tool, often having fixed or adjustable jaws, used for gripping,
4. Drills
turning, or twisting objects such as nuts, bolts, or pipes.
a. 1-D, 2-C, 3-B, 4-A
b. 1-C, 2-A, 3-D, 4- B
c. 1-B, 2-C, 3-D, 4- A
d. 1-D, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C
41
Industrial Safety
7. All scaffolds require bracing to prevent them from ______________ .

a. breaking
b. joining
c. fusion
d. collapsing

a. Operate grinders without protecting your eyes with safety glasses, goggles or a face shield.
b. Never operate grinders without protecting your eyes with safety glasses, goggles or a face shield.
c. Never operate grinders with protecting your eyes with safety glasses, goggles or a face shield.
d. Always operate grinders without protecting your legs with safety glasses, goggles or a face shield.

a. In order to use a ladder safely, the person should be able to reach the work from a position 2 m below the
top of the ladder.
b. In order to use a ladder safely, the person should be able to reach the work from a position 1 m below the
top of the ladder.
c. In order to use a ladder safely, the person should be able to reach the work from a position 2 m above the
top of the ladder.
d. In order to use a ladder safely, the person should be able to reach the work from a position 1 m above the
top of the ladder.

a. A fragile material is one that can safely support the weight of a person and any load they are carrying.
b. A fragile material is one that does not safely support the weight of the fragile roof.
c. A fragile material is one that does not safely support the weight of a person and any load they are
carrying.
d. A fragile roof is one that does not safely support the weight of a person and any load they are carrying.
42
Chapter III
Design Codes for Plant
Aim
• describe the plant design
• explain inherently safer design
• outline the codes and standards of engineering
Objectives
• highlight the two basic design parameters
• discuss the materials of construction
• analyse the corrosion and erosion of materials
Learning outcome
• identify specific equipment
• understand reactor design
• define rotating equipment
43
Industrial Safety
3.1 Introduction to Plant Design

Plant design plays an important role in the selection of the site and constructional layout of any industry. The Factory
Act explains the requirements of plant design vide rules. It includes sections on factory inspection; occupational
health (hygiene, waste disposal, ventilation, temperature, dusts and fumes, artificial humidification, overcrowding,
lighting); occupational safety; welfare facilities; notification; occupational safety and health surveys.
3.2 General Principles

The design of a process plant is a complex activity that will usually involve many different disciplines over a
considerable period of time. The design may also go through many stages from the original research and development
phases, through conceptual design, detailed process design and onto detailed engineering design and equipment
selection. Many varied and complex factors including safety, health, the environment, economic and technical issues
may have to be considered before the design is finalised.
• At each stage it is important that the personnel involved has the correct combination of technical competencies
and experience in order to ensure that all aspects of design process are being adequately addressed. Evidence
of the qualifications, experience and training of people involved in design activities should be presented in the
safety report to demonstrate that the complex issues associated with design have been considered and a rigorous
approach has been adopted.
• The process design will often be an iterative process with many different options being investigated and tested
before a process is selected. In many occasions a number of different options may be available and final selection
may depend upon a range of factors.
• The process design should identify various operational deviations that may occur and any impurities that may be
present. In the mechanical design, the materials of construction chosen need to be compatible with the process
materials at the standard operating conditions and under excursion conditions. Simultaneously, the materials of
construction need to be compatible with each other in terms of corrosion properties. Impurities that may cause
corrosion and the possibility of erosion also need to be considered so that the detailed mechanical design can
ensure that sufficient strength is available and suitable materials of construction are selected for fabrication.
• Detailed mechanical, structural, civil and electrical design of equipment comes after the initial process design
which covers the steps from the initial selection of the process to be used, through to the issuing of process
flow sheets. Such flow sheets will include the selection, specification and chemical engineering design of the
equipment. These are then used as the basis for the further detailed design.
• These technical measure documents primarily consider the latter stages of the detailed design processes and
identifies the detailed design issues, codes and applicable standards for the mechanical design of equipment.
• Design factors are an essential component in order to give a margin of safety in the design. Design factors may
be appropriate in either the mechanical engineering design or in the process design where factors are often added
to allow some flexibility in process operation. For mechanical and structural design the magnitude of design
factors should allow for uncertainties in material properties, design methods, fabrication and operating loads.
• Plant design should take account of the relevant codes and standards. Conformity between projects can be
achieved if standard designs are used whenever practicable.
3.3 Codes and Standards

Modern engineering codes and standards cover a wide range of areas including:
• materials, properties and compositions
• testing procedures; for example for performance, compositions and quality
• preferred sizes; for example for tubes, plates and standard sections
• design methods and inspection and fabrication
• codes of practice for plant operation and safety
44
Many companies have their own in-house standards which are primarily based on the published codes, such as
BS5500 with added extras which cover either technical or contractual matters. In the safety report the base document
for the in house codes should be clearly stated and the key safety related deviations or enhancements demonstrated
so that the assessor can determine their adequacy.
A safety report must demonstrate that consideration has been given to appropriate standards and codes of practice
developed by legislators, regulators, professional institutions and trade associations. It should also demonstrate that
for any equipment that is installed, the operating procedures, testing regimes and maintenance strategies that are in
place meet or exceed these requirements in terms of safety performance.
3.4. Inherently Safer Design

The principles of inherently safer design are particularly important for major hazard plants and should be
considered during the design stage. The safety report should adequately demonstrate that consideration has been
given to the concepts. Some companies now have design procedures that require a review of designs and seek to
ensure that inherently safer concepts have been addressed.
Inherently safe design should be considered during the design stage in an effort to reduce the hazard potential of
the plant. Protective equipment installed onto standard equipment to control accidents and protect people from
their consequences is often complex, expensive and requires regular testing and maintenance. Attempts should
be made to reduce the requirement for such protective equipment by designing simpler and safer processes in the
first instance. A number of approaches can be considered but basically an inherently safer plant can be achieved by
minimising the inventories of hazardous substances in storage and in process and hence the risk of a major accident
can be significantly reduced.
Some of the techniques that can be considered are:
Techniques Details
It means reducing the inventory of hazardous materials to a level whereby it poses

a reduced hazard. This often means carrying out the reaction or unit operation in
Intesification a smaller volume.It can be applied to a wide range of unit operations including
reactors, distillation and heat exchange but it may involve different mechanisms and
approaches having to be employed to the reaction chemistry and control systems.
It involves replacing a hazardous material (or feature) with a safer one. For
example, flammable solvents, refrigerants and heat transfer media can often be
replaced by non-flammable or less flammable (high boiling) materials. Often
Substitution
hazardous processes can also be replaced by inherently safer processes that do not
involve the use of hazardous substances or which operate at lower temperatures and
pressures.
It uses a hazardous material under less hazardous conditions. For example,

quantities of chlorine, ammonia and LPG can be stored as refrigerated liquids under
Attenuation atmospheric pressure rather than under pressure at ambient temperature. Materials
likely to form explosive dusts can be used and stored as slurries to minimise
hazards.
45
Industrial Safety
Limitations are affected by equipment design or changes to reaction conditions

rather than by adding on protective equipment. For example, the selection of some
types of gaskets can reduce leak rates from equipment in the event of a leak hence
limiting the hazard. Many runaway reactions can be prevented, either by changing
the order of addition, reducing the temperature or changing other parameters.
Simplification
Simpler plants are friendlier and safer than complex plants and therefore less likely
to have a major accident caused by operator error.
Limitation
Knock-on effects
Plants should be designed to reduce the likelihood of incidents producing knock-on
effects or domino effects in other areas.
Avoid incorrect assembly

For critical equipment plants can be designed so that incorrect assembly is
difficult or impossible. Consideration should be given to installing different types
of connections on inlet or outlet pipe work to avoid the possibility of wrong
connections being made
3.5 Design Assessments

A design should be subject to a number of detailed assessments throughout its development. Evidence that some
system of assessment has taken place should be provided in the safety report. This way a number of different features
can be examined and assessed. Some of the examples are given below:
• Value engineering assessment
• Energy efficiency assessment
• Reliability and availability assessment
• Hazard identification and assessment
• Occupational health assessment
• Environmental assessment
These assessments all have a specific individual focus but in the context of COMAH it needs to be demonstrated
that major accident hazards are not introduced as a result of the assessments that are undertaken. For example, if
any decisions taken as a result of a value engineering assessment that result in standby equipment not be installed,
or equipment of a lesser specification being chosen should also show that the major accident hazard implications
of such decisions have also been considered.
A number of companies have developed detailed procedures for design studies that incorporate many of these
assessments into a formalised structure. Evidence that Hazard identification and HAZOP studies have been carried
out should be provided stating that a design has been evaluated and carefully considered before being installed on
the plant.
3.6 General Considerations

There are several general topics that are common to the detailed mechanical design of many types of equipment
and these are discussed in greater detail below:
• Temperature and pressure
• Materials of construction
• Corrosion and erosion
46
A number of potential hazards can occur if these are not given adequate consideration. Loss of containment may
occur due to leaks, equipment failure, fire or explosion and result in a major accident.
3.6.1 Temperature and Pressure

Temperature and pressure are two basic design parameters. Any equipment that is to be installed should be designed to
withstand the foreseeable temperature and pressure over the whole life of the plant. The combination of temperature
and pressure should be considered since this affects the mechanical integrity of any equipment that is installed.
Temperature
In determining design temperatures a number of factors should be considered including:
• the temperature of the fluids to be handled
• Joule-Thomson effect (The Joule-Thomson effect is the change in temperature that accompanies expansion of a
gas without production of work or transfer of heat. At ordinary temperatures and pressures, all real gases except
hydrogen and helium cool upon expansion and this phenomenon is often utilised in liquefying gases)
• ambient temperatures
• solar radiation
• heating and cooling medium temperatures
Pressure
A vessel should be designed to withstand the maximum pressure to which it is likely to be subjected in operation.
• Under internal pressure: For vessels under internal pressure the design pressure is usually taken at that which
the relief valve is set. This is normally 5-10% above the normal working pressure to avoid inadvertent operation
during minor process upsets.
• Under external pressure: Vessels subjected to external pressure should be designed to resist the maximum
differential pressure that is likely to occur.
• Under vaccum: Vessels likely to be subjected to vacuum should be designed for full negative pressure of 1 bar
unless fitted with an effective and reliable vacuum breaker device.
• Control of pressure: Account should also be taken of foreseeable reactions which may occur that are likely to
increase the heat input to a system, or gas evolution and hence result in increased or decreased temperatures and
pressures. Pressure vessels should be fitted with some form of pressure relief device set at the design pressure
of the equipment to relieve over-pressure in a controlled manner. The set pressure of a relief valve should be
such that the valve opens when the pressure rise threatens the integrity of the vessel but not when normal minor
operating pressure deviations occur..
• Discharge of hazardous substances from relief systems under emergency conditions should be routed to
secondary containment vessels or to safe locations so that additional hazards to personnel or equipment and the
possible escalation of an incident do not occur. This should be considered as part of the mechanical design of
the equipment if such systems are to be employed.
Evidence should be provided in the safety report that the process conditions and environment in which the equipment
is to be utilised have been assessed and that an appropriate design pressure has been selected. Simultaneously, It
should state that secondary containment facilities may be appropriate for discharge of relief streams. Documentation
for relief streams should be available for inspection.
3.6.2 Materials of Construction

Another important consideration in mechanical design is the selection of the material of construction. In some cases
the available materials of construction may constrain the design temperatures and pressures that can be achieved
and limit the design of the equipment. The most important characteristics that should be considered when selecting
a material of construction are summarised below:
47
Industrial Safety
Mechanical properties
• tensile strength
• stiffness
• toughness
• hardness
• fatigue resistance
• creep resistance
• the effect of low and high temperatures on the mechanical properties
• corrosion resistance
• ease of fabrication
• special properties - electrical resistance, magnetic properties, thermal conductivity
• availability in standard sizes
• cost
The selection of a suitable material of construction is often carried out by disciplines such as process engineers.
The advice of specialist materials engineers should be sought in the event of difficult applications being identified.
The Safety report should contain evidence that the materials of construction that have been selected are compatible
with the process fluids to be handled and the design conditions that have been chosen.
3.6.3 Corrosion and Erosion

If materials to be used in the process are corrosive then this should be taken into account in the plant design and
layout. Materials of construction should be carefully selected, protected where possible and regularly inspected if
the presence of corrosive materials or a corrosive environment is anticipated.
• The life of equipment subjected to corrosive environments can be increased by proper consideration of design
details. Equipment should be allowed to drain freely and completely and the internal surfaces should be smooth
and free from locations where corrosion products can accumulate. Fluid velocities should be high enough to
prevent deposition but not so high as to cause erosion.
• The corrosion allowance is the additional thickness of metal added to allow for material lost by corrosion and
erosion or scaling. For carbon and low-alloy steels where severe corrosion is not expected a minimum allowance
of 2mm is often used, where more severe corrosion is anticipated an allowance of 4 mm is often used. Most
design codes and standards specify a minimum allowance of 1mm.
• A large proportion of failures in process plant and vessels are due to corrosion. It is often the prime cause of
deterioration and may occur on any part of a vessel. The severity of the deterioration is strongly influenced by
the concentration, temperature, and nature of the corrosive agents in the fluids and the corrosion resistance of
the construction materials. Corrosion may be of a general nature with fairly uniform deterioration, or may be
much localised with severe local attack. Erosion is often localised especially at areas of high velocity or impact.
Occasionally corrosion and erosion combine to increase rates of deterioration.
• Erosion is a particular problem for solids handling in pipe work, ducts and dryers. It occurs primarily at sites
where there is a flow restriction or change in direction including valves, elbows, tees and baffles. Erosion is
promoted by the presence of solid particles, by drops in vapours, bubbles in liquids or two-phase flow. Conditions
that can cause severe erosion include pneumatic conveying, wet steam flow, flashing flow and pump cavitation.
If erosion is likely to occur then more resistant materials should be specified or the material surface protected
in some way. For example plastic inserts can be used to protect erosion-corrosion at the inlet to heat exchanger
tubes.
48
3.7 Specific Equipment - Mechanical Design
Design issues, codes and standards applicable to several general categories of equipment have been identified and
are discussed below in further detail:
• pressure vessels
• other vessels (including storage tanks)
• reactor design
• heat exchange equipment
• furnaces and boilers
• rotating equipment
3.7.1 Pressure Vessels

There are numerous texts available on the details of pressure vessel design however the basis of the design of
pressure vessels is the use of appropriate formulae for vessel dimensions in conjunction with suitable values of
design strength.
Tubular safety
handrails
Bolted top
Galvanised manway
caged access
Process nozzle
ladder
Lifting lug
2.1 Semi
ellipsoidal
dished end
Welded support
saddle
Bolted Engraved
end access nameplate
manway
Bolts by client/installer
Fig. 3.1 Pressure vessel

http://www.mc-integ.com/lists_view.cfm?ID=6
Pressure vessels can be divided into simple vessels and those that have more complex features. The relevant standards
and codes provide comprehensive information about the design and manufacture of vessels and vessel design and
fabrication is an area well covered by standards and codes.
Design and manufacture is normally carried out to meet the requirements of national and international standards
with one of the earliest being the AOTC 1939/48/58. Rules for the construction, testing and scantlings of metal arc
welded steel boilers and other pressure vessels’.
Simple vessels
A simple pressure vessel does not have any complicated supports or sections and the ends are dished. The main code
for simple vessels is BS EN 286-1:1991. `Simple unfired pressure vessels designed to contain air or nitrogen’. All
aspects of designing and manufacturing the vessel are covered in this code.
49
Industrial Safety
Complex vessels
The two principal codes and standards, BS 5500 and ASME VIII, are employed in the design and manufacture of
pressure vessels in Britain. Further both of these demand adherence to satisfaction in the design and manufacturing
process of an independent inspection authority. This authority is responsible for adherence during both the design
and construction phases in accordance with the code.
Design considerations
Factors that should be taken into account in the design process for pressure vessels include:
• Internal and external static and dynamic pressures
• Ambient and operational temperatures
• Weight of vessel and contents
• Wind loading
• Residual stress
• Localised stress
• Thermal stress, etc
• Stress concentrations
• Reaction forces
• Moments from attachments, piping etc
• Fatigue, corrosion and erosion
• Creep and buckling
Pressure vessels are subject to a variety of loads and other conditions that cause stress which can result in failure
and there are a number of design features associated with pressure vessels that need to be considered.
• Discontinuities such as vessel ends, changes of cross-section and changes of thickness
• Joints (bolted and welded)
• Bimetallic joints
• Holes and openings
• Flanges
• Nozzles and connections
• Bolt seating and tightening
• Supports and lugs
Consideration should also be given to other parts of the vessel not directly within the pressure envelope, but critical
to vessel integrity i.e., any failure which could lead to breach of the pressure boundary e.g., vessel skirt or support
legs. Other factors which require careful consideration include; a means of in-service periodic examination i.e. a
means of determining the internal condition of the vessel by the provision of access openings; a means of draining
and venting the vessel; and means by which the vessel can be safely filled and discharged.
50
Materials required for construction
Vessels Liners Internals

For pressure vessels materials Where carbon steel will not resist Many pressure vessels have no
should have appropriate properties expected corrosion or erosion or internals. Others have internals
for all operating conditions that are could cause contamination of the such as baffles, trays, mesh or strip
reasonably foreseeable, and for all product, vessels may be lined with type packing, grids, bed supports,
test conditions. other metals or non-metals. cyclones, pipe coils, spray nozzles,
quench lines, agitators etc.
They should be chemically resistant A lined vessel is usually more
to the fluid contained and not be economical than one built of Large vessels may have internal
significantly affected by ageing. solid corrosion resistant material. bracing and ties and most vacuum
The materials should be selected Metallic liners are installed in vessels have either internal or
in order to avoid corrosion effects various ways. They may be an external stiffening rings.
when the various materials are put integral part of the plate material
together. rolled or bonded before fabrication Heat exchangers have internal tube
of the vessel, or they may be bundles with baffle and support
Steel is the common material separate sheets of metal fastened plates. These internals may be made
of construction, including mild by welding. from a wide range of materials
steel, low alloy steel, and stainless but care should be taken that the
steel. It is often operating process Metallic liners may be made of materials selected for the internals
temperature that determines the ferritic alloy, monel alloy, nickel, are compatible with the materials
material used, but it also depends lead or any other metal resistant to chosen for fabrication of the main
on other factors viz corrosion/ the corrosive agent. Non-metallic components.
erosion allowance; low temperature liners may be used to resist
application etc While selecting the corrosion and erosion or to insulate
material, it is important that the and reduce the temperature on the
material selected has properties walls of a pressure vessel.
which are suited to that particular
application and also be suitable The most common materials are
with regard to fabrication. Several reinforced concrete, insulating
methods are used to construct material, carbon brick, rubber, glass
pressure vessels, most however are and plastic.
constructed using welded joints.
Table 3.1 Materials required for construction
Materials of construction
Following are the materials required for construction:
Failure modes
Pressure vessels are subject to a variety of loads and other conditions that cause stress and in certain cases may
cause serious failure. Any design should take into account the most likely failure modes and causes of deterioration.
Deterioration is possible on all vessel surfaces in contact with any range of organic or inorganic compounds, with
contaminants, or fresh water, with steam or with the atmosphere. The form of deterioration may be electrochemical,
chemical, mechanical or combinations of all.
51
Industrial Safety
Mechanical Failure Corrosion Failure

Common corrosion
Common causes of mechanisms are
mechanical failure are
• general corrosion
• faulty materials
• crevice corrosion
• faulty fabrication &
• corrosion pitting
assembly
• external corrosion
• excessive stress
• corrosion beneath
• external loading
lagging
• reaction forces
• stress corrosion
• overpressure, cracking &
overheating
• corrosion fatigue
• mechanical & thermal
fatigue
• mechanical shock,
brittle failure,
• creep & corrosion
failure
Table 3.2 Mechanical and corrosion failure
Design codes and standards

Two principal codes and standards are employed while designing and manufacturing pressure vessels: American
ASME VIII system and BS 5500 in the UK. Both of these demand adherences to satisfaction in the design and
manufacturing process of an independent inspection authority. This authority is responsible for adherence during
both the design and construction phases in accordance with the standard code. The codes and standards cover design,
materials of construction, fabrication (manufacture and workmanship), inspection and testing, and form the basis
of agreement between the manufacturer and customer and the appointed independent inspection authority. These
codes relate to vessels fabricated in carbon and alloy steels and aluminum.
Non-metallic materials of construction

Majority of pressure vessels are constructed from metallic compounds pressure vessels but can also be constructed
from materials such as Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP), or Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FRP). The main relevant standard
is BS 4994:1987 - Specification for design and construction of vessels and tanks in reinforced plastics.
3.7.2 Other Vessels (including Storage Tanks)

Some vessels that are used are not designated as pressure vessels. The description atmospheric storage is applied to
any tank that is designed to be used within a limited range of atmospheric pressure, either open to the atmosphere
or enclosed.
• Vertical storage tanks with flat bases and conical roofs are often used for the storage of liquids at atmospheric
pressure and may vary in size considerably. The main load to be considered in the design of such tanks is the
hydrostatic pressure of the liquid contained within the tank. However, consideration should also be given to
other parameters and the wind loading and any likely snow loading should also be considered.
• The design of atmospheric storage tanks in general is governed by API Std 620 Design and construction of large,
welded, low-pressure storage tanks and API Std 650 Welded steel tanks for oil storage.
• Tanks should be suitable for their operational duty and all reasonably expected forces such as tank contents,
ground settlement, frost, wind and snow loadings, earthquake and others as appropriate. The selection of the
type of tank to be used for a particular duty will be influenced by considerations of safety, technical suitability
and economy. The safety considerations are usually related to fire hazards which in turn are dependent on the
physical properties of the stored material e.g. flash point, vapour pressure, electrical conductivity etc.
52
• API Standard 2000 gives guidance on the design of vents to prevent pressure changes that would otherwise
occur as a result of temperature changes or the transfer in and out of liquids. Excessive loss of vapours from
vent systems may result from out breathing which could be hazardous.
3.7.3 Reactor Design

Reactors are often the centre of most processes and their design is of utmost importance when considering the safety
hazards of a plant. Reactors are most often considered as pressure vessels and the mechanical design should be in
accordance with the codes and standards described earlier.
• Reactor design should minimise the possibility of a hazardous situation developing and provide the means
for dealing with a hazardous situation should it develop. Arrangements for venting, pressure relief and blow
down need to be adequately addressed in the design. For relief systems consideration should be given to the
implications of the release of reactor contents and containment and control systems may be necessary to prevent
a hazardous situation from developing as a result of the discharge of a relief system.
• The design of the reactor may affect the efficiency of the reaction process and hence the generation of by-products
and impurities. The effectiveness of the reaction step will often determine the requirement for and complexity
of downstream separation processes. In addition, low conversions may result in large recycles being required.
• Many different types of reactor system are available and some of the important criteria to consider are given
below:
• The order and rate of addition of the reactants may affect the rate of reaction and the generation of by-products.
The generation of unstable by-products or excessive reaction rates may increase the potential for a hazardous
situation to develop. The position of addition of reactants may also be important - sub-surface and directly
into an intimate mixing zone within the reactor may result in the minimisation of the generation of reaction
by-products.
Mixing: The agitation system selected for the reactor (if appropriate) may directly influence the efficiency of
the reaction and hence the generation of by-products. Consideration should also be given to the consequences
of agitation failure in the design of the reaction system. Methods for detecting the failure of a mixing/
agitation system and/or stopping the flow of reactants into the reactor may be appropriate especially if there
is the possibility of two phases forming on agitation failure which may react exothermically or vigorously
when agitation is recommenced.
Heat removal: For exothermic reactions the control of the reaction system and the heat removal systems
should be carefully considered. Consideration should be given to the modes of failure of the control and
cooling systems to ensure that the hazards of a runaway exothermic reaction are minimised;
Phase: The reaction may take place in the gas, liquid or sometimes solid phase. The way in which the
reactants are brought into contact may influence the efficiency of the reaction and introduce additional
hazards into the reaction system;
Catalysts: A reaction may require a catalyst in order to promote the required reaction. However the catalyst
may present additional hazards and consideration should be given to the selection of the catalyst system in
order to minimise the risks associated. If a catalyst is required then additional separation steps to remove
the catalyst may subsequently be required.
The safety report should describe how the reactor system has been designed with the principles of safe design in
mind and how the selection of the mixing, chemical addition systems and relief systems have been selected in order
to minimise the potential for a major accident.
Heat exchangers and reboilers

The transfer of heat between two process streams is a common activity and requirement on a chemical plant. A
number of direct or indirect techniques can be employed. The most common form of equipment used to transfer heat
is a heat exchanger which can be designed in many different shapes, sizes and configurations necessary to obtain the
required heat transfer between one stream and another. A number of different heat transfer operations are possible
with some involving a change of phase of one or more component. Heating, cooling, evaporation or condensation
may all need to be considered and the equipment designed accordingly to account for the differing requirements.
53
Industrial Safety
• The basic design is commenced by an approximate sizing of the unit based on assumptions made concerning
the heat transfer characteristics of the substances involved and the anticipated materials of construction. More
detailed calculations are then required to confirm and refine the original design and to identify an optimum layout.
Once the process design has been completed the mechanical design of the unit can then be carried out.
• The mechanical design features, fabrication, materials of construction and testing of shell and tube heat exchangers
are covered by BS 3274: 1960- Tubular Heat Exchangers for General Purposes.
• The standards of the American Tubular Heat Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA standards) are
also widely used. Many companies also have their own standards to supplement these various requirements.
The TEMA standards give the preferred shell and tube dimensions, the design and manufacturing tolerances,
corrosion allowances and the recommended design stresses for materials of construction.
• Design temperatures and pressures for exchangers are usually specified with a margin of safety beyond the
conditions normally anticipated. Typically the design pressure may be 170 kPa greater than the maximum
anticipated during operation or at pump shutoff, and the temperature is commonly 14°C greater than the maximum
anticipated service temperature.
• Major problems associated with heat exchanger design that may affect safety include fouling, polymerisation,
solidification, overheating, leakage, tube vibration and tube rupture. The shell of an exchanger is normally a
pressure vessel and should be designed in accordance with the relevant pressure vessel design code - BS 5500
or ASME VIII (Rules for construction of pressure vessels, Division 1). More specific guidance is given in API
RP 520:1990.
• Special consideration needs to be given to the preventing overheating within heat exchanger equipment especially
if sensitive materials are involved, for example materials which may undergo exothermic decomposition.
• The safety report should demonstrate that heat exchange equipment has been designed and maintained in
accordance with the relevant codes and standards and that consideration has been given to the various failure
modes that could occur and the implications of such events. It should be demonstrated that wherever possible
measures have been taken to prevent, control or mitigate the consequences of such events by the appropriate
selection of materials of construction, fabrication methods, instrumentation and control or others.
3.7.4 Furnaces and Boilers

Furnaces and boilers are items of equipment that are often found as part of process plant and are used for a variety
of purposes such as waste heat recovery, steam generation, destruction of off-gases etc. The design may involve the
interaction of many different variables including water and steam circulation systems, fuel characteristics (liquid,
gaseous or solid fuels), ignition control systems, heat input and heat transfer systems.
• The design of the furnace or boiler enclosure should be able to withstand the thermal conditions associated with
the system and specialist designs are often required. Many codes and standards exist for boiler design.
• The elimination of hazards in burner design is a fundamental design requirement. Explosions can occur during
start up if ignition design is not carefully considered. Leaks of fuel can cause explosive atmospheres when
ignition is attempted. For these reasons consideration should be given to inerting and ventilation systems prior
to ignition sequences to ensure explosive atmospheres are not present.
• Isolation systems should be adequately designed to ensure leakage of fuel does not occur. Double block and
bleed valves on fuel lines can be considered. Reliance should never be placed upon single valves for isolation.
Careful consideration of the configuration of the pipe work should also be considered to ensure that the flow of
fuel into the system after the flame has failed or valves have been closed is minimised.
• Purging facilities are essential to ensure that the firing space is free from a flammable atmosphere prior to start-
up ignition.
• A safety report should demonstrate that any furnace/boiler system is designed and maintained to the relevant
codes and standards and that consideration has been given to the major hazards associated with the start-up,
shutdown and operation of the equipment in terms of the fire and explosion potential of such systems. It should
be demonstrated that the risks of an explosion occurring have been minimised by the design of the burner control
management system and the layout and design of the fuel supply systems.
54
3.7.5 Rotating Equipment
Process machines are particularly important items of equipment in process plants and in relation to pressure systems
since they are required to provide the motive force necessary to transfer process fluids (liquids, solids and gases)
from one area of operation to another. A machine system is any reciprocating or rotating device that is used to
transfer or to produce a change in properties within a process plant. Examples may include items such as pumps,
fans, compressors, turbines, centrifuges, agitators etc.
This type of equipment is a potential source of loss of containment. In addition due to the rotating or vibrating
nature of such equipment pressure and flow fluctuations may be caused and these can affect the operation of other
systems.
The basic requirements to define the application for pumps, fans and compressors are usually the suction and delivery
pressures, the flow rate required and the pressure loss in transmission.
Special requirements for certain industrial sectors may also impose restrictions on the materials of construction to
be used or the type of device that can be considered. Many designs have become standardised based on experience
and numerous standards (API standards, ASME standards, ANSI standards) have become available. These standards
often specify design, construction and testing details such as material selection, shop inspection and tests, drawings,
clearances, construction procedures etc.
The choice of material of construction is dictated by consideration of corrosion, erosion, personnel safety and
containment and contamination.
Pumps
Many pumps are of the centrifugal type, although positive displacement types (such as reciprocating and screw types)
are also used. Pumps are available throughout a vast range of sizes and capacities and are also available in a wide
range of materials including various metals and plastics. Sealing of pumps is a very important consideration and
is discussed later. The primary advantage of a centrifugal pump is its simplicity. Pumps are particularly vulnerable
to mal-operation and poor installation practices. Proper installation and high quality maintenance is essential for
safe operation.
Problems associated with centrifugal pumps can include bearing and seal failure. Cavitation (the collapse of vapour
bubbles in a flowing liquid leading to vibration, noise and erosion) and dead head running (attempting to run a
pump without an outlet for the fluid, for example against a closed valve) can also result in damage to the pumping
equipment. Misalignment between pump and motor is also a common cause of catastrophic failure.
Seal-less or `canned pumps’ are often used where any leakage is considered unacceptable. In a canned pump the
impeller of the pump and the rotor of the motor are mounted on an integral shaft which is encased so that the process
fluid can circulate in the space which is normally the air gap of the motor.
Key parameters for pump selection are the liquid to be handled, the total dynamic head, the suction and discharge
heads, temperature, viscosity, vapour pressure, specific gravity, liquid corrosion characteristics, the presence of
solids which may cause erosion etc.
Compressors
Both positive displacement and centrifugal compressors are used in the process industry. They are complex machines
and their reliability is crucial. It is very important that they are maintained to high operational standards. Centrifugal
compressors are by far the most common although compression is generally lower than that given by reciprocating
machines. They are used in both process gas and refrigeration duties. On centrifugal compressors some of the
principal malfunctions include rotor or shaft failure, bearing failure, vibration and surge. Reciprocating compressors
are utilised for higher compression requirements. They may be either single or multi-stage units. Air compressors
for dry air require special consideration and specific codes and standards exist.
55
Industrial Safety
Fans
The main applications for fans are for high flow, low pressure applications such as supplying air for drying, conveying
material suspended in a gas stream, removing fumes, or in condensing towers. These units can be either centrifugal
or axial flow type. They are simple machines but proper installation and maintenance is required to ensure high
reliability and safe operation.
Vibration
One of the main causes of failure of rotating equipment is vibration. This often causes seal damage or fatigue failure
and subsequent leakage and can result in a major accident. Numerous factors can result in vibration occurring
including cavitation, impeller imbalance, loose bearings and pulses in the pipe. ASME standards recommend that
pumps should be periodically monitored to detect vibration that should normally fall within prescribed limits as
determined by the manufacturer. This should be initially confirmed on installation and then periodically checked.
If measured levels exceed prescribed values then preventative maintenance is required and should be performed.
By collection and analysis of vibration signatures of rotating equipment it is possible to identify which components
of the system are responsible for particular frequencies of the vibration signal. It is then possible to identify the
component that is deteriorating and responsible for the vibration that is occurring.
Seals
Seals are very important and often critical components in large rotating machinery and in systems which are flanged or
jointed such as heat exchangers or pipe work systems. Failure of a sealing arrangement can lead to loss of containment
and a potential for a major accident. Numerous different types of sealing arrangement exist for rotating equipment.
There are many factors that govern the selection of seals for a particular application including the product being
handled, the environment which the seal is installed in, the arrangement of the seal, the equipment the seal is to be
installed in, secondary packing requirements, seal face combinations, seal gland plate arrangements, and main seal
body etc. The materials used for seals should always be compatible with the process fluids being handled. There are
three principal methods of sealing the point at which a rotating shaft enters a pump, compressor, pressure vessel or
similar equipment. These principals are as follows:
Conventional stuffing box with soft packing
Hydrodynamic seal, where rotating vanes keep the shaft free
Mechanical seals
• Stuffing boxes and glands with packing are commonly used. Some product leakage is normal both lubricating
and cooling the packing material. The chief advantages of this type of sealing arrangement are the simplicity
and the ease of adjustment or replacement. The disadvantages are the necessity of frequent attention and the
inherent lack of integrity of such a system.
• Mechanical seals are the next most commonly employed arrangement. They are used in applications where a
leak tight seal of almost any fluid is required. Mechanical seals find their best application where fluids should be
contained under substantial pressure. They can range from the simplest single seal arrangement to complicated
sophisticated double seals with monitoring of the interspace. Some mechanical seals are assemblies of great
complexity and consist of components manufactured to very high tolerances. They are often fitted as complete
cartridge type units. Some sealing arrangements require constant lubrication often from the process fluid itself
whilst others require external lubrication arrangements.
56
3.8 Maintenance, Inspection and Monitoring
Plant equipment may be monitored during commissioning and throughout its operational life. This monitoring may
be carried out on the basis of performance or condition or both. However, the predominant techniques and parameters
employed are flow, pressure, temperature, power etc. The alternative to performance monitoring is condition
monitoring of which there are a number of techniques. The aim of such techniques is to identify deterioration and
pre-empt imminent failures and so secure reliable and available plant, particularly for production and safety critical
items. Some of these techniques are identified below:
• vibration monitoring
• shock pulse monitoring
• acoustic emission monitoring
• oil analysis
3.8.1 Critical Machines

All machine systems should be assessed according to the hazard presented if the machine or any associated protective
system should fail.
Machine systems that have been assessed to present unacceptable consequences if the machine or protective system
should fail may be classified as a Critical Machine System and given specific attention during operation including
additional maintenance and monitoring.
Assessments should be based on:
• Potential consequences of any loss of containment
• Potential consequences of the failure of the process
• Potential damage caused by mechanical failure
3.8.2 Structural Design Considerations

Structures are required to provide support for plant and should be able to withstand all foreseeable loadings and
operational extremes throughout the life of the plant. Failure of any structural component could lead to initiation of
a major accident. Structural design should take into account natural events such as wind loadings, snow loadings
and seismic activity and also plant excursions.
Maps showing the wind speeds to be used in the design of structures at locations in the UK are given in British
Standards Code of Practice BS CP 3: 1972: Basic Data for the Design of Buildings, Chapter V Loading: Part 2 Wind
Loads. Typical values are around 50 m/s (112 miles per hour). The code of practice also gives methods estimating
the dynamic wind pressure on buildings and structures of various shapes.
3.8.3 Lightning
Protection against lightning strikes on process plant located outside buildings is required since lightning is a potential
ignition source especially for fires involving storage tanks. Lightning protection should be provided and guidance
is available in BS 6651: 1992 Code of Practice for Protection of Structures against Lightning.
Complex chemical plants such as refinery, petrochemical and fertiliser and bulk drugs in the pharmacy industry
should provide basic safety protection requirements to avoid disasters like fire and explosion.
• Layers of protection are suggested below:
First layer: safe plant design.
Second layer: basic process controls (with systems Redundancy), operator supervision.
Third layer: critical alarms for toxic gas and fire detection. Manual intervention.
Fourth layer: automatic action, including process shutdown.
Fifth layer: physical protection, e.g. pressure relief valves. Routed to flares, concrete dikes.
Sixth layer: emergency response with trained responders. Layer of safety requirement can be introduced
by undertaking study of
57
Industrial Safety
Process hazard analysis

• Triggered periodically by all operating plants
• Significant modifications
• Acquisitions
• Relies on basic tools: Fire Explosion Index, Dow Chemical Index
• Exposure Index, Layers of Protection Analysis, PHA
• Questionnaire, etc.
Risk review: Triggered by higher scores in Fire Explosion Index, CEI, LOPA indices
Enhanced risk review: If risk review shows accident potential

• does adjusted consequence analysis
• risk contour modelling
• risk mitigation measures
Quantitative risk assessment: off-site population considered triggered when risk contours exceed elevation criteria.
Results reviewed and action taken at senior management level.
The inherently safer design approach is to eliminate or reduce the hazard by changing the process itself, rather than
by adding on additional safety devices and layers of protection. Ideally, hazards would be reduced to a level where
no protective systems are required because the hazard is too small to be of concern. Even if this is not possible, an
inherently safer process will allow the number of layers of protection to be reduced. The overall design is therefore
more robust from a safety and environmental viewpoint and is likely to be less expensive to build and operate
because of the elimination of complex safety systems.
Relationship to safety in design

Safety in design can be based on either of the approaches described. Add-on safety features and layers of protection
can be identified and incorporated during design. In fact, they should be incorporated into the process design. We
should anticipate potential accidents during design and provide the appropriate protective systems, procedures and
devices, rather than discovering the need for these layers of protection later on as a result of accidents and near
misses. However, the greatest potential for realising an inherently safer process design is early in development. At
this time, the designer still has considerable freedom in technology selection. For a chemical process, the greatest
opportunities lie in the selection of the chemical synthesis route to be used, including the raw materials, solvents,
chemical intermediates, reaction steps and other physical and chemical operations to be used.
Chemical process risk management approaches can be classified into four categories:
• Inherent: Eliminating the hazard by using materials and process conditions which are non-hazardous.
• Passive: Minimising the hazard by process and equipment design features, which reduce either the frequency
or consequence of the hazard without the active functioning of any device.
• Active: Using controls, safety interlocks and emergency shutdown systems to detect and correct process
deviations. These systems are commonly referred to as engineering controls protection layer concept.
58
COMMUNITY EMERGENCY RESPONSE
PLANT EMERGENCY RESPONSE
PHYSICAL PROTECTION (DIKES)
PHYSICAL PROTECTION (RELIEF DEVICES)
AUTOMATIC ACTION SIS OR ESD
CRITICAL ALARMS, OPERATOR

SUPERVISION AND MANUAL INTERVENTION
BASIC CONTROLS, PROCESS
ALARMS AND OPERATOR
SUPERVISION
PROCESS
DESIGN
Fig. 3.2 Protection layer concept

http://www-conf.slac.stanford.edu/
th
<Protection against internal Hazards in the Review of Nuclear Physics Experiments, CERN, 5 International High
Energy Physics Technical Safety Forum >
The layout should adequately identify installations and other activities of the establishment including:
• main storage facilities
• process installations
• location of relevant substances and their quantities
• relevant equipment (including vessels and pipes)
• spacing of the installations and their main sections
• clearance between flammable liquid storage tanks at multi-storage sites, etc
• utilities, services and fire water retention
• escape routes from the installations and across the establishment; control rooms and office rooms
59
Industrial Safety
Summary
• Plant design plays an important role in the selection of the site and constructional layout of any industry.
• The design of a process plant is a complex activity that will usually involve many different disciplines over a
considerable period of time.
• The principles of inherently safer design are particularly important for major hazard plants and should be
considered during the design stage.
• Protective equipment installed onto standard equipment to control accidents and protect people from their
consequences is often complex, expensive and requires regular testing and maintenance.
• Evidence that some system of assessment has taken place should be provided in the safety report.
• Temperature and pressure are two basic design parameters. Any equipment that is to be installed should be
designed to withstand the foreseeable temperature and pressure over the whole life of the plant.
• The selection of a suitable material of construction is often carried out by disciplines such as process
engineers.
• Materials of construction should be carefully selected, protected where possible and regularly inspected if the
presence of corrosive materials or a corrosive environment is anticipated.
• The two principal codes and standards, BS 5500 and ASME VIII, are employed in the design and manufacture
of pressure vessels in Britain.
• Reactors are often the centre of most processes and their design is of utmost importance when considering the
safety hazards of a plant.
• Furnaces and boilers are items of equipment that are often found as part of process plant and are used for a
variety of purposes such as waste heat recovery, steam generation, destruction of off-gases etc.
• A machine system is any reciprocating or rotating device that is used to transfer or to produce a change in
properties within a process plant.
References
• Design Codes - Plant. 2011. Design Codes - Plant. [Online] Available at: http://www.hse.gov.uk/comah/sragtech/
techmeasplant.htm. [Accessed 03 May 2011].
• The Association of British Chemical Manufacturers, 1965. Safety and Management - A Guide for the Chemical
Industry, 4th ed., W.Heffer and Sons.
• Kern, D.Q., 1950. Process Heat Transfer, Tata McGraw Hill Education.
Recommended Reading
• Towler, G. P. and Sinnott, R.K, 2008. Chemical engineering design: principles, practice and economics of plant
and process design, Butterworth-Heinemann.
• Mular, A.L., Halbe, D.N., Barratt, D.J., 2002. Mineral processing plant design, practice, and control proceedings,
SME.
• Watermeyer. P., 2002. Handbook for process plant project engineers, John Wiley and Sons.
60
Self Assessment
1. ______________ are an essential component in order to give a margin of safety in the design.
a. Design tools
b. Design factors
c. Design styles
d. Design
2. The principles of _______________ are particularly important for major hazard plants and should be considered
during the design stage.
a. safer design
b. general safer design
c. inherently safer design
d. engineering design
3. ________________ involves reducing the inventory of hazardous materials to a level whereby it poses a reduced
hazard.
a. Intensification
b. Substitution
c. Attenuation
d. Simplification
4. Temperature and _____________ are two basic mechanical design parameters.

a. kinetic energy
b. weight
c. pressure
d. potential energy
5. The most common causes of _______________ failure in process plant are faulty materials, faulty fabrication
and assembly, excessive stress and external loading.
a. mechanical
b. physical
c. general
d. electrical
61
Industrial Safety

A. Where carbon steel will not resist expected corrosion or erosion or could
1. Pressure
cause contamination of the product, vessels may be lined with other metals or
vessels
non-metals.
B. Factors that should be taken into account in the design process for pressure
vessels include internal and external static and dynamic pressures, ambient
2. Simple vessels
and operational temperatures, weight of vessel and contents, wind loading,
residual stress, localised stress, thermal stress, etc
3. Liners C. can be divided into simple vessels and those that have more complex features.
4. Design
D. does not have any complicated supports or sections and the ends are dished
considerations
a. 1-B, 2-A, 3-D, 4-C
b. 1-D, 2-C, 3-B, 4-A
c. 1-C, 2-D, 3-A, 4-B
d. 1-C, 2-A, 3-D, 4-B

a. Reboilers are items of equipment that are often found as part of process plant and are used for a variety of
purposes such as waste heat recovery, steam generation, destruction of off-gases etc.
b. Catalysts are items of equipment that are often found as part of process plant and are used for a variety of
purposes such as waste heat recovery, steam generation, destruction of off-gases etc.
c. Only furnaces are items of equipment that are often found as part of process plant and are used for a variety
of purposes such as waste heat recovery, steam generation, destruction of off-gases etc.
d. Furnaces and boilers are items of equipment that are often found as part of process plant and are used for a
variety of purposes such as waste heat recovery, steam generation, destruction of off-gases etc.

a. Electric vessels are subject to a variety of loads and other conditions that cause stress and in certain cases
may cause serious failure.
b. Pressure vessels are subject to a variety of loads and other conditions that cause stress and in certain cases
c. Vessels are subject to a variety of loads and other conditions that cause stress and in certain cases may cause
serious failure.
d. Simple vessels are subject to a variety of loads and other conditions that cause stress and in certain cases

a. Vessels are very important and often critical components in large rotating machinery and in systems which
are flanged or jointed such as heat exchangers or pipe work systems.
b. Fans are very important and often critical components in large rotating machinery and in systems which are
flanged or jointed such as heat exchangers or pipe work systems.
c. Compressors are very important and often critical components in large rotating machinery and in systems
which are flanged or jointed such as heat exchangers or pipe work systems.
d. Seals are very important and often critical components in large rotating machinery and in systems which
are flanged or jointed such as heat exchangers or pipe work systems.
62
a. Erosion occurs primarily at sites where there is a flow restriction or change in direction including valves,
elbows, tees and baffles.
b. Adhesion occurs primarily at sites where there is a flow restriction or change in direction including valves,
c. Corrosion occurs primarily at sites where there is a flow restriction or change in direction including valves,
d. Layer occurs primarily at sites where there is a flow restriction or change in direction including valves,
63
Industrial Safety
Chapter IV
Plant Maintenance
Aim
• explain the importance of housekeeping
• describe industrial lighting process
• discuss the design of workstation to minimise noise and vibration
Objectives
• discuss the importance of ventilation and heat control in plant maintenance
• describe 5 S of housekeeping
• define the significance of lighting of interior parts
Learning outcome
• understand industrial electrical hazards
• identify different types of fire extinguishers
• explain the prevention of fire spread
64
4.1 Introduction
Industrial maintenance usually refers to the repair and upkeep of the different types of equipment and machines
used in an industrial setting. The basics of industrial maintenance may be broken down into the following five
categories: general knowledge, mechanical knowledge, electrical knowledge, welding knowledge, and preventative
maintenance. According to this wide variety of areas of expertise, industrial maintenance technicians usually are
multi-skilled individuals, proficient in many tasks. Industrial maintenance also involves a great degree of problem
solving skill. Identifying the problem alongside the best and safest means of resolving the difficulty typically are
integral parts of the industrial maintenance process.
4.2 Housekeeping
The term ‘Housekeeping’ is described as the practice of keeping our place of work neat and clean. Its scope of
activities is very vast. The Japanese people have hypothecated this concept and practice and have named it as 5 S
of Housekeeping. You will find these concepts already familiar to you. You might have been practicing those for
months or possibly for years. But the Japanese get the credit for professionalisation of the concept of housekeeping.
We shall now get acquainted with these 5 S’ of housekeeping.
5S Description
This term means that you remove all unwanted substances from the place of work. In this way, you
will get more space or area for keeping your important and useful property or things. You should
Seiri identify certain area in your office or factory for temporarily keeping such unwanted substances for
some days. Later on, you will ensure that these unwanted substances left in this specific area are
disposed off, as per planned arrangements.
This term means that, you should identify various types of things, materials, various equipment,
etc. Then identify certain storage areas & storage methods and assign specific storage areas for
Seitone storage of specific materials, things or equipment, etc. You should display some name plates or
indicator plates against relevant areas. This will help all concerned persons and even new persons
become aware of the new storage areas and storage methods.
This term means that all things must have appropriate area for storage and all things must be stored
Seiso only in their appropriate areas. You should maintain neatness and cleanliness in all these storage
areas.
This term means that you should raise the standards of housekeeping month after month.
Mere maintaining of standards may actually result in deterioration of housekeeping standards.
Siketsu Raising standard does not mean you should spend a lot of money for it. You should make some
improvements in housekeeping, as and when found feasible. This is enough, at least in the
beginning. Step by step improvement will progressively also raise the standard of housekeeping.
This term means that you should teach good housekeeping practices to other people. This will help
Shinseki
others become aware of the concept and help them practice it in their day to day life.
Table 4.1 The 5 S concept of housekeeping
Actually, good housekeeping is the responsibility of all in the company. Good housekeeping plays a good role in
improving the motivation of people and subsequently making them result-oriented with fresh minds.
Cleanliness
Every factory shall be kept clean and free from effluent arising from any drain, privy or other nuisances indicated
in Section no. 11 of the Factory Act.
• The accumulation of dirt and refuse shall be removed daily by sweeping, dusting or any other effective method
from the floors, benches of workrooms and from staircases and passages. Further, it should be disposed of in
a suitable manner.
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Industrial Safety
• The floor of every work area shall be cleaned at least once every week by washing, using disinfectant where
necessary or by some other effective method.
• Where a floor is liable to become wet in the course of any manufacturing process to such extent as is capable
of being drained, effective means of drainage shall be provided and maintained.
• All inside walls and partitions, all ceilings or tops of rooms and all walls, sides and tops of passages and
staircases shall - where they are painted otherwise than with washable water paint or varnished, be repainted or
re-varnished at least once every five years.
• Where they are painted with washable water paint, be repainted with at least one coat of such paint at least once
every six months.
• Where they are painted or varnished or where they have smooth impervious surfaces, be cleaned at least once
every fourteen months by such methods as may be prescribed.
However, what we sometimes overlook is that good housekeeping is a key duty on the job, too. The orderly
arrangement of work areas is vital to the safety of all workers, regardless of whether they are involved with machines
and tools or with appliances and furniture. Keep your tools and equipment off the floor and stored in the proper
places. This not only reduces tripping hazards, but also protects the equipment you use to earn a living with.
4.3 Industrial Lighting

Every part of a factory which workers use shall be provided and maintained sufficient and suitable lighting, natural
or artificial or both. In every factory, all glazed windows and skylights used for lighting the workroom shall be kept
clean on both the inner and outer surfaces and, so far as compliance with provisions of any rules made under sub-
section (3) of section 13 will allow, be free from obstruction Ref.
In every factory effective provision shall, so far as is practicable, be made for the prevention of glare, either directly
from a source of light or by reflection from a smooth or polished surface; the formation of shadows to such an
extent as to cause eye-strain or risky to any worker. All glazed windows and skylights used for the lighting of the
workroom shall be kept clean on both the inner and outer surfaces.
Lighting for hazardous locations, industrial and commercial applications
• Class I, Division 2 Groups A, B, C and D.

• Class II, Division 2, Groups F & G.
• Listed for damp locations.
• Listed for locations having deposits of readily combustible paint residues.
Series 130 • Spring loaded lamp holders.
Front Access • Some applications include prep areas, inspection areas, sanding
• and machining, coal dust, grain dust.
• UL and ETL listed for U.S. and Canada.

• Class I, Div. 2, Groups A, B, C and D.
• Class II, Div. 2, Groups F & G.
• Listed for damp locations.
Series 131 • For paint spray applications.
Rear Access
• Listed for locations having deposits of readily combustible paint residues.
• Spring loaded lamp holders
66
• Increased photometric output and efficiency as a result of our wider fixture
design.
• Hinged inside access door frame and a piano hinged rear access door panel
which allows for servicing from either inside or outside of the booth. Inside
access features an interlock switch to be wired in such a way as to disable
Series 150
paint spray equipment when the front access panel is opened. This unit may
Front / Rear Access
be mounted in spray booth panels without the previously required second
lens. Look at 261 for further details.
• Increased photometric output and efficiency as a result of our wider fixture

design.
• Rear access door panel designed for accessing fixture from outside the
booth.
Series 151 • Class II, Div. 2, Groups F & G.
Rear Access • Listed for locations having deposits of readily combustible paint reside.
• Meets NFPA 33 requirements for inside access.
• 8 Ft. 4 lamp Fluorescent Lighting for Hazardous locations.

• ETL listed U.S. and Canada.
• Class I, Div. 2 Groups A, B, C and D.
• Class II, Div. 2, Groups F and G.
Series 170 • Meets NFPA 33 requirements for inside access.

Front / Rear Access • Two pianos hinged inside access door frames and hinged rear access door
panel which allows for servicing from either inside or outside of the booth.
• UL and ETL listed in U.S. and Canada.

• Class II, Div. 2, Groups F & G.
• Listed for locations having deposits of readily combustible paint resides.
• Inside access features an interlock switch to be wired in such a way as to
Slim Light Series disable paint spray equipment when the front access panel is open.
• 4 Ft. 4 lamp fluorescent lighting for hazardous locations.

• Energy efficient
• For paint spray booth applications.
• ETL listed for U.S. and Canada.
• Class I, Div. 2 Groups A, B, C, D
• Class II Div. 2 Groups F, G.
• UL listed 441 series.
400 Series • Listed for locations having deposits of readily combustible paint resides.
Rear Access
• Inside access features an interlock switch to be wired in such a way as to
disable paint spray equipment with the front access panel is opened.
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Industrial Safety
• 2’x4’ Enclosed and gasketed T-5 & T-8 troffer.

• Ideal for clean rooms
• Space saving design, only 2 1/4” deep.
• End of lamp life sensing.
• ETL listed in U.S. and Canada.
Model 330S • Class II, Div. 2, Groups F & G.
Four Lamp T5 Troffer
• Operates efficiently at higher temperatures than T-8 and T-12 lamps.
• Lumen to watt ratio of 90 plus.
• 100% ballast factor
• 2’x4’ Enclosed and gasketed T-8 troffer.

• Ideal for clean rooms.
• Space saving design, only 4 1/4” deep.
• End of lamp life sensing.
• ETL listed in U.S. and Canada.
Model 330 2x4 • Class II, Div. 2, Groups F & G.
T-8 Troffer • Operates efficiently at higher temperatures than T-8 and T-12 lamps.
• Lumen to watt ratio of 90 plus.
• 100% ballast factor.
• Vapour Proof only - Incandescent / fluorescent light fixture.

• Cast aluminium construction.
• Non-hazardous locations.
• UL Listed
• Certified for wet locations.
• Easy relamping with single thumb screw
• Heat and impact resistant prismatic glass globe
271 Incandescent Vapor
Proof • Die cast guard
(Pendant Mount) • Different mounting options available.
• Explosion proof incandescent fixture.

• Hazardous locations.
• Class I, Div.1 and 2, Group C and D.
• Incandescent Class II, Div. 1 and 2, Groups E, F, and G.
• Class III.
• UL Listed 844
273 Series • Paint Spray booth, wet/damp locations, marine locations.
Explosion Proof Incandes-
cent • Corrosion Resistant.
(Bracket Mount) • General purpose industrial.
68
• H.I.D fixture for Hazardous locations.
• Class I Div. 2, Groups A, B, C, D
• Class II Div. 1 & 2 Groups E, F, G
• Class III
• Enclosed and Gasketed
• 50-400 Watts
H.I.D. H Series
50-400 Watts • Wet & Marine Locations
Hazardous Locations • UL Listed 1572, 844, 595
• NEMA 4X
• H.I.D.
• UL 595, 844, 1572
• Class I Div. 2 Groups A, B, C, D
• Class II Div. 1 & 2 Groups E, F, G
• Class III
• Enclosed and Gasketed
H.I.D. H2 Series • Suitable for Wet Locations
9-150 Watts • UL 595 Marine
Hazardous Locations
• NEMA 4X IP 66
• 4 Ft. and 8 Ft. 2 lamp inspection lighting.

• Hazardous Locations.
• UL Listed 1598 and UL-C listed.
• ETL and ETC-C listed for Class I Div. 2 and Class II Div.2.
Four or Eight Foot Two • Model 39042L INS-3613 (4 Ft.) and
Lamp • 39082L INS120-3281(8 Ft.) or 39082L INS277-3532 (8 Ft.)
Inspection Lighting
• Vapour proof only High Pressure Sodium ( 35, 50, 70, 100 watts)
• Metal Halide (50, 70, 100 watts)
• Compact Fluorescent (13, 26, 32 and 42 watt)
• Non-Hazardous Locations
• UL 1598
• Certified for Wet Locations
• High temperature silicone internal gaskets
277 Series
HID /CFL Vapor Proof • Weatherproof ballast box
(Ceiling Mount) • Ceiling (3/4” and 1/2”)
• Bracket (3/4” and 1/2”)
• Hazardous locations
• Paint spray booth
• Marine/shipboard
270 Series Factory sealed
Explosion Proof • UL listed 595, 844, 1598
4 Lamp Fixture • Light Weight
Also available in 2 Lamp
• Low Profile
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Industrial Safety
• Class I Division 2 Groups A,B,C,D

• Class I Zone 2, Groups IIA, IIB, IIC
• Class II Division 1 & 2 Groups E, F, G
• Class III
• UL 595 Marine locations
• Listed for wet locations, NEMA 4X
Induction Series
• Available in 165 watt Induction Lamp
Wet / Damp Location
• Suitable for wet locations.
Table 4.2 Types of industrial lighting
Lighting of interior parts

The general illumination over those interior parts of a factory where persons are regularly employed shall be not
less than 65 lux measures in the horizontal plane at a level of 90 cms above the floor as indicated vide Rule no. 35
of Factory Act.
• If the mounting height of the light source for general illumination exceeds 7.6m from the floor or where the
structure of the room or the position or construction of the fixed machinery or plant prevents the uniform attainment
of this standard, the general illumination at the said level shall be not less than 22 lux. Further, where work is
actually being done the illumination shall not be less than 65 lux. The illumination over all other interior parts
of the factory over which persons employed shall not be less than 5 lux at floor level.
• Prevention of glare describes in Rule no. 36. of the Factory Act - where any source of artificial light in the factory
is less than 4.9 meters above floor level, no part of the light source or of the light fitting having a brightness
greater than 1.55 candles per sq. cm (4.87 lamberts) shall be visible to persons whilst normally employed within
30m of the source, except where the angle of elevation from the eye to the source or part of the fitting as the
case may be, exceeds 20 degrees.
• Good visibility is essential for persons to carry out any operation in a safe and efficient manner. Poor illumination
can cause stress on the visual system resulting in visual fatigue that in turn can lead to Production losses, Inferior
quality of or increased error in work, increased accident frequency, also Eye disease known as Nystagmus can
affect.
• Have adequate light for employees to see nearby objects that might be potential hazards or to be able to see
and operate emergency controls or other equipment, if general lighting is not available. Lighting levels can be
measured with a light meter.
• Conversion information: 1 foot-candle =1 lumen incident per square foot =10.76 lux.
4.4 Ventilation and Heat Control

Many industrial processes involve evolution of thermal energy e.g., steel and forging industry, chemical reactors,
industrial furnaces, boilers, textile and polymer mills. This thermal radiation increases ambient temperature to more
than acceptable levels, resulting in raise of body temperature causing adverse effects on workers in the workplace.
The Factory Act Rules prescribed under section 13 quoted for ventilation and heat control.
4.4.1 Temperature
Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions of hot and cold.
Objects of low temperature are cold, while various degrees of higher temperatures are referred to as warm or hot.
Quantitatively, temperature is measured with thermometers, which may be calibrated to a variety of temperature
scales.
70
Limits of temperature and air movement
In any factory, the maximum wet-bulb temperature of air in a workroom at a height of 1.5 meters above the floor
level shall not exceed 30 degrees centigrade and adequate air movement of at least 30 meters per minute shall be
provided; and in relation to the dry-bulb temperature, the wet-bulb temperature in the workroom at the said height
shall not exceed that shown in the schedule annexed hereto, or as regards a dry bulb reading, intermediate between
the two dry-bulb readings that specified in relation to the higher of these two dry-bulb readings:
Dry-bulb Temperature (Degrees Centigrade) Wet-bulb temperature (Degrees Centigrade)

30 to 34 29
35 to 39 28.5
40 to 44 28
45 to 47 27.5
Table 4.3 Dry and wet bulb temperature readings
• If the temperature measured with a thermometer inserted in a hollow globe of 15 cms diameter coated mat black
outside and kept in the environment for not less than 20 minutes exceeds the dry-bulb temperature of the air, the
temperature so recorded by the globe thermometer shall be taken in place of the dry-bulb temperature.
• Further when the reading of the wet-bulb temperature outside in the shade exceeds 27 degrees centigrade, the
value of the wet-bulb temperature allowed in the schedule for a given dry-bulb temperature may be likewise
exceeded to the same extent.
• However, this requirement shall not apply in respect of factories covered by section 15 and in respect of factories
where the nature of work carried on involves production of excessively high temperatures referred to in clause
(ii) of sub-section (1) to which workers are exposed for short periods of time not exceeding one hour followed
by an interval of sufficient duration in thermal environments not exceeding those otherwise laid down in this
rule.
Provision of thermometers
• If it appears to the Inspector that in any factory, the temperature of air in a workroom is sufficiently high and is
likely to exceed the limits prescribed in sub-rule (1), he may serve an order requiring him to provide sufficient
number of whirling hygrometers or any other type of hygrometers and direct that the dry-bulb and wet-bulb
readings in each such workroom shall be recorded at such positions as approved by the Inspector twice during
each working shift by a person especially nominated for the purpose by the manager and approved by the
Inspector.
• If the Inspector has reason to believe that a substantial amount of heat is added inside the environment of a
workroom by radiation from the walls, roof or other solid surroundings, he may serve an order on the factory
manager requiring him to provide one or more globe thermometers referred to in the first proviso in sub-rule
(1). Further requiring him to place the globe thermometers at places specified by him and keep a record of the
temperatures in a suitable register.
4.4.2 Ventilation
When workers are exposed to amounts of chemicals in the air that exceed the permissible limits, employers must
take action to reduce their exposure. WISHA (Washington Industrial Safety and Health Act) regulations address
ventilation in following operations viz. spray-painting, abrasive blasting, grinding and polishing, welding, use of
dip tanks and work in confined spaces. The following WISHA standards have industrial ventilation components:
71
Industrial Safety
There are three types of workplace ventilation:
Indoor air quality Dilution ventilation Local exhaust

ventilation • 0It dilutes ventilation
contaminated air in • 0It captures
• 0It provides fresh, contaminated
heated or cooled a whole building or emissions at or very
room by blowing near the source
air to buildings as
in clean air and and exhausts them
part of the heating, outside.
exhausting some
ventilating and air- dirty air.
conditioning system.
Fig. 4.1 Types of workplace ventilation
Indoor air quality ventilation, used primarily in offices and other nonindustrial buildings, will not be covered in this
guideline. There are advantages and disadvantages to the use of either dilution ventilation or local exhaust ventilation
in terms of costs and effectiveness.
Industrial ventilation
• It is a method of controlling workers’ exposure to airborne toxic chemicals or flammable vapors by exhausting
contaminated air away from the work area and replacing it with clean air. It is one alternative to control employee
exposure to air contaminants in the workplace.
• Other alternatives include process changes, work practice changes, substitution with less toxic chemicals or
elimination of the use of toxic chemicals.
• Industrial ventilation is typically used to remove welding fumes, solvent vapors, oil mists or dusts from a work
location and exhaust these contaminants outdoors.
Statutory requirement
In India, the Factory Act issues guidelines for maintaining proper ventilation vide rules in that in every factory, the
amount of ventilating openings in a workroom below the eaves shall, except where mechanical means of ventilation
as required by clause (b) of the Factory Act below are provided, be of an aggregate area of not less than 15% of
the floor area and so located as to afford a continued supply of fresh air, (i) covered by section 15; or (ii) in which
temperature and humidity are controlled by refrigeration.
Where in any factory owing to special circumstances such as situations with respect to adjacent buildings and height
of the ventilation openings under clause
• Of this sub-rule cannot be complied with or in the opinion of the inspector the temperature of air in a workroom
is sufficiently high and is likely to exceed the limits prescribed in sub-rule (1) he may serve on the manager of
the factory an order requiring him to provide additional ventilation either by means of roof ventilators or by
mechanical means.
• The amount of fresh air supplied by mechanical means of ventilation an hour shall be equivalent to at least six
times the cubic capacity of the workroom and shall be distributed evenly throughout the workroom without
dead air pockets or undue draughts caused by high inlet velocities.
72
• In areas where in summer (15th March - 15th July), dry-bulb temperatures of the outside air in the shade during
most part of the day exceed 35 degrees centigrade and simultaneous wet-bulb temperatures are 25 degrees
centigrade or below in inspector’s opinion the manufacturing process carried on in the workroom of a factory
permits thermal environments with relative humidity of 50% or more, the Inspector may serve on the manager
of the factory an order to have sufficient supply of outside air for ventilation cooled by passing it through water
sprays either by means of unit type of evaporative air coolers (desert coolers) or where supply of outside air is
provided by mechanical means through ducts in a plenum system, by means of central air washing plants.
Dilution ventilation
Dilution ventilation is often accomplished by using large exhaust fans in the walls or roof of a building or room.
Opening doors or windows can be used as dilution ventilation but this is not always a reliable method since air
movement is not controlled.
• Cooling fans (floor fans) are also sometimes used as a method of ventilation but these fans usually just blow
the contaminant around the work area without effectively controlling it.
• Dilution ventilation can be more effective if the exhaust fan is located close to exposed workers and the makeup
air is located behind the worker so that contaminated air is drawn away from the worker’s breathing zone.
• In cases where the source of contamination is widely scattered or is from a mobile source, like carbon monoxide
from a forklift, large wall or roof exhaust fans can be effective.
• Makeup air to replace the air exhausted is necessary for the best control. Simple openings in walls or doors can
be sources of makeup air, or a second fan can draw makeup air into the building or room. However, makeup
air may require heating in the winter resulting in increased heating bills.
Local exhaust ventilation

Local exhaust ventilation is needed when employees are exposed to high toxicity chemicals, when large amounts
of dusts or welding fumes are generated, or when increased heating costs from ventilation in cold weather are a
concern. Local exhaust ventilation operates on the principle that air moves from an area of high pressure to an area
of low pressure. A fan that draws or sucks air through the ventilation system creates the difference in low pressure.
Local exhaust systems are located as close as possible to the source of contamination to capture the contaminated
before it is released into the work area. A local exhaust system operates in the same manner as a household vacuum
cleaner. A local exhaust system has five basic elements:
• A hood or opening that captures the contaminant at the source.
• Ducts that transport the airborne chemicals through the system.
• An air-cleaning device (not always required) that removes the contaminant from the moving air in the
system.
• A fan that moves the air through the system and discharges (blows) it outdoors.
• An exhaust stack through which the contaminated air is discharged. As with dilution ventilation, makeup air
must be provided to replace the air exhausted in order for the system to operate properly.
4.5 Electrical Hazards

Electrical energy is the most commonly used form of energy. One cannot imagine life without electricity in modern
society. Using electricity is very simple, but little does one know about how electricity really works. Such a situation
is not good, because electricity is a good servant but a very bad master. It can cause instantaneous death, life long
disability due to severe burns or material loss.
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Industrial Safety
P-n
P-P
P-E
Phase to phase -p-p Phase to Neutral -p-n
Phase to Earth -p-e
Fig. 4.2 Basic electrical circuit diagram
It is therefore absolutely essential that one should know at least some of the basic principles of electricity, the hazards
in using it and what should be done to avoid exposure to the hazards.
4.5.1 Electrical Hazards Classification

Electrical hazards can broadly be classified into two main categories:
To living human beings
To property
Fig. 4.3 Categories of electrical hazards
Electric shock is the net effect of the direct passage of the current through a human body when it accidentally bridges
the gap between two potentially different points. Considering the extensively used 3 phase 4 wire distribution
systems, there exist 3 possibilities of potential difference in practice. The amount of current through the body can
be computed with the help of Ohms Law. In a simple equivalent circuit of an electrocution accident, current Lm
through the victim’s body is given by
74
r1
r2
v Im
rm
rs
Fig. 4.4 An electrocution accident circuit
Lm = amps
Where,
r2, r3 = contact resistances at the touch points
r1 = any other resistance in the circuit
rm = body resistance (for the given touch points)
v = potential difference
For a given potential difference of V volts, the severity of the electric shock depends upon:
• Magnitude of current
• Path of current
• Duration of current
The electric current passing through the human body affects the vital body systems such as the nervous system, the
respiratory system, the cardiac system, etc. The effects of progressively increasing current value are, in general as
given in table below.
Magnitude of current Effect

Upto 10 mA Tingling sensation
10 – 10 mA Pain is felt in the muscles
Pain increases, muscular contraction occurs, breathing becomes

30 – 80 mA
difficult
Uncontrolled spastic twitching of heart

100 – 200 mA
(ventricular fibrillation) disruption of blood flow death.
Above 200 mA instant stoppage of heart
Table 4.4 Effects of progressively increasing current
The body resistance rm is a function of various parameters including the path of the current. It also depends upon
magnitude and frequency of the voltage, wetness of the skin, surface area of contact, etc.
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Industrial Safety
4.5.2 Human Resistance to Current

Another hazard of electricity is the burning of the body tissues. This burning can be because of two reasons a)
Joule’s burns b) flashover burns. Whenever electric current passes through an electrical resistance, heat is generated
which is proportional to I2rt
Where I = current in amps
r = resistance of the path in ohms
t = time in seconds
Similarly, the current Im through the resistance rm of the man’s body causes heat generation and subsequent burning
of the tissues in the path. Such burning is likely to occur on the skin which has the maximum resistance. Those burns
may be deeper than may appear on clinical examination and hence the consequent healing is slow.
Body Area Resistance (ohms)

Dry skin 100,000 to 600,000
Wet skin 1,000
Internal body (hand to foot) 400 to 600
Ear to ear ~100
Table 4.5 Human resistance to electrical current
Flashover burns
• They are caused when the victim is in close proximity of a high current contact breaking, during which a severe
arc is established in the air in an attempt to maintain the high load current.
• Such burns are also caused when the earth accidentally goes close to the high voltage point setting up an arc
due to the ionisation of the air between the body and the live parts. The result of such an accident is the severe
burning of the body. The currents are too high to cause ventricular fibrillation.
• The victim generally does not actually touch the live point and hence falls away from the conductor. As he falls
away, the arc is extinguished and hence the time of passage is also quite brief.
• Nevertheless, the accident causes quite severe burns both due to the direct passage of current as well as
flashover.
Another category of electric hazards is the severe destruction of the property due to fires or explosions. We have
seen earlier that electric current result into the generation of heat proportional to I2rt. If this heat is not dissipated
properly or allowed to generate uncontrollably (by allowing I to increase), it can cause the arc heating of the medium,
surrounding and thereby result into fire.
4.5.3 Electrical Fire Hazard

The fire hazard is also eminent when sparking takes place. This can be due to:
• Loose contact
• Phase to phase, phase to earth faults
• Lightning strike
• Static electricity
• Sudden breaking of loading circuit causing an arc A tiny spark in a highly flammable atmosphere like diesel,
petrol or LPG installations may result in an explosion.
76
Isolators, load break switches, contactors, fuses, motors, transformers, cables, wires are the basic components of
an electrical system. Care has to be taken right at the design and manufacture stage so that all the live parts like
terminals, contacts are properly covered. The ratings of the electrical components are commensurate with the capacity
requirements, so that overheating does not take place.
• Insulations, varnishes, etc. are of required type and quality so that hazard due to insulation failure is avoided.
• Arc chutes provided on high rated contactors, load break switches, electro-mechanical interlocks provided on
isolators to avoid inadvertent operations on loaded circuits are some of examples of safety precautions during
the design and manufacture of basic components.
• Electrical systems are tailor made, economic considerations are always of prime importance to any system
designer but safety considerations cannot be compromised. Using small size cables, inferior quality starters
from initial cost point of view will make the installation unsafe for the operator as well as the motors will remain
poorly protected. Re-wireable fuses may be cheaper but cannot be used where short circuit level is more than
2KA. HRC (High Rupture Capacity) fuses and flameproof atmosphere must be used.
• Use of non-flameproof equipment either from economic considerations and due to ignorance or due to non-
availability will make the installation highly unsafe. A system planner also has to make sure that the equipment
layouts are properly made with enough space all around for a maintenance workman to have easy access.
Many installations become hazardous at a later date during operation and maintenance because they are poorly
conceived at the planning stage.
• An installation and commissioning engineer has a major role to play in making the installation safe for the
operating personnel and the equipment installed. He has to be well versed with the system being commissioned
by him. He should be experienced enough to plug loopholes left open inadvertently during planning decisions
and carry out minor modifications deemed necessary from the safety point of view.
• Poor workmanship, negligent approach can make an installation unsafe for operation and maintenance. Proper
cable joints and terminations, adequate earthing system, colour coding, barrier guards for the live parts,
establishment and checking of the required interlocks, insulation values, proper phase sequence are a few of
the important points which have to be carefully looked after during installation and commissioning.
• After commissioning, an electrical installation is handed over to the operation and maintenance personnel. At
this stage, the safety aspects of an installation are at stake. Much depends upon these personnel so far as safety
is concerned.
• The maintenance engineer must carefully inspect the installation while taking over. He must chalk out and
clearly explain (display in old letters at strategic places, if necessary), the operating instructions to the concerned
people. He must establish a preventive maintenance schedule and strictly adhere to it. He must establish a perfect
shutdown procedure. He must impress upon the mind of every person concerned, the importance of strictly
following up such schedules. This is all the more necessary because the maintenance workmen usually become
over confident due to the years of experience on similar jobs and tend to take shortcuts neglecting laid down
procedures. This certainly results into an accident at some point of time.

One must follow these safety instructions mentioned below to avoid any mishap.
• Maintain all the live parts inaccessible by using suitable barrier guards, interlocks etc.
• Before starting work on any installation, ensure that it is properly isolated from the mains and discharged
earth.
• Do not start the work unless you fully know about the work hazards involved and care required to be taken
while working.
• Use hand gloves, rubber mats, safety shoes while working (on HT)
• Use of proper size cables, fuses, switches protection equipment, etc. suitable for the load.
• In case of portable equipment ensure that lead wire is without taped joints and connections are permanently
made.
• Metal clad plug socket with proper earthling is used at the supply point.
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Industrial Safety
• Lead wire is properly protected to avoid damage.

• Use hand lamps with wire guards.
• Do not operate or fiddle with any electrical equipment which are not handled or used by you normally.
• Never deviate from the laid down procedures. Over confidence, shortcuts may prove to be dangerous.
• Report immediately any electrically hazardous situation noticed.
4.5.5 Electrical Equipment for Use in Hazardous Area

Flameproof or also known as explosion proof enclosure for electrical equipment are required to be installed in
hazardous locations where there is presence of flammable gas, because these ensure the safety of plant, equipment,
material and people working in hazardous industries. In most of countries their use is mandatory by enforcing
authorities like Electricity Boards, Explosive Departments, Factory Inspectorate, Medical health organization,
etc.
Hazardous locations
Oil and gas fields, on-shore and off-shore oil or gas installations, Petroleum refineries, Gas storage yards for
LPG, Fertiliser plants, Paints, Solvents, Vegetable/Coconut Oil extraction facilities, Varnish manufacturing plants,
pharmaceutical and Chemical industries, LPG installation, LPG filling Plants, Oil Storage depots such as for LDO,
HDO, LUBE, Petrol, Kerosene, etc., are some of the hazardous locations. The following are some of the known
types of recognised protection applicable to electrical equipment for application in hazardous locations.
Zone classification of hazardous location

IEC has classified hazardous locations into basic three zones, as zone 0, zone 1 and zone 2 which cover most hazardous
locations. India and the European countries follow this classification. Their brief definitions are as follows:
ZONE0: Atmosphere where explosive gas-air mixture is present for a long time continuously, e.g. confined spaces
of process vessels/tanks, storage tank containers and closed chambers.
ZONE1: Atmosphere where explosive gas-air mixture is likely to occur in normal operation at any time in a
permanent or semi permanent manner.
ZONE2: Atmosphere where explosive gas-air mixture is not likely to occur under normal operation and if it occurs,
it shall be for a very short interval under abnormal operating conditions only when control conditions fail.
4.6 Noise and Vibration

The incidence of noise-induced hearing loss can be reduced or eliminated through the successful application of
engineering controls and hearing conservation programs.
When hearing is lost because of noise exposure, it cannot be restored. By law, companies whose workers are
exposed to high noise levels must have an active program for protecting their employees’ hearing. This program
should contain provisions for identifying and evaluating high noise exposures, controlling and reducing noises in
the workplace and, when necessary, protecting workers to prevent hearing loss and monitor their hearing.
Noise induced hearing loss is a preventable condition when proper controls and protection are used. Towards that end,
the resources here are designed to provide guidance to workers and employers with occupational noise concerns.
4.6.1 Noise Magnitude

Noise is measured in units called “decibels”, abbreviated as “dB”. Noise levels can range from 1 dB (near silence)
to 60 dB (quiet conversation) to 140 dB (a jet engine). Scientific studies have shown that people exposed to noise
levels of 85 decibels and above over 8 hours or longer will gradually lose their hearing over time. If you have to
shout to be heard by another person 3 feet from you, the noise level is probably above 85 decibels. Noise levels
above 140 decibels will cause immediate hearing loss. But everyone should wear hearing protection all the time
78
when working around noise levels above 115 decibels. Here are some noise levels of commonly used equipment:
No. Equipment Noise Level

1 Back Hoe 85-95 decibels
2 Chain Saw 110 decibels
3 Front-end Loader 90-95 decibels
4 Gunshot 140 decibels
5 Jackhammer 112 decibels
6 Lawn Mower 90 decibels
7 Tractor 95-105 decibels
8 Circular Saw 90-100 decibels
Table 4.6 Noise levels of commonly used equipment
Noise is measured with a sound level meter. These instruments measure noise in decibels. A sound level meter
measures noise levels at a particular moment. There are also more sophisticated instruments that can measure
average noise levels over a whole day.
4.6.2 Hearing Loss Measurement

These hearing tests are also called “audiometric testing” or “audiometric exams.”
Audiometric testing
It checks how well you hear various sound pitches or frequencies and if there is a drop in your ability to hear these
pitches over time. Most people naturally show a slight decrease in the ability to hear high-pitched sound as they get
older. But people exposed to too much noise will typically show a great decrease in this ability..
• The most obvious way to protect your hearing is to avoid loud noise whenever possible. At the workplace,
reducing or eliminating the source of the noise is the best way. Obviously on some jobs that is impossible and
earplugs or earmuffs must be worn.
4.6.3 Engineering Noise Controls

For preservation of hearing, the primary tool is elimination of noise from the workplace through engineering controls.
The primary strategies for controlling noise are elimination at the source, absorption or blocking along the noise
path or isolation of the worker.
A database of engineering controls and methods that can be used to reduce noise levels in the workplace. Noise
levels of loud machines and equipment can be reduced in several ways. They are as follows:
• Buying quiet machinery and equipment
• Maintaining machinery and equipment routinely
• Reducing machinery and equipment vibration
• Muffling engine and compressed air noise
• Isolating the noise source in an insulated room or enclosure
• Placing a barrier between the noise source and the employee
• Isolating the employee from the source in an insulated booth or room.
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Industrial Safety
4.6.4 Noise Monitoring

Noise exposure levels must be measured wherever they may reasonably be expected to be above an eight hour time
weighted average of 85 dBA (Decibel A-weighted filter))
• Noise controls: It must be evaluated and implemented wherever employee exposures are at or above an eight
hour time weighted average of 90 dBA.
• Audiometric testing programme: all employees with an eight-hour time weighted exposure of 85 dBA or
above must be included in an audiometric testing programme. A baseline audiogram must be established within
the first six months of exposure and annual testing and evaluation must be done.
• Hearing protection: The employer must provide hearing protection for all employees who have an eight hour
time weighted exposure of 85 dBA or above, who have any continuous exposure at or above 115 dBA, or who
have an exposure to any impulse noise levels above 140 dB.
4.6.5 Statutory Requirements for Protection Against Noise at the Factory

In every factory, suitable engineering control or administrative measures shall be taken to ensure, so far as is reasonably
practicable, that no worker is exposed to sound levels exceeding the maximum permissible noise exposure levels.
Total time of exposure (continuous or a number

Sound Pressure Level in (dBA)
of short term exposures) per day, in hours
8 90
6 92
4 95
3 97
2 100
11/2 102
1 105
3/4 107
1/2 110
1/4 115
Table 4.7 Permissible exposure in cases of continuous noise
Notes:
1. No exposure in excess of 115 dBA is to be permitted.
2. For any period of exposure falling in between any figure and the next higher or lower figure as indicated in
column 1, the permissible sound pressure level is to be determined by extrapolation on a proportionate basis.
Peak sound pressure level in dB Permitted number of impulses or impact per day
140 100
135 315
130 1,000
125 3,160
120 10,000
Table 4.8 Permissible exposure levels of impulsive or impact noise
80
Note:
1. No exposure in excess of 140 dB peak sound pressure level is permitted.
2. For any peak sound pressure level falling in between any figure and the next higher or lower figure as indicated
in column 1 the permitted number of impulses or impacts per day is to be determined by extrapolation on a
proportionate basis.
3. Every worker employed in areas where the noise exceeds the maximum permissible exposure levels specified
shall be examined by a Certifying Surgeon within 14 days of his first employment and thereafter, shall be re-
examined at least once every 12 months.
4.7 Fire and Explosion

Industrial fires and explosions cause considerable damage to lives and property besides impeding productivity.
The key to prevention is a management plan with which fire hazards can be identified and controlled effectively. A
good plan should identify fire hazards in buildings, plants, processes, machinery and operating procedures before
outlining measures to minimise outbreak of fires. Every plant should also be equipped with adequate hardware and
trained personnel to detect fires quickly and to limit their spread. The plan should also incorporate procedures to
contain major emergencies and to bring back production to normal with minimum delay.
• Accidental fires and explosions in industry inflict the largest damage to lives and property. Annually, about
25,000 persons die in India due to domestic and industrial fires which are also a major cause of fatal accidents
in factories. The insurance industry paid about Rs.900 crores on account of fire claims in the year 2002-2003.
• Dust explosions are possible whenever the process produces combustible dusts. To produce a conflagration,
the dust must have a sufficient surface area ratio to weight to sustain rapid oxidation to create and sustain an
explosion. When a dust can sustain an explosion, the dust concentration must be within the explosive limits.
• These are often defined as L.E.L. (Lower explosive limit). Below this level of concentration, an explosion will
not occur and propagate itself. There is not enough concentration of fuel to allow the flame front to grow. A
typical range of values would be 20-30 grains/cubic foot. U.E.L. (Upper explosive limit). Above this limit, the
concentration of dust is so high that there is insufficient oxygen to oxidise the fuel and the unburned fuel stops
the spread of the flame front.
• Ignition of the dust depends on several factors:
Chemical composition.
Shape and fineness
Dust distribution in the gas stream or atmosphere
Concentration of oxygen in the gas stream
Initial temperature and pressure of the gas
Energy level available to detonate the explosion.
• The intensity of the explosion is dependent on the rate of pressure rise and maximum pressure developed.
Eliminate ignition sources
- One source of ignition is sparks, often produced in the hoods venting processing machines.
- Sometimes the machinery can be modified to prevent spark generation. Another method is to install
spark suppressors prior to the dust-laden gas entering a dust collector. For sparks to be carried along to
the collector, the flow must be laminar flow.
- Most dust collection ductwork is deliberately designed to operate with laminar (smooth) flow to reduce
pressure drop, but laminar flow produces a system that is an excellent vehicle to send sparks into a dust
collector.
- Recently, some excellent designs have been offered that turn laminar flow into turbulent flow for very
short distances then revert back to laminar flow. These devices require pressure drops of less than one-
inch water column and are easily installed. An automatic self-cleaning device for these suppressors is
available.
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Industrial Safety
4.7.1 Basic Principles

The fundamental approach, governing fire safety attempts to ensure that fires do not at all start in the first place and
should they occur, to restrain their spread by quick detection and extinguishment. Industrial processes afford numerous
opportunities for combustible materials and energy sources to come together, either by design or accidentally. Ignition
would occur if a material at its flash point contacts a heat source of sufficient energy and temperature. In practice,
the potential sources of ignition are kept under surveillance to prevent ignition and the storage, processing handling
of combustibles is regulated to minimise exposure to ignition. Sometimes the third ingredient for fire, namely air
or oxygen is kept away to ensure that processes are carried out well outside the flammable range. Fire safety can
be achieved only by effectively regulating both the ignition sources as well as exposure of combustibles. In fact,
inadequate emphasis on materials control has been the dominant cause of fire spread and large losses.
4.7.2 Controlling Sources of Ignition

The common sources of ignition are smoking and matches, heating and cooking, electricity, open flames and sparks,
heat from friction and spontaneous combustion. Arson is emerging as a major cause of fire in many countries. A
number of proven methods are available to regulate the ignition sources. These include enforcement of no smoking
regulations, selection and use of appropriate flame proof electrical equipment, provision of lightning arrestors,
measures to prevent accumulation of static charges, control of welding and other hot-work by issue of proper permits,
regulation of contractor’s work process control instrumentation to prevent overheating, proper lubrication procedures,
etc. A number of national standards and codes of recommended practice are available on the above subject, specific
to individual industries and operations. These, along with specific provisions under the various legislations such as
the Factories Act, provide enough information.
4.7.3 Prevention of Spread of Fire

Following are the steps to prevent fire spread:
• Building and services
Most fires start in a small way and their spread in horizontal or vertical direction can be minimised if buildings
and facilities are properly designed and laid out. Failure to ensure this escalates costs if fire protection,
facilitates spread of fire and renders fire fighting a difficult task.
Buildings should be of non-combustible construction and sub-divided into compartments of limited size
through fire resistant walls and floors. Fire resistant doors should cover openings in walls, while those in
ceilings should be closed to prevent fire penetration.
Exposed steelwork used in structures such as columns, trusses, vessel support and pipe racks cannot
withstand high temperatures developed during a fire and can collapse. To prevent this, steelwork should be
fire protected by enclosing in brickwork or by fire resistant coating.
The building design should also facilitate safe evacuation of occupants and should conform to the various
fire safety recommendations of the National Building Code as well as the Factories Act.
Building services such as electrical distribution, air handling and conditioning systems, gas and other services
should be so laid out as to prevent fire spread. Some of the specific measures include use of non-combustible
linings and false ceilings, provision of fire dampers and use of fire stops in cable ducts.
• Layout spacing
Individual buildings should be laid out in such a way as to provide unimpeded access for fire brigade
equipment to every part of the plant. The gate openings, width of roads, open space around buildings,
vertical clearances under pipelines and services should be adequate for this purpose.
Storage areas and critical high value equipment should be segregated by distance from hazardous areas like
process areas, flare stacks and boiler houses. Underground storage of flammable liquids, provision of dykes
and embankments, adequate drainage facilities are other important considerations during layout.
82
• Control of combustible and flammable waste materials
The fire hazards of all materials used and processed in the plant should be studied and documented, safe
methods for their storage and handling made known to the employees. As far as possible, flammable liquids
should be handled in closed systems through pumps and piping. Handling them in open containers has been
the cause of several fires. The use of solvents, even in small quantities should be regulated.
The storage of flammable gases and liquids should be in well-ventilated rooms, limited to the minimum
required and in accordance with the rules of the explosives department. In general, materials should be
stored separately depending on their fire hazards. The loading and unloading operations of tankers and trucks
also need to be regulated and supervised. Safe procedures for the collection and disposal of waste should
be established and contractors’ employees also educated in such procedures.
• Fire detection
Despite the many precautions taken, fires do break out. Hence every factory should have established measures
to detect a fire and to attack it immediately. Automatic fire detection has many advantages such as speed
and reliability and is recommended for warehouses, control rooms / computer rooms and unoccupied areas
with high fire hazard.
Depending on the nature of the occupancy and the hazard, a variety of detection systems are available. They
are activated by one of the effects of fire such as temperature rise, smoke, flame or heat and can be coupled
to an alarm system which would provide visual and audible alarms at designated manned locations. They
can also be designed to automatically activate fire-extinguishing systems. The selection and installation of
fire detection systems should conform to the applicable national standards.
Extinguishing systems
Equipment for fire fighting should be chosen with care and suited to the task. Fires are classified depending on the
materials involved and appropriate extinguishing agents are also recommended.
Class Of fire Description Extinguishing Medium Indian Standard
Fires involving ordinary combustible Foam 934

materials, like wood, paper, textiles,
A Carbon dioxide 940
etc., where the cooling effect of water is
essential for the extinction of fires.
Dry chemical powder 6234
Fire in flammable liquids like oils, Foam 933

solvents, petroleum products, varnishes, Carbon dioxide 2878
B
paints, etc., where a blanketing effect is
essential. 2171,
Dry chemical powder
4308
Fires involving gaseous substances under Carbon dioxide 2878
pressure where it is necessary to dilute
C
the burning gas at a very fast rate within Dry Chemical 2171,
an inert gas or powder. powder 4308
Fires involving metals like magnesium,

aluminium, zinc, potassium, etc. where
2171,
D the burning metal is reactive to water Special dry powders
4861
and which requires special extinguishing
media or techniques.
Table 4.9 Fires classification and extinguishing media
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Industrial Safety
Types of fire extinguishers

Following are different types of fire extinguishers:
Stored pressure, cartridge operated, water pump tank, and soda-acid

These are suitable for Class A fires. Proper maintenance is essential and a schedule should be drawn up. The method
of operation for a stored pressure extinguisher is simply to squeeze the handle or turn a valve. The maintenance is
also simple: check air pressure and recharge the extinguisher as needed. For the cartridge type, the maintenance
consists of weighing the gas cartridge and adding water as required. To operate, turn upside down and bump. To
use the water pump tank type of extinguisher, simply operate the pump handle. For maintenance, one has only to
discharge the contents and refill with water annually or as needed. The soda-acid type must be turned upside down
to operate; it also requires annual recharging.
Foam type
Foam type of extinguishers will control Class A and Class B fires well, like soda acid, operate by turning upside
down and require annual recharging. The foam and water type extinguishers should not be used for fires involving
electrical equipment. However, they can be used in controlling flammable liquids such as gasoline, oil, paints, grease
and other Class B fires.
Carbon dioxide
Carbon Dioxide extinguishers are common. They are easy to operate, just pull the pin and squeeze the lever. For
maintenance, they must be weighed at least semi-annually. Many of these extinguishers will discharge with age.
They can be used on a Class C (electrical) fire. All electrical circuits should be switched off, if possible, before trying
to control this type of fire. A carbon dioxide extinguisher is also satisfactory for Class B fires such as gasoline, oil
and paint, and may be used on surface fires of the Class A type.
Chemical extinguishers
Chemical extinguishers are either cartridge operated or stored pressure. These are recommended for Class B and C
fires and may work on small surface Class A fires. The cartridge-operated extinguishers only require you to rupture
the cartridge, usually by squeezing the lever. The maintenance is a bit more difficult, requiring weighing of the gas
cartridge and checking the condition of the dry chemical. For the stored-pressure extinguishers, the operation is
the same as the CO2 extinguisher. Just pull the pin and squeeze the lever. The maintenance requires a check of the
pressure gauges and condition of the dry chemical.
• Every industry should have adequate supply of water for fire fighting. A well laid out hydrant system consisting
of storage facilities; pumps, valves and piping network will enable water to be applied in large quantities from
several locations. An adequate supply of hoses, nozzles and couplings is also required. An automatic sprinkler
or water spray system combines in itself the detection and extinguishing functions.
• In factories storing and using large amounts of flammable liquids and gases, sufficient supplies of foam compound,
facilities for preparing and applying foam solutions in required quantities should be provided as per standards.
Similarly, dry chemical extinguishers mounted on trolleys would prove helpful.
• Till recently, halogenated hydrocarbons were being using extensively, especially for electrical, electronic
appliances. Halons, though more effective than carbon dioxide, have demonstrated potential to interfere with the
ozone layer of the atmosphere. Because of this, the use of Halons is being restricted. Automatic fire protection
systems need a dependable power supply to work efficiently in an emergency. For this reason, alternative power
supplies such as diesel generators should be installed.
84
Summary
• Industrial maintenance usually refers to the repair and upkeep of the different types of equipment and machines
used in an industrial setting.
• The term ‘Housekeeping’ is described as the practice of keeping our place of work neat and clean. Its scope of
activities is very vast.
• Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions of hot and
cold.
• In any factory, the maximum wet-bulb temperature of air in a workroom at a height of 1.5 meters above the
floor level shall not exceed 30 degrees centigrade.
• The electric current passing through the human body affects the vital body systems such as the nervous system,
the respiratory system, the cardiac system, etc.
• Flashover burns are caused when the victim is in close proximity of a high current contact breaking, during
which a severe arc is established in the air in an attempt to maintain the high load current.
• The incidence of noise-induced hearing loss can be reduced or eliminated through the successful application of
engineering controls and hearing conservation programs.
• Noise is measured in units called “decibels”, abbreviated as “dB”. Noise levels can range from 1 dB (near
silence) to 60 dB (quiet conversation) to 140 dB (a jet engine).
References
• Subodh, 2011. Energy savings in Industrial lighting [video online]. Available at <http://www.dailymotion.com/
video/xc5hb3_energy-savings-in-industrial-lighti_school>. [Accessed on 4 May 2011].
• Sinha, R.K., 2006. Earth leakage currents and ELCBs [Online]. Available at <http://rksinha59.150m.com/
articles/elcb_files/elcb.htm>. [Accessed on 5 May 2011].
• kmwsa.gov.in, Safety practices [Online]. Available at <http://www.kmwsa.gov.in/o-m_manual/Chapter-19.
pdf>. [Accessed on 5 May 2011].
Recommended Reading
• Chastain, L., 2008. Industrial Mechanics and Maintenance, 3rd ed., Prentice Hall.
• Green, D. and Gosse, J.F., 2010. Industrial Maintenance, 3rd ed., Amer Technical Publication.
• Narayan, V., 2004. Effective Maintenance Management: Risk and Reliability Strategies for Optimizing
Performance, 1st ed., Industrial Press.
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Industrial Safety
Self Assessments
1. The term _______________ is described as the practice of maintaining our place of work neat and clean.
a. fire fighting
b. heat control
c. housekeeping
d. ventilation
2. Every factory shall be kept clean and free from effluvial arising from any drain, privy or other nuisances indicated
in Section no. ______________ of the Factory Act
a. 11
b. 12
c. 1
d. 10
3. ____________ is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions of hot and
cold.
a. Heat
b. Temperature
c. Electric
d. Ventilation
4. _______________ quality ventilation used primarily to provide fresh, heated or cooled air to buildings as part
of the heating, ventilating and air-conditioning system.
a. Outdoor air
b. Upper air
c. Lower air
d. Indoor air
5. _____________ ventilation which dilutes contaminated air in a whole building or room by blowing in clean
air and exhausting some dirty air.
a. Indoor
b. Outdoor
c. Dilution
d. Hard

1. Stored A. The maintenance is a bit more difficult, requiring weighing of the gas
Pressure cartridge and checking the condition of the dry chemical
2. Foam Type B. They are easy to operate, just pull the pin and squeeze the lever.
3. Carbon
C. should not be used for fires involving electrical equipment.
Dioxide
4. Chemical D. The method of operation for a stored pressure extinguisher is simply to
Extinguishers squeeze the handle or turn a valve.
a. 1-B, 2-A, 3-D, 4-C
b. 1-D, 2-C, 3-B, 4-A
c. 1-C, 2-D, 3-A, 4- B
d. 1-D, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C
86
7. Which of the statements is true?
a. Heat controls must be evaluated and implemented wherever employee exposures are at or above an eight
b. Audiometric Testing Programme must be evaluated and implemented wherever employee exposures are at
or above an eight hour time weighted average of 90 dBA.
c. Hearing protection must be evaluated and implemented wherever employee exposures are at or above an
eight hour time weighted average of 90 dBA.
d. Noise controls must be evaluated and implemented wherever employee exposures are at or above an eight

a. Individual buildings should be laid out in such a way as to provide unimpeded access for fire brigade
equipment to every part of the plant.
b. Individual buildings should not be laid out in such a way as to provide unimpeded access for fire brigade
c. Individual buildings should be laid out in such a way as to provide unimpeded access for electrical equipment
to every part of the plant.
d. Individual buildings should be laid out in such a way as to provide unimpeded access for temperature
9. All things must have appropriate area for storage and all things must be stored only in their appropriate areas
is known as __________________.
a. Seiso
b. Siketsu
c. Seitone
d. Shinseki
10. Which of the following unit represents Noise?

a. Ampere
b. Newton
c. Decibels
d. Calorie
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Industrial Safety
Chapter V
Safety in Chemical Industry
Aim
• explain the concept of safe plant operations
• describe work permit applications
• elaborate the essentials of the Permit-to-Work form
Objectives
• define working in confined spaces
• explain assessment of dow index
• highlight special process hazards
Learning outcome
• identify release of toxic substances
• enlist different forms of toxic materials
• understand engineering controls
88
5.1 Introduction
A chemical manufacturing process is described as inherently safer if it reduces or eliminates hazards associated
with materials and operations used in the process, and this reduction or elimination is permanent and an inseparable
part of the process technology. A hazard is defined as a physical or chemical characteristic that has the potential for
causing harm to people, the environment or property. The key to this definition is that the hazard is intrinsic to the
material or to its conditions of storage or use. For example, chlorine is toxic by inhalation; gasoline is flammable
and steam at 600 psig contains significant potential energy. These hazards are basic properties of the materials and
the conditions of usage and cannot be changed. An inherently safer process reduces or eliminates the hazard by
reducing the quantity of hazardous material or energy, or by completely eliminating the hazardous agent. A traditional
approach to managing the risk associated with a chemical process is by providing layers of protection between the
hazardous agent and the people, environment or property, which is potentially impacted.
5.2 Instructions for Safe Plant Operations

Plant operations verifying that the licensee has instituted effective management measures to provide for safe operation
of the facility during both routine and abnormal conditions, to recognise non-routine events affecting safety, utilise
an internal reporting system and to identify and execute corrective actions to return the plant to a safe and secure
condition after possible upsets.
Heading Details
Verifying that the licensee has implemented adequate measures for the protection
Chemical process of workers, the public and the environment from hazardous chemicals that could
safety adversely affect radiological safety or could be released from the processing of
licensed radioactive material.
Verifying that the licensee has implemented adequate controls to prevent accidents
Criticality safety
and fire, explosions with reference to the Factory Act.
Verifying that the licensee has implemented controls to ensure that fires would not
Fire protection
occur or would be limited with the safe handling and storage of hazardous materials.
They control and accounting, physical protection of special hazardous material,

Safeguards material
classified material and information security.
Radiological Radiation protection, environmental protection, waste management and
controls transportation.
Environmental Verifying that the licensee has established and implemented a programme that
protection effectively protects the environment by measuring and controlling releases.
Verifying that the licensee has established and implemented an effective programme
Waste management
for hazardous waste management.
Maintenance and Verifying that the licensee has established and implemented effective programmes
Surveillance for both corrective and preventive maintenance, configuration management and
surveillance testing activities, that cover all items relied on for safety and safeguards.
Verifying the qualification and training of personnel relied on to perform functions

Training
necessary for adequate safety and safeguards.
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Industrial Safety
Verifying that the licensee has established and implemented an effective emergency
Emergency
management programme to protect the workers, public and the environment in the
preparedness
event of reasonably postulated events that could threaten the facility.
Verifying the qualification and training of personnel relied on to perform functions

Training
necessary for adequate safety and safeguards.
Verifying that the licensee has established and implemented an effective emergency
Emergency
management programme to protect the workers, public and the environment in the
preparedness
event of reasonably postulated events that could threaten the facility.
Table 5.1 Instructions for safe plant operations
5.3 Work Permit Applications - Control Precautions

A permit-to-work system is a formal written system used to control certain types of work that are potentially
hazardous. A permit-to-work is a document, which specifies the work to be done and the precautions to be taken.
Permit-to-work form is an essential part of a safe system of work for much of the maintenance activities. They
allow work to start only after safe procedures have been defined and they provide a clear record that all foreseeable
hazards have been considered.
A permit is needed when maintenance work can only be carried out if normal safeguards are dropped or when new
hazards are introduced by the work. Examples are entry into vessels, hot work and pipeline breaking.
5.3.1 Work Permit System Requirements

An HSE survey showed that a third of all accidents in the chemical industry were maintenance-related, the largest
single cause being a lack of or deficiency in, permit-to-work systems. In a study of small and medium-sized chemical
factories, two-thirds of the companies were not checking systems adequately and two-thirds of permits did not
adequately identify potential hazards; nearly half dealt poorly with the isolation of the plant, electrical equipment,
etc; a third of the permits were unclear on what personal protective clothing was needed; a quarter of permits did
not deal adequately with formal hand-back of plant once maintenance work had been completed;
It has been noticed that in many cases, little thought had been given to permit form design. While aimed primarily
at the chemical industry, the guidance given here may have application in other industries.
5.3.2 Work Permit System - Responsibility of the Worker

Don’t assume that your system is a good one just because you have not yet had a serious accident. You should
critically review your system and ask yourself the following questions.
Information
• Is the permit-to-work system fully documented, lying down?
• How the system works?
• The jobs it is to be used for.
• The responsibilities and training of those involved.
• How should its operation be checked?
• Is there clear identification of who may authorise particular jobs (and any limits to their authority)?
• Is there clear identification of who is responsible for specifying the necessary precautions (e.g. isolation,
emergency arrangements, etc.)?
• Is the permit form clearly laid out?
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• Does it avoid statements or questions, which could be ambiguous or misleading?
• Is it designed to allow for use in unusual circumstances?
• Does it cover contractors?
5.3.3 Work Permit System - Selection and Training

Are those who are issued permits sufficiently knowledgeable concerning the hazards and precautions associated
with the plant and proposed work? Do they have the imagination and experience to ask enough ‘what if’ questions
to enable them to identify all potential hazards? Do staff and contractors fully understand the importance of the
permit-to-work system and are they trained in its use?
Description of work
The permit should clearly identify the work to be done and the associated hazards. Prepare plans and diagrams that
can be used to assist in the description of the work to be done, its location and limitations. Is the plant adequately
identified, e.g. by discrete numbers or tags to assist issuers and users in correctly taking out and following permits.
Detailed work method statement should be given for more complicated tasks.
5.3.4 Essentials of the Permit-to-Work Form

The permit-to-work form must help communication between the parties involved. The company issuing the permit,
taking into account dividable site conditions and requirements, should design it.
Separate permit forms may be required for different tasks, such as hot work and entry into confined spaces, so
that sufficient emphasis can be given to the particular hazards present and the precautions required. The essential
elements of a permit - to - work form are listed as under:
• Permit title
• Permit number: Reference to other relevant permits or isolation certificates.
• Job locations
• Plant identification
• Description of work to be done and its limitations
• Hazard identification: It includes residual hazards and hazards introduced by the work
• Necessary precautions: Person(s) who carry out precautions, e.g. isolations, should ensure that precautions
have been taken.
• Protective equipment
• Authorisation: Signature confirming that isolations have been made and precautions taken, except where these
can only be taken during the work. Date and time duration of permit.
• Acceptance: Signature confirming, understanding the work to be done, hazards involved and precautions required.
Also confirming permit information has been explained to all workers involved.
• Extension and shift handover procedures: Signatures confirming checks made that plant remains safe to be
worked upon and new acceptors and workers made fully aware of hazards and precautions.
• Hand back: It should be signed by acceptor certifying work completed, signed by issuer certifying work completed
and plant ready for testing and re-commissioning.
• Cancellation: Certifying work tested and plant satisfactorily re-commissioned (Signatures names must be
legible).
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Industrial Safety
Generally in chemical industry, hot work like welding soldering, melting of coal tar, breezing, power-drilling, cutting,
etc. generate sparks or heat that can cause initiation of fire due to a flammable solvent fume environment and hot
work operations. To avoid such complicated situation, certification of the safety officer or manager is necessary for
the assessment of the hidden risk and safe instructions to avoid probable accidents due to unsafe conditions.
• Mechanical work, particularly hot work has been a source of fires and explosions in petroleum refineries. In an
effort to establish control over operations using open flames or producing sparks or entry into closed vessels,
it is necessary to institute the hot work permit system. The system, by definition, requires that authorisation be
secured before equipment capable of igniting combustible materials is handled outside areas normally specified
for its use. The work permit system has to be followed to ensure that equipment or areas have been made safe
for employees who are required to work in or around the equipment or area, and to fix the responsibility for
the person who is accountable for authorising the work and for the person who is carrying out the work, so that
the work will be carried out safely.
• In a LPG bottling plant, hot work is normally avoided and is carried out when the unit is shut down and made
gas free. The manager and safety officer of the chemical plant issues the permit only after clearance from higher
authority. This is the importance it deserves and is given. For example, even for jobs in the vicinity of an LPG
bottling plant, all above precautions are to be followed.
• The permit system or a form of licensing and documentation in writing, is a convenient method for preparing
a basic standard procedure for spelling out the task to the personnel and equipment involved, method to be
used at the location of the task, precautions to be taken and the time required for the completion of operation.
The permit system offers one of the best methods, to make difficult operations safe to perform and have been
developed as the most satisfactory method for ensuring the proper control and safe performance of repeated
operations that are proved hazardous.
The permit system provides written information and instructions on hazards which are to be avoided in the
operation
Ensures that proper task and preparations are made prior to starting the work
Restrict the performance of work to adequately trained personnel
Ensure the personal notification of all concerned parties prior to the start of work, clarifies the responsibility
for the operation
Provides a written record of operation and emphasises the responsibility for safety to all persons who sign
the permit and supervise the operation
Provides an unusual degree of control of operation to be performed
• Hazardous operation permit includes, jobs involving welding, cutting and open flame, vessel and closed space
entry, disposal operations, testing permits, execution permit working on heights, line briefing, hazardous work
area permits, acid area work permit, flammable area work permit, special hazard permit, toxic material permit,
match or lighter permit equipment operating permit, material handling permit, sprinkler valve closing permit,
etc. The work permit system is the best means of controlling hazards.
5.3.5 Working in Confined Spaces

Working in confined spaces is covered under The Factory Act. It has been defined as confined space meaning any
space by reason of its construction as well as in relation to the nature of the work carried therein and where hazards
to the persons entering into or working inside exist or are likely to develop during duration of work. Certification
for entry into confined spaces likely to contain dangerous fumes; that a space shall not be certified under section
36(3) of the Factory Act unless,
• effective steps have been taken to prevent any ingress of dangerous fumes
• any sludge or other deposit liable to give off dangerous fumes has been removed and the space contains no other
material liable to give off dangerous fumes
• the space has been adequately ventilated and tested for dangerous fumes and has a supply of air adequate for
respiration
Provided that no account shall be taken for the purposes of clause (b) of this sub-rule of any deposit or other material
liable to give off dangerous fumes in significant quantities only.
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5.4 Assessment of Dow Index
Risk analysis in chemical process industries is an elaborate exercise involving several steps from preliminary hazard
identification to the development of credible accident scenarios, to preparation of strategies for prevention or control
of damage. All this requires substantial inputs of time and money. In order to get an approximate yet workable
assessment of risk at much lesser costs indices have been developed which link typical findings of elaborate risk
analysis to scales of risk. The scales, in turn provide workable measures of hazards, risks and safety. In the past,
indices have been reported for swift risk assessment-the noteworthy among them include Dow fire and explosion
index, explosion and toxicity index, IFAL index and mortality index.
5.4.1 Determination of Fire and Explosion Index F and Toxicity Index T

For each separate plant element which contains flammable or toxic substances, a fire and explosion index F and a
toxicity index T may be determined in a manner derived from the method for determining a fire and explosion index
developed by the Dow Chemical Company (United States).
The fire and explosion index F is calculated from:

F = MF x (1 + GPHtot) x (1+SPHtot), in which
MF = material factor = a measure for the potential energy of the dangerous substances present. (According to
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) data: see section 3);
GPHtot = general process hazards = a measure for the hazards = a measure for the hazards originating from the
specific installation (process conditions, nature and size of the installation: see section 5).
SPHtot = special process hazards= a measure for the hazards originating from the specific installation (process
conditions, nature and size of the installation: see section 5).
The toxicity index T is calculated from:
T= (1+GHPtot+BPGtot),
In which,
Th = toxicity factor (obtained from NFPA data)
Ts = supplement for MAC-value
For GPHtot and SPHtot = the same values apply as for the determination of the fire and explosion index.
For the determination of F and T, a form may be used where more than one dangerous substance occurs in one plant
element, a fire and explosion index F and a toxicity index T must be determined – when desired with the help of
the form- for each substance.
When determining the hazard category of the plant element, the highest values found for F or T respectively is
applied. Substances which occur in a concentration of less than 5 per cent (weight percentage for liquids and solids,
volume percentage for gases) need not be considered here.
5.4.2 Determination of the Material Factor (MF)

The starting-point for the calculation of the fire and explosion index is the material factor. This factor is a measure
of the energy potential of the most hazardous material or mixture of materials, present. A number from 0 to 40, with
the higher numbers indicating greater energy available, denotes the material factor.
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Industrial Safety
Name:
Date:
Location: Job number:
Plan Unit Charge**
MATERIALS AND PROCESS*
Materials Solvents
Material factor MF
General Process Hazards (GPH) 4 Penalty Penalty used

Exothermic reactions 4.1
Endothermic reactions 4.2 0.20
Material handling and transfer 4.3
Process units within a building 4.4
Add: GPHtot
(1 +SPHtot) x sub- factor = fire and explosion index F
Special Process Hazards (SPH) 5
Process temperature (use highest penalty only) 5.1
-Above flashpoint 0.25
-Above boiling point 0.60
-Above auto ignition 0.75
Low pressure (atmospheric/sub atmospheric) 5.2
-Hazard of peroxide formation 0.50
-Hydrogen collection systems 0.50
-Vacuum distillation at less than 0.67 bar abs. 0.75
Operation in or near flammable range 5.3
-Storage of flammable liquids and LPGs outdoors 0.50
-Reliance on instrumentation and N2 or air purging
0.75
to stay out of flammable range
-Always in flammable range 1.00
Operating pressure 5.4
Low temperature 5.5
-Between 0 and – 300C 0.30
-Below – 30 C
0
Quantity of flammable material 5.6

-In process
-In storage
Corrosion and erosion 5.7
Leakage joints and packing 5.8
Add: SPH
(1+SPHtot) x sub-factor = fire and explosion index F
Toxicity index T
T= (1+GHPtot+BPGtot) = Toxicity index T
* The term ‘process’ includes handling as well as storage.

** For a number of
process hazards the penalty to be used is fixed and can be taken
from the preceding column ‘penalty’
Table 5.2 Determination of fire and explosion index F, and toxicity index T
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5.4.3 Determination of General Process Hazards
Following are the usual hazards found in general process:
Exothermic reactions
A 0.20 penalty is required for combustion = the combustion of solid, liquid or gaseous fuel with air as in a furnace.
The following reactions require a 0.30 penalty
• Hydrogenation: The addition of hydrogenation to both sides of a double or triple bond is the use of hydrogen
under pressure and at a relatively high temperature.
• Hydrolysis: The reaction of a compound with water, such as the manufacture of sulphuric or phosphoric acids
from oxides.
• Alkylation’s: Addition of an alkyl group to a compound to form various organic compounds.
• Isomerisation: Rearrangement of the atoms in an organic molecule, such as a change from a straight chain to a
branched molecule or displacement of a double bond, hazards are dependent on the stability and the reactivity
of the chemicals involved and may in some cases require a penalty of 0.50.
• Sulfonation: Introduction of an SO3H radical into an organic molecule through reaction with H2SO4.
• Neutralisation: Reaction between an acid and a base, to produce salt and water.
The following require a 0.50 penalty

• Esterification: Reaction between an acid and an alcohol or unsaturated hydrocarbon moderate hazard, except
in cases where the acid is highly reactive or where the reacting substances are unstable which may lead to a
penalty of 0.75 or 1.25.
• Oxidation: It’s a combination of oxygen with some substances in which the reaction is controlled and does not
go to CO2 and H2O as in the case of combustion, where vigorous oxidising agents such as chlorates, nitric acid,
hypochloric acids and salts are used to increase the penalty to 1.00.
• Polymerisation: It occurs by joining together of molecules to form chains or other linkages. Heat must be
dissipated to keep the reaction under control.
• Condensation: It takes place by joining together of two or more organic molecules with the splitting of H2O,
HCl or other compound
The following requires a 1.00 penalty

• Halogenations: Introduction of halogen atoms (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine into an organic molecule.
This is both, a strongly exothermal and a corrosive process.
The following requires a 1.25 penalty

• Nitration: It involves the replacement of a hydrogen atom in a compound with a nitro group, very strong
exothermal reaction possibly with explosive byproducts. Temperature controls must be good, impurities can
act as catalysts for further oxidation or nitration, and rapid decomposition can occur.
Endothermic reactions
Endothermic reactions receive a 0.20 penalty. Examples of endothermic reactions are
• Calcinations: Heating of a material to remove moisture or other volatile material.
• Electrolysis: Separation of ions by means of electric current, there are hazards because of the presence of
flammable or highly reactive products.
• Pyrolysis or cracking: Thermal decomposition of large molecules by temperatures, pressures and a catalyst
regeneration of the catalyst by a separate combustion process can be dangerous. If a combustion process is used
as a source of energy for calcinations, pyrolysis or cracking, the penalty is doubled to 0.40.
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Industrial Safety
5.5 Handling and Transfer of Materials

The loading and unloading of dangerous materials especially with respect to the hazards involved in coupling
and uncoupling of transfer lines of road tankers, tank-cars and ships –penalty 0.50. Warehousing and yard storage
(excluding tank storage) of hazardous materials in drums, cylinders, transport tanks, etc. materials with process
(storage) temperature below the atmospheric boiling point –penalty 0.30. Materials with process (storage) temperature
below the atmospheric boiling point: penalty 0.30. Materials with process (storage) temperature above the atmospheric
boiling point: penalty 0.60.
The above penalties are applied because of possible exposure in handling and because of the potential fire hazard.
They are applied regardless of the quantity (for which a penalty is given elsewhere). Packaging, filling of drums,
sacks or boxes with dangerous materials use of centrifuges mixing of batches in open apparatus, more than one
reaction as the same apparatus: penalty 0.50.
5.6 Determination of Special Process Hazards

Following are the steps to determine special process hazards
5.6.1 Process Temperature

• Apply penalty of 0.25 when process or handling conditions are above flashpoint of material.
• Apply penalty of 0.60 when process or handling conditions are above atmospheric boiling point.
• Materials such as hexane and carbon disulphide have low auto ignition temperatures and can be ignited on hot
steam lines: penalty 0.75.
5.6.2 Low Pressure

No penalty is required for processes that operate at atmospheric or sub-atmospheric pressure, provided air leakage
into the system will not create a hazard. Example: Vacuum distillation of glycols.
• When air leakage into the system could create a hazard, apply a 0.50 penalty. Example: handling pyrophoric
materials, diolefins with hazard of peroxide formation and catalysed polymerisation.
• Hydrogen collection systems require a 0.50 penalty.
• Any vacuum distillation at less than 0.57 bar absolute should be penalised at 0.75 if air or contaminants leaking
into the system could create a hazard.
5.6.3 Operation in or Near Flammable Range

Storage of flammable material requires a penalty of 0.50 for outdoor tanks. If the gas air mixture in the vapour space
is generally in or near the flammable range.
• For processes that operate close to the flammable limits or where it is necessary to use instrumentation and or
nitrogen or air purging to stay outside the explosion limits, use a 0.75 penalty. Examples: Oxidation of toluene
to benzoic acid, dissolving of rubber direct oxidation in the ethylene oxide process.
• For processes that normally operate in the flammable range, use a 1.00 penalty. Examples: ethylene oxide
distillation and storage.
5.6.4 Operating Pressures

Operating pressures above atmospheric pressure require a penalty which will increase as the operating pressure
increases. The penalty to be applied is given in figure below.
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1.5
1.0
Penalty
0.5
2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 89
10 100 1000
Operationa pressure: bar (absolute)
Fig. 5.1 Penalty for operating pressure
The penalty Y may also be calculated with the formula Y = 0.435 log P, in which P is the absolute pressure at which
the relief valve is set expressed in bars. The penalty curve in figure above is for flammable and combustible liquids
and must be corrected for other materials as follows:
• For highly viscous materials such as tars, bitumen, heavy lubricating oil and asphalts, multiply the penalty by
0.7.
• For compressed gases, multiply the penalty by 1.2.
• For pressurised liquefied flammable gases, multiply the penalty by 1.3.
Penalties are not applicable to extrusion or moulding operations.
5.6.5 Low Temperature

• For processes that operate between 00C and –300C add 0.30.
• For processes that operate below –300C, add 0.50.
The purpose is to make allowance for presumed brittleness. Moreover in case of leakage, cold liquid will come into
contact with the relatively hot environment, which can cause considerable evaporation.
5.6.6 Quantity of Flammable Material in Process

To obtain penalty, multiply kilograms of material in process by heat of combustion expressed in Kj/kg in figure
below gives the appropriate penalty. The penalty Y may also be calculated with the formula,
Log Y = 0.305 log eQ=2.965 in which e = heat of combustion of the material in KJ/KG and Q = quantity of flammable
material in kg.
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Industrial Safety
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
Penalty
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.10
1 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 100
Energy in KJ X 109
Fig. 5.2 Penalty for quantity of energy present in flammable in process
Use quantity of material in largest process vessel or train of process vessels connected together, in so far as that
quantity can be released in its entirely because of an undesired event.
5.6.7 In Storage
For flammable substances in storage, the penalty to be used with respect to the quantity present in a tank is
determined in accordance with figure below. A distinction is made here between pressurised liquefied gas (curve
A) and flammable liquids (curve B).
The penalty Y may also be calculated with
Y= - 11.45
For pressurised liquefied gas (curve A) and curve B; flammable liquids (curve B)
Y= 6.4
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1.6
1.4
1.2
1
Penalty
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 2 3 5 7 10 20 30 50 70 100
Energy in kJ x 109
Fig. 5.3 Penalty for the quantity of energy present in the flammable material in storage
5.6.8 Loss of Material through Corrosion and Erosion

This hazard should be assessed for both internal and external corrosion. Some areas to consider are
• The influence of minor impurities in the process fluid on corrosion
• External corrosion from breakdown in paint and coatings
• Resistant linings (plastics, brick, etc.) liable to damage at seams, joints or pinholes.
Apply the following penalties,

• Corrosion rate less than 0.5 mm/year with risk of pitting or local erosion 0.10
• Corrosion rate over 0.5 mm/year and less than 1 mm/year 0.20
• Corrosion rate over 1 mm/year 0.50.
5.6.9 Leakage of Joints and Packing

Gaskets, sealing of joints or shafts and packing can be sources of leaks, particularly where thermal of pressure
cycling occurs. A penalty factor should be selected according to the design and materials chosen for these items,
as follows:
• Pump and gland seals likely to give some leakage of a minor nature 0.10
• Processes known to give regular leakage problems on pumps and flange joints 0.20
• Process fluids penetrating in nature, abrasive slurries which cause continuous sealing problems 0.40
• Sight glasses, bellows, assemblies and expansion joints 1.50
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5.6.10 Toxic Release

Hazardous substances are used in many workplaces today. Working people are discovering that they need to know
more about the health effects of chemicals, which they use or may be exposed to on the job. Textbooks, fact sheets
and material safety data sheets (MSDSs) provide important information, but they are often written in hard-to
understand technical language.
• The toxicity of a substance is its ability to cause harmful effects. These effects can strike a single cell, a group
of cells, an organ system or the entire body. A toxic effect may be visible damage or a decrease in performance
or function measurable only by a test. When a tiny amount of chemical is harmful, the chemical is considered
to be highly toxic.
• The toxicity of a substance depends on three factors:
its chemical structure
the extent to which the substance is absorbed by the body
the body’s ability to detoxify the substance (change it into less toxic substances) and eliminate it from the
body)
• The toxicity of a substance is the potential of that substance to cause harm, and is only one factor in determining
whether a hazard exists. The hazard of a chemical is the practical likelihood that the chemical will cause harm.
A chemical is determined to be a hazard depending on the following factors:
Toxicity: how much of the substance is required to cause harm, route of exposure: how the substance enters
your body
Dose: how much enters your body
Duration: the length of time you are exposed
Reaction and interaction: other substances you are exposed to at the same time
Sensitivity: how your body reacts to the substance compared to other people. Some chemicals are hazardous
because of the risk of fire or explosion. These are important dangers, but are considered to be safety rather
than toxic hazards. The factors of a toxic hazard are more fully explained below.
• The most important factor in toxicity is the chemical structure of a substance-what it is made of, what atoms
and molecules it contains and how they are arranged. Substances with similar structures often cause similar
health problems. However, slight differences in chemical structure can lead to large differences in the type of
health effect produced.
• For example, silica in one form (amorphous) has little effect on health and is allowed to be present in the
workplace at relatively high levels. After it is heated, however, it turns into another form of silica (crystalline)
that causes serious lung damage at levels 200 times lower than amorphous silica.
• Exposure normally occurs through inhalation, skin or eye contact and ingestion. In general, the greater the amount
of a substance that enters your body, the greater is the effect on your body. This connection between amount
and effect is called the “dose response relationship”. For example, organic solvents such as toluene, acetone,
and trichloroethylene all affect the brain in the same way, but to different degrees at different doses. The effects
of these solvents are similar to those that result from drinking alcoholic beverages. At a low dose, you may feel
nothing or a mild, sometimes pleasant (high) sensation. A larger dose may cause dizziness or headache. With
an even larger dose you may become drunk, pass out or even stop breathing.
• When you inhale a toxic chemical, the dose you receive depends on four factors:
The level (concentration) of chemical in the air
How hard (fast and deep) you are breathing, which depends on your degree of physical exertion
How much of the chemical that is inhaled stays in your lungs and is absorbed into your bloodstream
How long the exposure lasts.
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• It is safest to keep exposure to any toxic substance as low as possible. Since some chemicals are much more
toxic than others, it is necessary to keep exposure to some substances lower than others. The threshold level is
the lowest concentration that might produce a harmful effect. It is different for every chemical. The threshold
for one chemical may differ from person to person. If the concentration of a chemical in the air is kept well
below the threshold level, harmful effects probably will not occur. Levels above the threshold are “too much.”
However, this means only that there is a possibility that health effects might occur, not that such effects definitely
will occur.
5.6.10.1 Forms of Toxic Materials

Toxic materials can take various forms of solids, liquids, gases, vapours, dusts, fumes, fibres and mists. How a
substance gets into the body and what damage it causes depends on the form or the physical properties of the substance.
A toxic material may take different forms under varying conditions and each form may present a different type of
hazard. For example, lead solder in solid form is not dangerous because it is not likely to enter the body. Soldering,
however, turns the lead into liquid, which may spill or come into contact with skin. Concurrently, when the spilled
liquid becomes solid again, it may be in the form of solid particles viz. dust that may be inhaled or ingested and
absorbed. If lead is heated to a very high temperature such as when it is welded, a fume may be created; a fume
consists of very small particles that are extremely harmful as they are easily inhaled and absorbed. It is thus important
to know what form or forms a given substance takes in the workplace. A description of each of the forms follows:
• Solid: A solid is a material that retains its form, like stone. Most solids are generally not hazardous since they
are not likely to be absorbed into the body, unless present as small particles such as dust.
• Liquid: A liquid is a material that flows freely, like water. Many hazardous substances are in liquid form at
normal temperatures. Some liquids can damage the skin. Some pass through the skin and enter the body and
may or may not cause skin damage. Liquids may also evaporate (give off vapours), forming gases which can
be inhaled.
• Gas: A gas consists of individual chemical molecules dispersed in air, like oxygen, at normal temperature and
pressure. Some gases are flammable, explosive, and toxic. The presence of a gas may be difficult to detect if
it has no colour or odour and does not cause immediate irritation. Such gases, like carbon monoxide, may still
be very hazardous.
• Vapour: A vapour is the gas form of a substance that is primarily a liquid at normal pressure and temperature.
Most organic solvents evaporate and produce vapours. Vapours can be inhaled into the lungs, and in some cases
may irritate the eyes, skin or respiratory tract. Some are flammable, explosive and/or toxic. The term vapour
pressure or evaporation rate is used to indicate the tendency of different liquids to evaporate.
• Dust: A dust consists of small solid particles in the air. Dusts may be created when solids are pulverised or
ground, or when powder (settled dust) becomes airborne. Dusts may be hazardous because it can be inhaled into
the respiratory tract. Larger particles of dust are usually trapped in the nose and windpipe (trachea) where they
can be expelled, but smaller particles (respirable dust) can reach and may damage the lungs. Some, like lead
dust, may then enter the bloodstream through the lungs. Some organic dusts, such as grain dust, may explode
when they reach high concentrations in the air.
• Fume: A fume consists of very small, fine solid particles in the air which forms when solid chemicals (often
metals) are heated to very high temperatures, evaporate to vapour, and finally become solid again. The welding
or brazing of metal, for example, produces metal fumes. Fumes are hazardous because they are easily inhaled.
Many metal fumes can cause an illness called metal fume fever, consisting of fever, chills and aches like the flu.
Inhalation of other metal fumes, such as lead, can cause poisoning without causing metal fume fever.
• Fibre: A fibre is a solid particle whose length is at least three times its width. The degree of hazard depends
upon the size of the fibre. Smaller fibres such as asbestos, can lodge in the lungs and cause serious harm. Larger
fibres are trapped in the respiratory tract and are expelled without reaching the lungs.
• Mist: A mist consists of liquid particles of various sizes, which are produced by agitation or spraying of liquids.
Mists can be hazardous when they are inhaled or sprayed on the skin. The spraying of pesticides and the machining
of metals using metal working fluids are two situations where mists are commonly produced.
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5.6.10.2 Measuring and Monitoring of Toxic Chemicals Exposure

When toxic chemicals are present in the workplace, your exposure can be determined by measuring the concentration
of a given chemical in the air and the duration of exposure. This measurement is called air or environmental
monitoring or sampling and is usually done by industrial hygienists, using various types of instruments. The air is
collected from your breathing zone (the air around your nose and mouth) so that the concentrations measured will
accurately reflect the concentration you are inhaling. The exposure levels calculated from this monitoring can then
be compared to the Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) for that chemical.
5.7 Engineering Controls

Limiting exposure at the source is the preferred way to protect workers. The types of engineering controls, in order
of effectiveness, are:
• Substitution is using a less hazardous substance: But before choosing a substitute, carefully consider its
physical and health hazards. For example, mineral spirits (Stoddard Solvent) is less of a health hazard than
perchloroethylene for dry cleaning, but is more of a fire hazard and an air pollutant. Process or equipment
enclosure is the isolation of the source of exposure, often through.
• Automation: This completely eliminates the routine exposure of workers. For example, handling of radioactive
materials is often done by mechanical arms or robots. Local exhaust ventilation is a hood or air intake at or over
the source of exposure to capture or draw contaminated air from its source before it spreads into the room and
into your breathing zone. General or dilution ventilation is continual replacement and circulation of fresh air
sufficient to keep concentrations of toxic substances diluted below hazardous levels. Engineering controls are
usually the most effective way to protect all laboratory workers because they make changes at the source of the
hazards and don’t rely on the skill or vigilance of individuals. Engineering controls are often used along with
administrative measures and personal protective equipment.
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Summary
• A chemical manufacturing process is described as inherently safer if it reduces or eliminates hazards associated
with materials and operations used in the process.
• A permit-to-work system is a formal written system used to control certain types of work that are potentially
hazardous.
• The permit-to-work form must help communication between the parties involved. The company issuing the
permit, taking into account dividable site conditions and requirements, should design it.
• Risk analysis in chemical process industries is an elaborate exercise involving several steps from preliminary
hazard identification to the development of credible accident scenarios, to preparation of strategies for prevention
or control of damage.
• The starting-point for the calculation of the fire and explosion index is the material factor.
• Operating pressures above atmospheric pressure require a penalty which will increase as the operating pressure
increases.
• Gaskets, sealing of joints or shafts and packing can be sources of leaks, particularly where thermal of pressure
cycling occurs.
• When toxic chemicals are present in the workplace, your exposure can be determined by measuring the
concentration of a given chemical in the air and the duration of exposure.
References
• Dr. Jolla, L., Blink, 2010. Engineering Controls for Laboratory Safety [Online] Available at: <http://blink.ucsd.
edu/safety/research-lab/laboratory/engineering.html>. [Accessed 6 May 2011].
• Enlow, C., 2011. Safety Concerns in RC Model Workshop. [Video online] Available at: < http://www.ehow.com/
video_4412032_safety-concerns-rc-model-workshop.html>. [Accessed 6 May 2011].
• U.S.Chemical Safety Board, 2008. Anatomy of a Disaster. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.csb.gov/
videoroom/detail.aspx?VID=16>. [Accessed 6 May 2011].
Recommended Reading
• Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS)., 2003. Guidelines for Investigating Chemical Process Incidents,
2nd ed., Wiley-AIChE.
• Kharabanda, O.P. and Stallworthy, E.A., 1988. Safety in the Chemical Industry: Lessons from Major Disasters,
Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd.
• Alaimo, R.J., 2001. Handbook of Chemical Health and Safety, An American Chemical Society Publication.
103
Industrial Safety
Self Assessment
1. A ____________ manufacturing process is described as inherently safer if it reduces or eliminates hazards
associated with materials and operations used in the process.
a. physical
b. chemical
c. electrical
d. mechanical
2. A permit-to-work system is a formal written system used to control certain types of work that are potentially
________________.
a. hazardous
b. useful
c. safe
d. insecure
3. In a __________ bottling plant, hot work is normally avoided and is carried out when the unit is shut down
and made gas free.
a. fertilizer
b. petroleum
c. LPG
d. CNG
4. Introduction of halogen atoms (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine into an organic molecule requires a
____________ penalty.
a. 0.25
b. 0.50
c. 0.20
d. 1.00
5. _______________ mean heating of a material to remove moisture or other volatile material.

a. Calcinations
b. Electrolysis
c. Pyrolysis
d. Cracking
104
A. The reaction of a compound with water, such as the manufacture of sulphuric or phos-
1. Neutralisation
phoric acids from oxides.
B. Rearrangement of the atoms in an organic molecule, such as a change from a straight
chain to a branched molecule or displacement of a double bond, hazards are dependent
2. Sulfonation
on the stability and the reactivity of the chemicals involved and may in some cases re-
quire a penalty of 0.50.
3. Isomerisation C. Introduction of an SO3H radical into an organic molecule through reaction with H2SO4.
4. Hydrolysis D. Reaction between an acid and a base, to produce a salt and water.
a. 1-C, 2-A, 3-D, 4-B
b. 1-D, 2-C, 3-B, 4-A
c. 1-D-2-A, 3-B, 4-C
d. 1-B, 2-D, 3-A, 4-C

a. The substraction of hydrogenation to both sides of a double or triple bond is the use of hydrogen under
pressure and at a relatively high temperature.
b. The addition of hydrogenation to one side of a double or triple bond is the use of hydrogen under pressure
and at a relatively high temperature.
c. The addition of hydrogenation to both sides of a double or triple bond is the use of hydrogen under pressure
and at a relatively high temperature.
d. The addition of hydrogenation to both sides of a double or triple bond is the use of hydrogen under pressure
and at a relatively low temperature.
8. Joining together of two or more organic molecules with the splitting of H2O, HCL or other compound is known
as
a. condensation
b. polymerisation
c. oxidation
d. esterification
9. Separation of ions by means of electric current, there are hazards because of the presence of flammable or highly
reactive products is known as ___________.
a. calcinations
b. pyrolysis
c. nitration
d. electrolysis

a. The spraying of pesticides and the machining of metals using metal working fluids are two situations where
fibres are commonly produced.
b. The spraying of pesticides and the machining of metals using metal working fluids are two situations where
mists are commonly produced.
c. The spraying of pesticides and the machining of metals using metal working fluids are two situations where
fume are commonly produced.
d. The spraying of pesticides and the machining of metals using metal working fluids are two situations where
dusts are commonly produced. Due to a boom in retail sector. Component , competent, synergies, neuter
105
Industrial Safety
Chapter VI
Textile Industry Safety
Aim
• explain the operations of textile industry
• elucidate the hazards related to textile machine
• describe the process of viscose Rayon Yarn
Objectives
• define safety status in the textile industry
• discuss health and welfare in the textile industry
• analyse spinning weaving process
Learning outcome
• understand textile industry process flow chart
• recognise safety in textile industry
• explain the work environment in textile industry
106
6.1 Introduction
Hazards in the textile industry are varied and encompass many aspects, like hazards related to machinery, handling
of materials including chemicals, use of pressure vessels, fire hazards and overall working environment. Statistics
show that there were as many as 112.67 (includes 0.05 fatal) accidents for every 1000 employed in the textile industry
compared to 41.54 (includes 0.14 fatal) per 1000 employed in all industries put together during the year 1987.The
above fact presents a very poor picture of the health and safety status of the industry, which needs consideration.
6.2 Textiles Operations

The textile industry is comprised of a diverse, fragmented group of establishments that produce and process textile-
related products (fibre, yarn, fabric) for further processing into apparel, home furnishings and industrial goods. Textile
establishments receive and prepare fibres; transform fibres into yarn, thread or webbing; convert the yarn into fabric
or related products; and dye and finish these materials at various stages of production. The process of converting
raw fibre into finished apparel and no apparel textile products is complex; thus, most textile mills specialise.
• Little overlap occurs between knitting and weaving or among production of man-made, cotton and wool fabrics.
Textiles generally go through three to four stages of production that may include; yarn formation, fabric formation,
wet processing, textile fabrication. The flow diagram below shows some of these general steps in which fibres
are processed to manufacture textile goods.
• Generally cotton, silk and raw wool are used as raw material. Manmade staple fibre or filaments are also used
for special purposes. Texturising or fibre preparations followed by spinning, warping, slashing, weaving and
knitting are the most important steps in the Textile industry. The general process layout of the textile industry
and the safety requirements are discussed in detail.
Manmade Manmade
Rwa Wool, Cotton
Filament Fibers Staple Fibers
Fiber Preparation
Texturizing Yarn
Formation
Spinning
Warping
Fabric
Formation
Slashing
Carpet,
Knitting Weaving Knitting
Blanket,
Upholstery
Preparation Formation
Dyeing Printing
Wet
Finishing Processing
Cutting
Finished
Goods Sewing Fabrication
Fig. 6.1 Profile of a textile industry
107
Industrial Safety
• Machine related hazards: Based on studies carried out, it is learnt that unsafe conditions contribute to almost
half the total accidents occurring in a textile mill. It is therefore necessary to briefly review a few important
machines in each of the sections.
6.2.1 Spinning Preparatory and Spinning

In machine related hazards, there are a number of nip points which are left unguarded. These points could be identified
as the feed and calendar rollers of the blow-room machinery, carding machines, combers and drafting zones of all
the frames (draw, inter flyer and ring).
Mixer
Fine Cleaners
Pre-cleaner
to the
cards
to the
cards
Bale Opener
Fig. 6.2 Blow room machinery

(Source:http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://wastecotton.co.in/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/blow-
room.jpg&imgrefurl=http://wastecotton.co.in/types-of-waste-cotton-blow-room-carding-spinning.html&usg=__I-
OqVVok3r3uMKzGGJMUw7MDjmo=&h=418&w=870&sz=85&hl=en&start=18&zoom=1&tbnid=YIdJfyonQo
tAVM:&tbnh=70&tbnw=145&ei=Wy34Te3VNom8uwOT3vCIDA&itbs=1)
• Regarding blow room machinery, it has been argued that guards attempted at such points may hinder the work
process of the rollers. However, mesh covers with interlocks could be used.
Workers
Strippers
Wooden cover
Fancy
Comb plate
Uncarded wool
Fluted
wooden
Main cylinder
cylinder
Apron feed
Take in Under Wool

board slivers
Angle stripper Doffer Receiving
trough
Fig. 6.3 Carding machine
108
• The carding cylinders are provided with good covers but the need for carrying out the stripping operation in
every shift makes it necessary to work with the covers open, posing a severe hazard. This stripping operation
should necessarily be done by well-trained men, with reliable ropes on the stripping roller (The stripping roller
is thrown out if the ropes break during this operation).
• However, newer machines have a stripping attachment on them as an integral part. The access to the licker-
in from below while collecting dust and droppings could result in severe injuries. This should be guarded by
providing a hinged swing door; swinging back upwards and preventing contact while collecting dust.
Top nipper
Lap Top comb

Feed roller Detaching roller
Feed plate
Bottom
nipper
Cylinder
Fig. 6.4 Comber

(Source: http://www.sz-wholesaler.com/showpicture.asp?url=userimg/1068/1112sw1/metallic-wire-grinding-
device-tm-e-i-444.jpg)
• In the combers, there is enough scope to provide al least a hinged transparent sheet or such, so that no contact
with the rotating segment, the nipper or the gripper is possible. The comber and its segments rotate at a high
speed. Because of this high speed, the eye perceives the comber and segment as stationary. This perception
tempts the worker to access these rotating parts while cleaning.
Fig. 6.5 Drafting machine

(Source: http://www.sz-wholesaler.com/showpicture.asp?url=userimg/1068/1112sw1/fancy-yarn-machine-five-
roller-type-332.jpg)
• Drafting zones on the draw frame could be covered with total enclosures as are already available on some
machines. There is a need to ensure that these enclosures are well interlocked to stop the machine when the
enclosures are opened.
• Now, looking at the rotating beaters in the blow room, the three wire clothes cylinders, the licker-in, the cylinder
and the doffer of the carding machine and the comber segment of the comber - all of these could cause severe
accidents, if contacted while in motion. The beaters have been provided with good covers with a mechanical
interlock. This interlock should be maintained in order. Many times this is tampered with.
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Industrial Safety
Slubbing
‘Bobbins from
card
Delivery Rollers
Surface
drum Spindle on moving
carriage
Fig. 6.6 Mule spinning frame
Fig. 6.7 Flyer frame
• The flyer frames have the flyers rotating and give a free access to the hands and are likely to grab loose clothing.
The present designs of the machines have not come with covers or photoelectric devices to prevent access to the
flyers. However, there could be interference in operation with such devices and calls for detailed examination
in locating them on the machine at an appropriate place.
• Till such time, employing trained personnel on these machines is essential. Conventional ring frames have hazards
associated with the stopping of bobbins with the left hand index finger. This result in finger cut injuries, if the
bobbin involved has its metallic shields broken. Attempts are being made to eliminate this hazard by:
Frequent inspection and elimination of bobbins which have broken shields,
Use of tongs to grip the spindle (a very rare practice in india),
Provision of knee brake or the like,
Use of plastic bobbins have limitations if the yarn is subjected to steaming, as also its prohibitive initial
cost.
The new open-end spinning system with its limitations has eliminated two to three steps of the entire spinning
preparatory operation and therefore has significantly reduced the number of accidents.
110
6.2.2 Weaving Preparatory and Weaving
The conventional winding machines pose the hazard of trapping hands between the rotating drum and the cone or
cheese after each knotting. While no suitable preventive measures are coming up, employing skilled operators on
these machines is essential. Automatic winders like the cone winder and spooler have prevented the hand reaching
the vicinity of the rotating drums.
Servo
Drive
Optical
Encoder
End Position
Brushless
Sensor
Servo Motor
Home Position Sensor
Fig. 6.8 Spool winding machine

(Source: http://karnataka.inetgiant.in/addetails/spool-winding-machine-ahmedabad/3422786)
• In the warping machine (excepting the old versions), photoelectric devices have been provided in place of the
swing bar guards. Opinions differ as to the exact location or position of these photoelectric devices. The present
positioning of this device still leaves scope for access to the beam flanges. An acceptable positioning and multiple
photoelectric devices could eliminate this hazard. Working with sizing machines involves nip at the squeeze
rollers and drag rollers. Guards on drag rollers are essential in view of their accessibility.
Fig. 6.9 Warping machine

(Source: http://southindiamat.tradeindia.com/Exporters_Suppliers/Exporter9638.126843/Warping-Machine.html)
• The conventional looms are the highest contributors of both severe and frequent number of accidents in a loom
shed, because of the shuttle flights. The shuttle which flies from one end to the other on a loom could fly out of
its parts for varied reasons. A shuttle guard provided on the loom does not really prevent a shuttle from flying
out of the loom, but it only helps in arresting the shuttle’s tendency to lift upwards and shoot out to heights.
111
Industrial Safety
Fig. 6.10 Conventional loom
• Thus, to keep a check on the direction of the shuttle flying out, a shuttle guard is provided. These shuttle guards
are to be set over the race board so that while the crankshaft is between the bottom and back centre, the guard
does not leave a gap enough for the shuttle to fly out upwards. Observations and proper setting of looms at
frequent intervals will prevent the shuttle flying out. Shuttle flying is a frequent occurrence and could result in
severe injuries. This hazard is absent in the nonconventional shuttle less looms.
6.2.3 Processing and Finishing

In the shearing and cropping machine, the exposed rotating cutters could pose a hazard when accessed. These cutters
can be covered using transparent cover. Many of the machines in the process house generally have nip hazards. They
could be calendars, washers, printing machines, etc. Many of these nips could be guarded by means of nip bars. The
provision of audio signals to warn workers working near the calendars, drying ranges, stenters, etc. could help in
preventing entanglement and drag of inattentive operators along with the fabric in the process.
112
Fig. 6.11 Shearing machine
(Source: http://www.sarswatimachinetools.com/shearing-machine.html)
Fig. 6.12 Laser cutting machine
In the polymerising range, it is absolutely necessary to provide an interlocking device to ensure that the exhaust fans
are on before any fabric is fed into the chamber. This helps in preventing the volatile carrier accumulating which
could lead to an explosive situation. It would be far better to dry out the fabric outside the chamber to eliminate
most of the volatile solvent before the fabric enters the chamber. This reduces the quantum of the volatile solvent
available in the chamber.

6.2.4 Material Handling
A follow up of each operation in the textile industry would indicate that, starting from raw material to fabric, the
material handled is in various shapes and sizes. There are as much as thirty handlings, not considering the number
of times an empty container, roll or beam is handled. All these contribute to almost 10-15% of accidents in textile
mills.
113
Industrial Safety
Manual handling
Firstly wrong postures are adopted at every stage of such handling. The laps are held with hands stretched, cans shifted
by dragging, carrying of excess bobbins, dragging of baskets or boxes by ropes and so on. These handling methods
are to be critically examined and right postures adopted to prevent any excessive strain to the arms and back.
Mechanical handling
Coming to mechanical handling, it will be appreciated that the designs of many of the trolleys and trucks have been
crude. The equipment is sometimes heavy to move, the wheels and rollers are placed outside the platforms, allowing
for run over. The handles do not have holds to fasten when not in use, leaving scope for handles dropping on feet.
The trolleys do not have knuckle guards. All these have contributed to difficulties in the use of this equipment.
The common practice is that, trolleys and cards are overloaded even to the extent of obstructing onward vision
that should be avoided. The chain blocks on monorails and the other lifting equipment in use should be examined
periodically.
6.2.5 Handling of Chemicals

The processing of textiles generally involves dilute acids, alkalis and bleach liquors like chlorine and hydrogen
peroxide. Generally the concentration of the process liquid does not exceed safe concentration levels. However, the
bulk of the chemicals received are of higher concentration and precautions in respect of storing them in compatible
containers must be complied with. In case of chlorine, a better practice is to store the required minimum quantities
of it. Care also should be taken that proper equipment and systems are readily available to handle any emergencies
like leaks.
The outlets from storage vessels of acids and alkalis and the piping should resist corrosion. While nothing definite
has been established on the adverse health effects of finished dyestuffs, it is advisable that dyes are handled with
care while preparing liquors and pastes. The solvents used for printing which are highly volatile should be stored
away from process zones and the quantities brought in for use should be the minimum. The storage areas of the fuel
oil for boilers, etc. need to fulfil the statutory requirements as applicable to bulk storage. The supply of safety data
sheets in respect of the substances handled should be made available to the personnel handling them.
6.2.6 Use of Pressure Vessels

It is necessary to consider the sizing cylinders and to some extent calendars and drying range and pressure vessels.
Though the pressure ranges are not very significant, all tests and examinations are to be carried out to ensure their
safe performance. It is essential that the siphoning system on these cylinders is maintained well to deliver out the
water condensed and prevent any damage of these cylinders. It is also required to maintain the vacuum breakers
provided to prevent any cylinder collapse. All instrumentation and safety gadgets must be examined periodically
for their reliability.
6.2.7 Fire Hazards

• The warehouse where cotton bales are stacked should be well ventilated so that the hoop iron do not impart and
generate sparks as a source of ignition.
• Any broken glass panes on windows with their sharp edges form a prismatic effect converging sun rays on to
the cotton bales and could be a source of ignition.
• Use of naked flames for soldering and welding on the shop floor should be under permit and supervision.
• Lamps used to prevent lapping or warming up could ignite fibers accumulated over it and later setting them to
fly around will also be a source of ignition.
• Mechanical friction with the availability of dripping lubricating oil and loose fibers could initiate a fire.
• Oiling should be done after ensuring that the oil holes are clear and the oil is reaching the parts being lubricated.
The electrical panels, switchboards and other electrical equipment are also accumulated with dust and need
attention.
114
Processing of fibres likely to accumulate static charges should be carried out under effective grounding, bonding
and anti-static control to prevent accumulation of static charge. The Singeing machine should be invariably being
provided with a solenoid valve on the fuel line to arrest the fuel supply in the event of an electrical failure. This
prevents the stationary fabric undergoing singeing from being ignited. It is also desirable to store in isolation, freshly
dyed fabrics as they could ignite due to spontaneous ignition.
Fig. 6.13 Cotton contamination cleaning machine and metal detector

(Source: http://www.indiamart.com/vetal/products.html)
The cotton contamination cleaning machine is protected by metal detectors as a fire detection system in the textile
industry like detection of sparks, fire, smoke, flame, heat, metal, foreign material, etc. Spinning mills with activity
ranging from spinning, processing, texturising, etc. right from the blow room through the preparatory and spinning,
almost every machine is monitored.
Bale plucker
Dia. 350mm
MFC LVSAB
Dia. 300mm
Blow room
Quenching
Wall
Tank
Dustex LVSA/CVT3 LVSA/CVT3 Dustex
ASTA MPM-8 MPM-8 ASTA

Wall Dia. 300mm Dia. 300mm
Material Feeding Duct
Waste Diversion Duct Service Room Filter Plant
Fire Diversion Duct
Wall
Dia. 300mm
Dia. 560mm
Carding
Dia. 560mm
SPARK DETECTOR
SPARK DIVERTER
Fig. 6.14 Layout diagram showing sample installation
115
Industrial Safety
6.2.8 Work Environment

The work environment in a cotton textile industry is dusty. The total dust and the fiber dust (consisting of fiber less
than 15μ) are two aspects for consideration. The dusty sections of the mill are the blow room, carding, combing,
flyers, ring frame and to some extent, the winding section.
• In the blow room, heavy dust is accumulated in the cellar rooms or it is deposited on cyclone separators. In the
carding sections, many mills have adopted to have individual dust extraction devices or a centered extraction
system picking up dust from dust generating sources, like near the licker in the cylinder doffer, flats, etc. Exposure
to dust is severe while carrying out stripping operations and collection of licker in droppings. This has been
eliminated in the modern cards where stripping is an integral part and the cards are totally enclosed.
• Provision of dust extraction systems at the sources as above will help reduce the dusty atmosphere. It is desirable
to accumulate dust, etc. in dust bags and dispose them at suitable intervals. It is better to use vacuum cleaners
because any other method like blowing only displaces dust from one place to another and does not dispose it off.
The American Council of Government – Industrial Hygiene has prescribed a maximum permissible exposure
limit of total dust at 1 mg/m3 and cotton fiber dust (fibers with less than 15μυ length) at 0.2 mg/m for eight
hours work. Inhalation of cotton dust results in chest tightness, breathlessness and the like known as byssionosis
which is a notifiable disease under the Factories Act, 1948. This calls for measures such as pre-employment and
periodic medical examination. Such examinations could help in quick shifting of affected personnel to other
work areas for recovery from the adverse health effects. Apart from these, constant monitoring and adoption
of control measures is a must.
• Most mills in India have a total dust concentration exceeding 2 mg/m3 and therefore the incidence of byssionosis
is prevalent. Noise level measurements have indicated that the noise levels in the spinning sections varied from
95.5 to 1000 dB (A) while every type of loom including that of the Air Jet, the noise levels varied from 93.5 to
100 dB (A). The general method of contending such high levels of noise is at the source, path or at the receiver.
At source steps like arresting vibrations, reducing frictional noise by using friction bearings with continuous
lubrication to ring spindles and use of nylon gear wheels can be adopted.
• Acoustic enclosures for buffers are also under consideration for the use of soundabsorbing materials may not be
practicable as the high humidity and fibre fly would accumulate on such materials making it less effective. The
engineering control measures would be long drawn and need economic consideration. It is therefore suggested
that in the meantime, use of ear defenders such as ear muffs by personnel exposed to these high noise levels
must be ensured.
6.3 Manufacture of Viscose Rayon Yarn

Rayon was the first manufactured fiber. The term rayon was officially adopted by the textile industry. It is not
synthetic. It is made up of
• Main raw material: Wood pulp
• Auxiliary raw material: Sulphuric acid, Carbon disulphide, Caustic soda
Following are the steps of manufacturing viscose rayon yarn:
Steeping
Wood pulp in the form of sheets is soaked in caustic soda solution of about 18% strength to dissolve out soluble
impurities and to make alkali cellulose. The excess of alkali is removed by pressing the sheets in the steeping press.
Alkali cellulose contains about 30% alpha-cellulose and 15% caustic soda.
Shredding and ageing

The alkali cellulose is fed into the shredders, where it is shredded to a uniformly fibrous mass called crumbs. The
shredder is jacketed for hot and cold water circulation. During shredding, ageing of alkali cellulose takes place.
The shredding and ageing are carried out for about two hours. During shredding or ageing, oxidative degradation
of cellulose occurs and the Degree of Polymerisation (D.P.) falls from 800 to 350 approximately.
116
Xanthation
The aged alkali cellulose (a.c.) crumbs are fed into a slowly rotating vessel known as the churn. The required quantity
of liquid carbon disulphide (CS2) is added to it in this churn. The a.c. reacts with (CS2) and gets converted into a
soluble product called cellulose xanthate.
Dissolving and blending

The cellulose xanthate is then dissolved in caustic soda solution. The resultant solution is highly viscous and hence
is called viscose. It is then blended to get uniformity.
Ripening, filtration, de-aeration

The viscose is allowed to ripen at a low temperature in a special air-conditioned room known as Viscose Ripening
room (V.R.R.). During the ripening process, the viscose is filtered through pressure filters to remove solid impurities.
The filtration is effected in three stages. Subsequently, the filtered viscose is de-aerated to remove air bubbles.
Spinning
In the spinning department, the viscose pumped is converted into yarn on spinning machines. The viscose is metered
by a small gear pump, one for each spinning position. The viscose solution is pumped through spinnerettes having
very fine holes and the cellulose is regenerated by the reaction of viscose with sulphuric acid present in the spin
bath solution. During the process of regeneration, the filaments are stretched and also given a slight twist while they
enter the collection pot. The yarn is collected in the pot in the form of cake.
Spin bath
Spin bath is basically a solution of sulphuric acid, sodium sulphate and zinc sulphate and is meant for the coagulation
of viscose and regeneration of cellulose.
After treatment the yarn produced in the spinning department contains some free acid and other impurities. Therefore,
it undergoes a process of pressure washing after the treatment department, to remove these impurities. It is also
bleached and finished, and the finished yarn is dried in tunnel type dryers.
Drying
The drying operation takes several days in tunnel cake dryers. This enables uniform drying and also allows the
cakes to shrink sufficiently.
Care conditioning (humidification)

The dried cakes, still on the direr trucks, are stored in a conditioning room at 65% relative humidity. Under such
conditions, the yarn retains the specified moisture level.
Coning
The conditioned yarn, in the form of dried and finished cakes, is lubricated while it is converted into cones and
coning machines. It is then inspected, classified into different qualities and ultimately packed in wooden cases.
6.4 Hazards at Various Stages of Production: Mainly Chemical Hazards

A chemical hazard arises from contamination of an area with harmful or potentially harmful chemicals. Possible
sources of chemical hazards include chemicals used in construction and industry, pollution of the environment and
water supply, chemical spillages, industrial accidents, and the deliberate release of toxic materials.
Steeping
Caustic soda is used here and even though it is carried in pipelines and in the steeping press, the possibility of a
small piece of alkali cellulose entering into the eye of a worker while manually removing the alkaline sheets cannot
be ruled out. There is also a possibility of caustic solution getting sprayed when the sheets are being pressed. In
addition to the proper preventive maintenance, appropriate personal protective equipment like rubber and PVC hand
gloves, face shields, gum boots must be used to take care of the above hazard.
117
Industrial Safety
Shredding
There is no specific chemical hazard here, but the person going inside the shredder for cleaning or for maintenance
work must necessarily lock the electric switchgear in the ‘Off’ position and carry the key with him. This will ensure
that the shredder blades would not be started as long as the person is inside the shredder. While cleaning the shredder
or leftover alkaline cellulose pieces, PVC or rubber hand gloves, face shields, gum boots must be used.
Xanthation
Carbon disulphide (CS2) is used here and hence the hazards of fire and explosion are associated with this process.
As such, CS2 is not stored in this department known as the Churn Room but the required quantity thereof is taken in
measuring vessels only when required to be added in the Churn vessel. The measuring vessel is having an overflow
line, which is a return line and thus CS2 is always in closed vessels and pipelines. However, any miss-operation or
a leak would allow it to be exposed to the atmosphere and this may lead to a fire and explosion.
• There are two types of Churn
Dry churn
Wet churn, which is known as Simplex
• In case of the former, the cellulose xanthate, which is in the form of dry crumbs, is dumped into the dissolver
below wherein caustic soda solution is added to the xanthate. Of course, the churn is subjected to powerful local
exhaust to remove un-reacted CS2 before the xanthate is dumped into the dissolver. In this operation, little CS2
will come out in the atmosphere at the time of dumping of the xanthate. It is, therefore, absolutely essential to
provide powerful exhaust near the dumping hoppers as well as in the churn room.
• Efficient ventilation in the churn room is a must. In case of wet churn (simplex), caustic soda solution is added
to the xanthate only in simplex and the liquid solution is fed into the mixer below. This eliminates the possibility
of CS2 coming out, as there is no open dumping.
The electrical installation in the churn room must be flameproof. Smoking or carrying matches, lighters,
etc. is prohibited. In short, no source of spark or ignition is allowed in this area. A strict work permit system
for welding, gas cutting or any hot job in this area should be enforced. Adequate fire fighting arrangement
should be made. CO2 fire extinguishers, water hydrants and automatic water sprinklers should be provided
and installed in this room. Static electrical charge should also be taken care of by efficient earthing.
Dissolving and blending

No specific chemical hazard exists here. However, efficient ventilation should be provided and maintained in the
departments.
Ripening and filtration

Those engaged in changing the filter medium should wear PVC / rubber hand gloves, gum boots and face shields.
Spinning
During the regeneration process, Carbon disulphide and Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gases are evolved. Hence a
powerful local exhaust system has to be provided to exhaust all the gases that are released. Fresh air supply should
also be adequate. In short, it is very essential to provide and maintain an efficient ventilation system in spinning
halls. The Factories Act (amended in the year 1987) specifies the T.L.V. of CS2 and H2S each as 10 ppm.
• Spinners should be provided with personal protective equipment like PVC and rubber aprons and surgical hand
gloves as they have to handle the spin bath solution. Those working on pipelines carrying sulphuric acid or
viscose should wear full protective aprons.
• Apart from chemical hazards, there are some specific hazards in the spinning department. Glass gadgets and glass
funnels are likely to get cracked or broken any time during the process or while they are being handled. Funnels
also break while they are being set or removed. Thus they pose potential hazards for injuries – particularly hand
injury. Spinners receive minor injuries while removing waste from gadgets, if the latter are lightly cracked or
slightly chipped off.
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After Treatment (A.T.)
Chlorine is used in preparing the bleach solution. Hence the room where chlorine toners are kept or where the bleach
solution is prepared should be under an efficient exhaust arrangement.
• Availability of caustic soda solution or lime should be ensured to take care of any leakage of chlorine from
toners. Self-contained breathing apparatus should also be easily available to be used in such an emergency.
Sodium sulphide solution is used in de-sulphurisation of rayon yarn cakes.
• Being an alkaline material, the usual precautions while dealing with alkali should be taken. It can also cause
de-hairing. The A.T. department has a lot of material handling. Cake trucks and dryer trucks are moving in the
department all the while. Parking of these trucks in the department as well as movement thereof need special
attention.
• Truck men should have foot protection to avoid foot injuries particularly on toes by running trucks. They should
be particularly cautious when they have to pull (normally they push) the trucks, as a little mistake in judgment
might result into running of the truck wheels over their feet.
Coning
No chemical hazard exists here. However, the fine fluff that comes out during coning or doubling can ignite easily
if it comes in contact with some hot surface which may result due to friction of belts driving the spindles. CO2
or helon fire extinguishers will be more suitable for extinguishing fire, as they leave no residue after the fire is
extinguished.
Housekeeping
Housekeeping plays a very important role in productivity as well as accident prevention such as chemical factory
or any other. However, it attains more significance and importance in a chemical plant.
Fire Hazards
A potential fire hazard exists in the churn room in the main plant, in the carbon disulphide plant, in furnace oil storage
and charcoal or coal storage areas, besides pulp bales, godowns, etc. Water is a common fire-extinguishing agent
except for oil and electrical fires. The entire factory should be protected by an efficient fire hydrant installation. The
automatic water sprinkler system will be an added protection. Foam generating arrangement for oil storages and
halon spray arrangement for the Computer Centre, Power Generating Stations, etc. should be made.
6.5 Health and Welfare

Every occupation leads to some health hazards which arise due to the specific work and is termed as occupational
hazard. Following are some occupational health hazards of textile industry:
6.5.1 Carbon Disulphide

CS2 affects the nervous system. Prolonged exposure to CS2 causes vasculopathy, nephropathy and hypertension.
Hence, CS2 should be stored under water. It should be transferred by displacement with water. While transferring,
the two vessels involved in the operation should be electrically bonded and one should be earthed or both should be
independently earthed. No naked flames or any source of ignition should be allowed in the area where CS2 is used,
stored or handled. Spillage should be attended to immediately. Adequate personal protective equipment including
breathing apparatus should be provided and maintained in good condition.
First aid
Absorption: Remove clothing, wash with water. Shower thoroughly.
Eyes: Flush eyes with water for 15 minutes, hold eyelid open while washing.
Ingestion: Drink water, induce vomiting and give oxygen.
Inhalation: Remove the victim from contaminated area and give oxygen.
6.5.2 Hydrogen Sulphide

H2S causes Kerato conjunctivitis of the eyes. At higher concentration, the olfactory nerves become dead i.e. the
persons exposed to H2S cannot smell it.
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Industrial Safety
6.5.3 Chlorine
Chlorine is corrosive. It reacts with body moisture to form corrosive acid. Inhalation of chlorine can cause respiratory
injury ranging from irritation to death depending upon its concentration and duration of inhalation. Death occurs
due to pulmonary oedema.
• Avoid panic
• Refrain from coughing as far as possible.
• Avoid deep breathing.
• Keep the head high, as Cl2 seeks the lowest level.
• Withdraw from the contaminated area.
• Persons in the path of the gas should be warned or evacuated if necessary. They should move opposite to the
direction of the wind or in the direction perpendicular to the direction of the wind.
• Close all the doors and windows of the house and move to upper storey.
• Cover the face with a wet towel.
6.5.4 Mercury
In chronic mercury poisoning, digestive and nervous symptoms predominate. It usually starts insidiously, which
makes early detection of incipient poisoning difficult. The main target organ is the nervous system. Two main
clinical pictures are:
• Tremor reminiscent of that encountered in person suffering from multiple sclerosis.
• Parkinson’s with tremor at rest and reduces motor function.
6.6 Safety Performance Calculation

The safety status of an industry is calculated mathematically using statistics generated based on the number of
industrial accidents, number of lost days and hours due to injury, man-hours worked, man days lost due to lost
time injury and the average number of persons employed. The definitions of terminology used in calculating safety
indices are discussed below:
• The term ‘accident’ means an unintended occurrence arising out of and in the course of employment of a person
resulting in injury.
• Death: Fatality resulting from an accident.
• Disabling injury (Lost Time Injury): An injury causing disablement extending beyond the day of the shift on
which the accident occurred.
• Non-disabling injury: An injury, which requires only medical treatment, without causing any disablement whether
of temporary or permanent nature.
• Reportable disabling injury (reportable lost time injury): An injury causing death or disablement to an extent
as prescribed by the relevant statute.
• Days of disablement (lost time): In the case of disablement of a temporary nature, the number of days on which
the injured person was partially disabled as defined in g. In the case of death or disablement of a permanent
nature, whether it be partial or total disablement as defined in G and H, man-days lost means the charges in
days of earning capacity lost due to such permanent disability or death. In other cases, the day on which the
injury occurred or the day the injured person returned to work are not to be included as man-days lost; but all
intervening calendar days (including Sundays or days off, or days of plant shut down) are to be included. If after
resumption of work, the person injured is again disabled for any period arising out of the injury which caused
his earlier disablement, the period of such subsequent disablement is also to be included in the man-days lost.
• Partial disablement: This is of two types: disablement of a temporary nature which reduces the earning capacity
of an employed person in any employment in which he was engaged at the time of the accident resulting in the
disablement; and disablement of a permanent nature, which reduces his earning capacity in every employment
which he was capable of undertaking at the time.
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• Total disablement: Disablement, whether of a temporary or permanent nature, which incapacitates a workman for
all work which he was capable of performing at the time of the accident resulting in such disablement, provided
that permanent total disablement shall be deemed to result from every type of injury or from any combination
of injuries where the aggregate percentage of the loss of earning capacity amounts to one hundred percent.
• Man-hours worked: The total number of employee-hours worked by all employees working in the industrial
premises. It includes managerial, supervisory, professional, technical, clerical and other workers including the
contractors’ labour.
Computation of rates
Following are the methods to compute the rates:
•
Frequency rate: The frequency rate shall be calculated both for lost time injury and reportable lost time Injury
as follows
FA =

Fe =
Note1: If the injury does not cause loss of time in the period in which it occurs but in a subsequent period. The injury
should be included in the frequency rate of the period in which the loss of time begins.
Note 2: If an injury causes intermittent loss of time, it should only be included in the frequency rate once. That is
when the first loss time occurs.
Note 3: Since frequency rate Fe is based on the lost time injuries reportable to the statutory authorities, it may be
used only for official purposes only in all other cases.
Frequency rates’ FA should be used for comparison purposes.

• Severity rate: The severity rate shall be calculated from man-days lost, both of lost time injury and reportable
lost time injury as follows:
SA =

SB =
Note: Since severity rate SB is based on the lost time injury reportable to the statutory authorities, it should be only
used for official purposes. In all other cases, the severity rate SA should be used for comparison purposes.
• Incidence rate: Incidence rate is the ratio of the number of injuries to the number of persons during the period
under review. It is expressed as the number of injuries per 1000 persons employed. The incidence rate may be
calculated both for lost time injuries and reportable lost time injuries as follows:
Lost-time injury Incident rate =
Reportable lost-time =
Since reportable lost-time injury incidence rate is based on the lost time injuries reportable to the statutory authorities,
it should only be used for official purposes. In all other cases, the lost-time injury incidence rate should be used.
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Industrial Safety
Summary
• Hazards in the textile industry are varied and encompass many aspects, like hazards related to machinery, handling
of materials including chemicals, use of pressure vessels, fire hazards and overall working environment.
• The textile industry is comprised of a diverse, fragmented group of establishments that produce and process
textile-related products (fibre, yarn, fabric) for further processing into apparel, home furnishings and industrial
goods.
• The conventional winding machines pose the hazard of trapping hands between the rotating drum and the cone
or cheese after each knotting.
• In the shearing and cropping machine, the exposed rotating cutters could pose a hazard when accessed.
• The processing of textiles generally involves dilute acids, alkalis and bleach liquors like chlorine and hydrogen
peroxide.
• It is necessary to consider the sizing cylinders and to some extent calendars and drying range and pressure
vessels. Though the pressure ranges are not very significant, all tests and examinations are to be carried out to
ensure their safe performance.
• Processing of fibres likely to accumulate static charges should be carried out under effective grounding, bonding
and anti-static control to prevent accumulation of static charge.
• The work environment in a cotton textile industry is dusty. The total dust and the fiber dust (consisting of fiber
less than 15μ) are two aspects for consideration.
• A chemical hazard arises from contamination of an area with harmful or potentially harmful chemicals.
• Every occupation leads to some health hazards which arise due to the specific work and is termed as occupational
hazard.
• The safety status of an industry is calculated mathematically using statistics generated based on the number of
industrial accidents, number of lost days and hours due to injury, man-hours worked, man days lost due to lost
time injury and the average number of persons employed.
• Incidence rate is the ratio of the number of injuries to the number of persons during the period under review. It
is expressed as the number of injuries per 1000 persons employed.
• The severity rate shall be calculated from man-days lost, both of lost time injury and reportable lost time
injury.
References
• Swicofil AG Textile Services, 2010. Viscose Rayon [Online] Available at: <http://www.swicofil.com/viscose.
html>. [Accessed 10 May 2011].
• Millerstextile, 2009. Millers Textile Services Plant Video - Wapakoneta Ohio [Online video] Available at: <http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=WaSyT19lGVw>. [Accessed 10 May 2011].
• Markdcatlin, 2008. Textile Industry Working Conditions 1953 USA [Online video] Available at: <http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=kqEgKPmAJpU>. [Accessed 10 May 2011].
Recommended Reading
• Blell, E. G., 1993. A guide to safety in the textile industry (NC-OSHA industry guide), Division of Occupational
Safety and Health, N.C. Dept. of Labor.
• Song, G., 2011. Improving Comfort in Clothing (Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles), Woodhead
Publishing.
• Jayaraman, S., & Kiekens, P., & Grancaric, A. M., 2006. Intelligent Textiles for Personal Protection and Safety,
IOS Press.
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Self Assessment
1. The _______________ industry is comprised of a diverse, fragmented group of establishments that produce and
process textile-related products further processing into apparel, home furnishings and industrial goods.
a. cotton
b. cloth
c. textile
d. silk
2. The conventional ___________ machine poses the hazard of trapping hands between the rotating drum and the
cone or cheese after each knotting.
a. spinning
b. winding
c. weaving
d. dying
3. The processing of textiles generally involves dilute acids, ________and bleach liquors.
a. salts
b. concentrated acid
c. water
d. alkalis
4. The cotton contamination cleaning machine is protected by ____________ as a fire detection system in the
textile industry like detection of sparks, fire, smoke, flame, heat, metal, foreign material, etc.
a. metal detectors
b. metal
c. metal rod
d. metal equipments
5. ____________ exposure to Carbon disulphide (CS2) causes vasculopathy, nephropathy and hypertension.
a. Short
b. Prolonged
c. Often
d. Medium

A. Tremor reminiscent of that encountered in person suffering
1. Carbon Disulphide
from multiple sclerosis.
B. Can cause respiratory injury ranging from irritation to death

2. Hydrogen Sulphide
depending upon its concentration and duration of inhalation.
3. Chlorine C. Causes Kerato conjunctivitis of the eyes.
4. Mercury D. Causes vasculopathy, nephropathy and hypertension.

a. 1-C, 2-A, 3-B, 4-D
b. 1-B, 2-D, 3-A, 4-C
c. 1-D, 2-C, 3-B, 4-A
d. 1- D, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C
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Industrial Safety
7. For the manufacture of which item wood pulp, sulphuric acid, carbon disulphide and caustic soda are the raw
materials?
a. Silk
b. Synthetic cloth
c. Cotton cloth
d. Viscose rayon yarn
8. What is the another name for wet churn?

a. Simplex
b. Blending
c. Shredding
d. Steeping

a. In chronic chlorine poisoning, digestive and nervous symptoms predominate.
b. In chronic mercury poisoning, digestive and nervous symptoms predominate.
c. In chronic H2S poisoning, digestive and nervous symptoms predominate.
d. In chronic CS2 poisoning, digestive and nervous symptoms predominate.

a. CS2 causes Kerato conjunctivitis of the eyes.
b. H2S causes Kerato conjunctivitis of the eyes.
c. Acid causes Kerato conjunctivitis of the eyes.
d. Alkaline causes Kerato conjunctivitis of the eyes.
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Chapter VII
Engineering Industry Part I
Aim
• explain various manufacturing processes
• describe hot working foundry forging
• discuss the construction of floors
Objectives
• define cleanliness of indoor workplaces
• elaborate gangways and pouring aisles steps
• explain the maintenance and examination of exhaust plant
Learning outcome
• recognise protective equipment
• understand washing and bathing facilities
• identify hazard control
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Industrial Safety
7.1 Introduction
The iron and steel industry is hazard intensive. For ensuring the safety of operations and a healthy environment, a
well-planned approach, consistent efforts and continuous innovations are needed. It involves the need of unfailing
cooperation from the workers, managers and the unions to achieve the common goal of safety and health, both of
which are not negotiable. As the iron and steel industry is a heavy industry, it involves a whole range of processes
including chemical, metallurgical, mechanical, electrical, construction, road and rail traffic, material handling, earth
moving, nucleonic and many others.
Further, each of these processes has many inbuilt hazards, falling broadly into three categories:
Those that can be eliminated, e.g. Leakages of gases, dust in

motor houses, pollution through power plant chimneys, blazing of
coke ovens, narrow work spaces, etc.
Those that can be controlled, e.g. Noise level in pump houses

and turbine halls, heat level in cast houses, dust level in sintering
plants, gas concentration at working levels, etc.
Those against which protective measures need to be taken: i.e.

those that can neither be controlled nor eliminated, e.g. Liquid hot
metal (heat and glare), Noise in rolling mills, etc.
Fig. 7.1 Inbuilt hazards of an industry
7.2 Operations in the Foundry

The Factory Act describes safety and occupational health requirements vide schedule 27 of Factory Act. Provisions
of this schedule shall apply to all parts of factories where any of the following operations or processes are carried
out:
• The production of iron castings or, as the case may be, steel castings by casting in moulds made of sand, loam,
moulding composition or other mixture of materials or by shall moulding or by centrifugal casting and any
process incidental to such production;
• The production of non-ferrous castings by casting metal in moulds made of sand, loam, metal, moulding
composition or other material or mixture of materials, or by mouldings, die-casting (including pressure die-
casting), centrifugal casting or continuous casting and any process incidental to such production; and
• The melting and casting of non-ferrous metal for the production of ingots, billets, slabs or other similar products
and the stripping thereof but shall not apply with respect to:
any process with respect to the smelting and manufacture of lead and electric accumulators
any process for the purpose of printing works
any smelting process in which metal is obtained by a reducing operation or any process incidental to such
operation
the production of steel in the form of ingots
any process in the course of the manufacture of solder or any process incidental to such manufacture
the smelting and casting of lead or any lead-based alloy for the production of ingots, billets, slabs or other
similar products or the stripping thereof, or any process incidental to such melting, casting or stripping.
126
• A material shall not be used as a parting material if it is a material containing compounds of silicon calculated
as silica to an extent of more than 5 percent by weight of the dry material. Provided that this prohibition shall
not prevent the following being used as a parting material if the material does not contain an admixture of any
other silica:
Zirconium silicate (Zircon)
Calcined china clay
Calcined aluminous fireclay
Sillimanite
Calcined or fused alumina
Olivine
Natural sand
• Dust or other matter deposited from a fettling or blasting process shall not be used as a parting material or as a
constituent in a parting material. Arrangement and storage - For the purposes of promoting safety and cleanliness
in workrooms the following requirements shall be observed:
Moulding boxes, loam plates, ladles, patterns, pattern plates, frames, boards, box weights and other heavy
articles shall be so arranged and placed as to enable work to be carried on without unnecessary risk;
Suitable and conveniently accessible racks, bins or other receptacles shall be provided and used for the
storage of other gear and tools;
Where there is bulk storage of sand, fuel, metal scrap or other materials or residues, suitable bins, bunkers
or other receptacles shall be provided for the purpose of such storage.
• Construction of floors: Surface of the floors of indoor workplaces where the processes are carried out, other than
parts, which are of sand, shall be of hard material. No part of the floor of any such indoor workplace shall be of
sand except where it’s a necessity by reason of the work done. All parts of the surface of the floor of any such
indoor workplace which are of sand shall, so far as practicable, be maintained in an even and firm condition.
• Cleanliness of indoor workplaces: All accessible parts of the walls of every indoor workplace where the
processes are carried on and of everything affixed to those walls shall be effectively cleaned by a suitable
method to a height of not less than 4.2 meters from the floor at least once every fourteen months. A record of
the carrying out of every such effective cleaning in pursuance of this paragraph including the date (which shall
be not less than five months nor more than nine months after the last immediately preceding washing, cleaning
or other treatment). Effective cleaning by a suitable method shall be carried out at least once every working day
of all accessible parts of the floor of every indoor workplace in which the processes are carried on other than
parts which are of sand; and the parts which are of sand shall keep in good order.
7.3 Hot Working Foundry Manual

Operations involving molten metal include:
• A properly maintained working space for all persons employed on manual operations involving molten metal
with which they are liable to be splashed.
• Any operation involving the carrying by hand of a container holding molten metal shall be performed on a floor
all parts of which where any person walks while engaged in the operation shall be on the same level.
• Provided that, where necessary to enable the operation to be performed without undue risk, nothing in this
paragraph shall prevent the occasional or exceptional use of a working space on a different level from the
floor, being a space provided with a safe means of access from the floor for any person while engaged in the
operation.
7.3.1 Gangways and Pouring Aisles

It should have an even surface of hard material and shall, in particular, not be of sand or have on them more sand
than necessary to avoid risk of flying metal from accidental spillage. Gangways and pouring aisles shall be kept,
so far as reasonably practicable, free from obstruction. If not used for carrying molten metal, shall be at least 920
millimeters in width. If used for carrying molten metal shall be:
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Industrial Safety
• Where truck ladles are used exclusively, at least 600 millimeters wider than the overall width of the ladle;
• Where hand shanks are carried by not more than two men, at least 920 millimeters in width;
• Where hand shanks are carried by more than two men, at least 1.2 meters in width; and
• Where used for simultaneous travel in both directions by men carrying hand shanks, at least 1.8 meters in
width.
If molten metal is carried in hand ladles or bulk ladles by not more than two men per ladle, shall be at least 460
millimeters wide, but where any moulds alongside the aisle are more than 510 millimeters above the floor of the
aisle, the aisle shall be not less than 600 millimeters wide. If molten metal is carried in hand ladles or bulk ladles
by more than two men per ladle, shall be at least 760 millimeters wide. If molten metal is carried in crane, trolley
or truck ladles, shall be of a width adequate for the safe performance of the work.
7.3.2 Work near Cupolas and Furnaces

No person shall carry out any work within a distance of 4 meters from a vertical line passing through the delivery
end of any spout of a cupola or furnace, being a spout used for delivering molten metal or within a distance of 2.4
meters from a vertical line passing through the nearest part of any ladle which is in position at the end of such a
spout, except, in either case, where it is necessary for the proper use of maintenance of a cupola or furnace that
work should be carried out within that distance at such a time and under such conditions that there is no danger to
the person carrying it out from molten metal which is being obtained from the cupola or furnace or is in a ladle in
position at the end of the spout.
Spark Arrester
Charging
Charge Door
Floor
Upper tuyere
Handle to blast inlet
open and
close
tuyeres
Bottom plate
Lug for
raising door
Fig. 7.2 A modern cupola and cupolas at hermit industries in upper Gornal
(Source: http://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/OtherTrades/CraneFoundry/Moulding.htm)
7.3.3 Dust and Fumes

Open coal, coke or wood fires shall not be used for heating or drying ladles inside a workroom unless adequate
measures are taken to prevent, so far as practicable, fumes or other impurities from entering into or remaining in
the atmosphere of the workroom.
• No open coal, coke or wood fires shall be used for drying moulds except in circumstances in which the use of
such fires is unavoidable.
128
• Mould stoves, core stoves and annealing furnaces shall be so designed constructed, maintained and worked
as to prevent, so far as practicable, offensive or injurious fumes from entering into any workroom during any
period when a person is employed therein.
7.3.4 Knockout Operations

All knockout operations shall be carried out as under:
• In a separate part of the foundry suitably partitioned off, being a room or part in which, so far as reasonably
practicable, effective and suitable local exhaust ventilation and a high standard of general ventilation are
provided.
• In an area of the foundry in which, so far as is reasonably practicable, effective and suitable local exhaust
ventilation is provided, or where compliance with this requirement is not reasonably practicable, a high standard
of general ventilation is provided.
7.3.5 Dressing/Fettling Operations

All dressing or fettling operations shall be carried out:
• In a separate room or in a separate part of foundry suitably partitioned off; or
• In an area of the foundry set apart for the purpose; and shall, so far as reasonably practicable, be carried out with
effective and suitable local exhaust ventilation or other equally effective means of suppressing dust, operating
as near as possible to the point of origin of the dust.
7.3.6 Maintenance and Examination of Exhaust Plant

• All ventilation plants used for the purpose of extracting, suppressing or controlling dust or fumes shall be
properly maintained.
• All ventilating plants used for the purpose of extracting, suppressing or controlling dust or fumes shall be
examined and inspected once every week by a responsible person. The plant shall be thoroughly examined and
tested by a competent person at least once every year. Such examination report shall be entered in the approved
register by an inspector, which shall be available for inspection.
7.3.7 Protective Equipment

The occupier shall provide and maintain protective equipment specified for the protection of workers:
• Suitable gloves and other protection for the hands for workers engaged in handling any hot material likely to
cause damage to the hands by burns, scalding or scarring or in handling pig iron, rough castings or other articles
likely to cause damage to the hands by cuts or abrasions;
• Approved respirators for workers carrying out any operations creating a heavy dust concentration, which cannot
be dispelled quickly and effectively by the existing ventilation arrangements.
• Where appropriate, suitable screens shall be provided for protection against flying material (including splashes
of molten metal and sparks and chips thrown off in the course of any process).
• The occupier shall provide and maintain suitable accommodation for the storage and make adequate arrangements
for cleaning and maintaining of the protective equipment.
• Every person shall make full and proper use of the equipment provided for his protection in pursuance of safety
parameters.
7.3.8 Washing and Bathing Facilities

There shall be provided and maintained in clean state and good repair for the use of all workers employed in the
foundry
• A trough with impervious surface fitted with a waste pipe without plug, and of sufficient length to allow at least
60 centimeters for every 10 such persons employed at any one time and having a constant supply of clean water
from taps or jets above the trough at intervals of not more than 60 centimeters
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Industrial Safety
• At least one tap or stand pipe for every 10 such persons employed at any one time and having a constant supply
of clean water, the tap or stand pipe being spaced not less than 1.2 meters apart; and not less than one half of
the total number of washing places in the form of bathrooms.
• A sufficient supply of clean towels made of suitable material changed daily, with sufficient supply of nail
brushes and soap.
• The facilities provided for the purposes shall be placed in charge of a responsible person or persons and maintained
in a clean and orderly condition.
7.3.9 Disposal of Dross and Skimming

Dross and skimming removed from molten metal or taken from a furnace shall be placed forthwith in suitable
receptacles.
• Disposal of waste: Appropriate measures shall be taken for the disposal of all waste products from shell moulding
(including waste burnt sand) as soon as reasonably practicable after the castings have been knocked-out.
• Material and equipment left out of doors: All material and equipment left out of doors (including material and
equipment so left only temporarily or occasionally) shall be so arranged and placed as to avoid unnecessary risk.
There shall be safe means of access to all such material and equipment and, so far as reasonably practicable,
such access shall be by roadways or pathways which shall be properly maintained. Such roadways or pathways
shall have a firm and even surface and shall, so far as reasonably practicable, be kept free from obstruction.
7.3.10 Medical Facilities and Records of Examinations and Tests

The occupier of every factory to which this schedule applies, shall employ a qualified medical practitioner for
medical surveillance of the workers employed therein whose employment shall be subject to the approval of the
Chief Inspector of Factories.
• The record of such examinations carried out by the medical practitioner shall be maintained in a separate
register approved by the Chief Inspector of Factories, which shall be kept readily available for inspection by
the Inspector.
7.3.11 Medical Examination by Certifying Surgeon

Every worker employed in the processes shall be examined by a certifying surgeon within 15 days of his first
employment. Such examinations shall include skin test for dermatitis and no worker shall be allowed to work after
15 days of his first employment in the factory unless certified fit for such employment by the certifying surgeon.
• Every worker employed in a manganese process shall be reexamined by a certifying surgeon at least once every
three calendar months.
• The certifying surgeon after examining a worker shall issue a Certificate of Fitness in Form 23. The record of
examination and reexaminations carried out shall be entered in the certificate and the certificate shall be kept
in the custody of the manager of the factory.
• If at any time, the certifying surgeon is of the opinion that a worker is no longer fit for employment in the said
processes on the ground that continuance therein would involve special danger to the health of the worker, he
shall make a record of his findings in the said certificate and the health register. The entry of his findings in those
documents should also include the period for which he considers that the said person is unfit to work in the said
process shall be provided with alternate placement facilities unless he is fully incapacitated in the opinion of
the certifying surgeon, in which case, the person affected shall be suitably rehabilitated.
7.4 Various Manufacturing Processes

An iron and steel works is normally divided into the following zones:
• Iron zone: Comprising of raw material storage, preparation and handling yards coke ovens and byproducts plant,
sintering plant, blast furnaces, gas holders and pipelines.
• Steel zone: Comprising of steel melting shop, continuous casting shop, oxygen plant, slag and scrap yard, gas
holder and pipelines.
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• Rolling mills zone: Comprising of different rolling mills, with nucleonic control gauges, gas booster stations
and pipelines, loading bays for the dispatch of finished materials, electrical cable tunnels and oil cellars.
• Utilities: With common services, comprising of power plants with sub-stations. Road and rail traffic networks
and installations, communications network with exchanges and consoles. Plant water supply network with
pump houses. Instrumentation and process control mechanical workshops, electrical repair shops, refrigeration
and air conditioning systems. Electronic data processing systems, fire services, safety engineering services and
pollution control.
7.5 Approach to Hazard Control

Following are the approaching steps to control hazards in industries:
7.5.1 Identification of Hazards

One basic approach for any hazard control has been that in the first place, the hazard to be controlled has to be
identified. A typical “Safety Hazards and Emergency steps” study sheet can be seen in the appendix. Lists of safety
appliances needed for doing the job safely are listed. Such studies are made shop-wise and process sheets prepared
indicating the hazards involved. Safety measures required and the safety appliances needed. The basic norms for
these are taken from those prescribed in the factory rules, environment, pollution and related acts. These are further
improved upon as one accumulates one’s own working experience.
7.5.2 Training
Merely having updated safety books is not enough. If these are to be strictly followed, regular on-the-hob training is
essential for the operations on the machines and processes and for craftsmen in their respective trades. Employees have
also to be trained before they are put on the job whenever there is a change of trade or transfer to another department.
This is very necessary to acquaint themselves fully with the hazards of the new trade and the new work place. This
cannot be taken for granted. Many unavoidable accidents have taken place due to lack of such training.
7.5.3 Maintenance Culture

A common experience is that over a period of time in addition to the normal wear and tear, a machine or equipment
is hardly maintained in its original form. What happens is, when the machine is new, it is run loaded to its maximum
capacity, every time postponing or truncating its scheduled maintenance and when it starts going under break-down,
the wake up call is made for its repair. When repairs are done, all its attachments are not restored back or replaced
back either due to hurried repairs or due to lack of spares, since it is still possible to ‘somehow’ run the machine to
give production with the bare minimum components working. With the limit switches, control gauges, etc. gone, the
situation is ideal (unsafe condition) for any mishap to happen. The more complex the machine or the installation,
the more chances of hazards created by this “maintenance culture” for accidents to happen.
To prevent this, it is very essential to evolve a culture of carrying out the maintenance of equipment and installation
as per schedule and as per its technology, not compromising with quality at any stage.
7.5.4 Chemical and Environment Hazards

The Amended Factories Act (1987) has some very stringent stipulations in this respect. TLVs have been prescribed
for 8 hours and 2 hours exposures of employees in these environments. It is very essential to strictly comply with
these and the extant regulations, especially in the storage, handling, transportation and processing of the hazardous
chemicals.
7.5.5 Noise
Efforts must be made to reduce the noise level within 90dB by adopting suitable dampening devices and noise
insulating systems.
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Industrial Safety
7.5.6 Heat
This common hazard in our iron and steel works can be eliminated in some shops while it has to be dealt with in
some other shops. For example, in the charging side of the coke ovens and on the oven tops, it can be eliminated
fully by proper cleaning of oven doors and frames for good sealing so that blazing does not occur. This will also
help to create a far healthier environment, without heat, smoke, gases, etc., to work in the coke oven area. With
well-sealed ovens, operations are smooth and even the product quality is better.
• In the blast furnace and steel melting shops, liquid hot metal has to have a minimum temperature of 1350°C,
and it has to be handled in that state.
• In the cast house of blast furnaces, where the hot metal tapped from the furnace flows through runners (channels)
into metal ladles for transportation to the steel melting shop by rail, the common local practice has been to have
‘open’ runners. This results in radiation of heat, spread of carbon particles and dust in the entire atmosphere of
the cast house, making it uncomfortable and tiresome for the cast house crew. It saps their energy quickly.
• To deal with the heat and dust problem, the solution is to adopt covered runners as a practice, by which the
hot metal and slag runners are covered and an exhaust system sucks oil emanating fumes, dust, etc. from the
vicinity of the tap-hole itself. The result is, the cast house is cooler by about 10°C, and is free from fumes and
dust; it is comfortable for the crew to work in. Their productivity also increases as they no longer grow tiresome
earlier.
7.5.7 Fire Safety

In iron and steel works, all the components required for the outbreak of fire are readily available such as oxygen
(from air), fuel (gases, etc.) and heat (from electricity, sparks, flames, hot-spots, etc.).
• Utmost care is required in the storages, especially of flammable materials, with well ventilated areas, good
housekeeping in the works areas, fire-safe construction with fire-resistance material incorporated in the design
itself, provision of escape routes or outlets from work areas in case of fire, isolator doors of fire proof material to
prevent the spread of fire from one area to another in office or public buildings, training of employees to check
on human errors which can also cause fires (e.g. smoking, carelessness in observing fire-safety precautions in
daily jobs, etc.), periodic site inspections of vulnerable areas and fire-fighting equipment ranging from hand
operated fire extinguishers to fire tenders and similar mobile special purpose equipment in the fire services.
• One important aspect which needs special attention in the intricate and vast works area is the prominent display
of route-directions to interior locations for vulnerable areas such as oil cellars, cable galleries, etc. so that the
fire brigade can reach the destination quickly in times of need. For it is well known that the first few minutes
after fire out-break are very vital for fire-fighting and bringing it under control, to prevent major damages. In
this context, training the shop floor staff in the use of fire extinguishers assumes importance.
7.5.8 Ergonomics
This relates to understanding human mental and physical processes in work situations and ensuring that tasks
required of an operator are within his capabilities. This is a comparatively younger science but is fast gaining
importance, for the optimisation of man-machine system efficiency. Steel plants offer a very wide scope for the study
of ergonomics and improvisations by its applications and elimination of existing hazards thereby. Typical examples
are: widening of gangways, creating better accessibility in restricted areas for better maintenance of equipment;
adequate illumination on shop-floor; systematic laying of numerous cables, properly tagged, in the cable tunnels
with head-room, leg-room and elbow-room; proper ventilation and illumination in oil cellars with convenient
entry and exit points; reliable and effective air-conditioning and ventilation of operator’s cabin, of tongs cranes,
stripper-cranes, hot-metal cranes; location of operating controls within easy reach and convenient position for ease
of operation without causing strain.
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7.5.9 Shrub Control
Any iron and steel plant is a vast sprawling territory, however compact the design may be. So, in the inter-shop
open spaces, if left unattended, tall wild grass, shrubs, etc. start growing. Initially they may not even be noticed.
But in the course of time, they take root and grow into wild proportions, posing hazardous working conditions like
obstructing vision around corners for road users and loco-drivers, or by harbouring snakes during monsoon periods
and making it dangerous for shunting porters to walk along the railway tracks for changing points. Though contracts
are given for cutting this vegetation, it is rarely done effectively and the hazard remains perennially.
7.5.10 Disaster Management Planning

Presence of hazardous chemicals, materials and processes in the plant can give rise to emergency situations, despite
all possible safety controls and measures. For, there is what is known as the notorious ‘Murphy’s Law’ which
postulates: “Any item that can fail can be expected to fail at the most inopportune and damaging time”.
• At the time of emergency, instead of panicking at that moment and landing in a bigger mess, it is prudent to think
out and prepare beforehand, during calmer moments, a “Disaster management Plan” laying down, in detail, how
exactly the situation will be handled and coordinated using the resources at hand or even with extra resources
obtained from external agencies. This involves taking help from state authorities, explaining the dangers to our
workers and to people in the vicinity and the role each one has to play, should the disaster take place.
• Further, in order to perfect each one understands of their role and make the system function more efficiently,
mock-drills are conducted once in 6 months to a year. One feature commonly observed is an ‘emergency exit’
to be used as an escape route in case of fire, is kept closed, locked and obstructed with useless items dumped
before it, with the result that if and when the need to use it arises, it is next to impossible to have access to it
and people in distress will get trapped and die perhaps. Mock drills will prevent such situations.
7.5.11 Planning, Project and Construction

The iron and steel industry is capital intensive. It influences the environment significantly, even socially and
economically. As we have seen, there are also intrinsic built-in-hazards. With so many factors to be taken care of,
planning is very essential for even addition, modification or replacement, not to speak of modernisation or expansion
of the steel plant. It is imperative to ask the designers, manufacturers and suppliers of technology or equipment
about the hazards involved and how they are to be taken care of. The Amended Factory Act places the onus of
responsibility for hazards on the designer, manufacturer, supplier and importer. They should furnish the complete
know-how of safety measures, safety appliances and the do’s and don’ts, at the same time ensuring the safety of the
operations within the parameters prescribed in the act.
For this purpose, Safety and Health Departments should be associated right from the planning stages, with the project
department, to scrutinise the offers and discuss with the suppliers and consultants on matters of safety and health.
They should even visit the installations at the suppliers to gain a first-hand knowledge of the hazards involved and
see what measures would be required to be taken under local conditions.
7.5.12 Construction
During the construction stage, in addition to the various safety precautions required to be taken against the usual
construction hazards of working at heights, excavations, cranes, movement of huge quantities of earth-work,
temporary electrical connections, there are some basic aspects to be taken care of with respect to contract workers.
Salient amongst them are:
• Safety induction courses to be attended before the commencement of work
• Supply of safety appliances and their use at site
• Penalty clauses to be included in contracts for invoking in case of violations of safety measures, even by sub-
contractors
• Ensuring engaging of only competent agencies
• Laying down of the exact route of ingress and egress between gate and site inside the works, for the contract
workers to strictly follow.
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Industrial Safety
• Any deviation of this would be treated as Trespass. Site clearance to be obtained from safety officers before
commencing work.
7.6 The Safety Policy and its Fulfillment

Knowing full well that ‘people’ are the most important resource, asset and capital of the organisation, a safety and
health policy is necessary for the undertaking or the company. The main objective of the policy is to create a safe
and healthy environment in the works for the employees to work in.
• The policy should also spell out clearly the roles and responsibilities of the workers, supervisors, managers,
heads of departments and even the unions, for, all of these have a responsibility towards the safety and health
of the employees. Safety and health are not negotiable. Copies of the policy, in the regional language, are issued
to every employee and explained to them by their supervisors.
• For any successful implementation of the policy, two-way communication and joint participation of workers and
management are essential. Towards this, there are bipartite, two-tier departmental and works levels. Committees
to inspect, implement, discuss, educate, improve and innovate. They should meet regularly, and in addition
there are formal channels of communication between the manager and the workers during working on the shop
floor. Any hazards identified should get quick and prioritised attention by the shop in-charge. Any accident or
incident, however minor, should be fully investigated immediately to know the right causes, formulate preventive
measures and implement them in time. These aspects should be discussed in the shop floor bipartite meetings
in a constructive manner, to get the real benefits and learn from experience.
7.6.1 Hot Working Foundry - Forging

Safety aspects in the hot working forging operation in the steel industry with reference to the steel melting shop,
converter shop are discussed in table below as safety hazards and emergency steps.
Operation Key points

1. Protective You must wear protection jacket and trousers, safety boots, fibre glass safety
clothing helmet, hand gloves and blue glasses, dust masks as required.
Note: Cotton clothes are safe for working in the steel melting shop.
Visual checks of tools and tackles which must be in order and usable.
2. Safety aspects Damaged or broken tools will cause accidents and loss of time. They should
be replaced by new ones.
Note: Oxygen lancing hose with leakage must not be used; a leaking hose will cause severe fire and
burns. Water leakage from hood and skirt, lance and lance hose must be inspected and communicated
to converter in-charge for necessary action. Falling water from GCP equipment must not be allowed to
go into the converter, slag pot or teaming ladle.
Note: Liquid metal or slag falling on water or wet materials will cause explosion. Hot metal charging
into converter with liquid slag will cause heavy splashing and safety hazards to persons working nearby.
Oxygen and compressed air leakage from tapings around the converter must immediately be communi-
cated to G.C.P. shift in-charge. Oily and wet scrap must not be charged into the converter as this causes
explosion. Oil leakage from the converter equipment must be communicated to the Mechanical Shift
In-charge. While charging, deslagging, tapping and lancing, wear blue glasses and helmets and protec-
tion jacket.
Unauthorised persons must not be allowed to enter into the control pulpit of the converter. If any water
logging on the tracks below the converter is observed, doze it with the Dozer. Do not go near the top
gate, converter while blowing is in progress. These areas are likely to have gas dangers.
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Always be aware of overhead cranes and suspended loads. Never work under
a suspended load. Do not pass from the front and back of the converter dur-
ing blowing, deslagging and tapping. While moving on the 11 meter stage,
3. Hazards
always be aware of movements of the semi-portal crane and the hot metal
transfer car. Do not send persons to work on tracks below the converter while
charging of hot metal or scrap.
Note:
i. In case of fire on or nearby any equipment, inform the Fire Service Station immediately.
ii. In case of pit running when the pit side raises an alarm through hooters, tapping must immedi-
ately be stopped and the slag transfer car (STC) must be sent to the pit site.
iii. In case of slopping or slag spillage, the STC or SPTC track must be cleaned before tapping.
iv. In case of converter tilting failure, the emergency stop switch must be operated to stop the
converter.
While testing the converter if any abnormal sound is heard, inform

4. Tilting safety
the mechanical and electrical shift in-charge.
Adjust the STC towards the tapping side and check the end limit
5. Steel Transfer Car
when STC comes to the tapping position, there is speed retardation
safety
and beyond the tapping range, STC will stop.
6. Slag Pot Transfer Move the SPTC towards the pit side and check that the limit in C-D
Car safety bat-limit signal glows. If not, inform electrical shift in-charge.
Leaking water must not be allowed to fall into the converter. Any
7. State Of Converter major oil leakage through the converter’s main bearings which may
safety lead to fire hazards must be conveyed to the Mechanical Shift In-
charge.
8. Slag Pots safety Check whether the positioned slag pit is dry and dressed.
9. Arrangement of
Oily and wet scrap must not be charged as it may cause explosion.
Scrap safety
Keep an eye on the traverse and hook of the main hoist, the hook
10. Charging of Scrap
must not come out of the traverse trunion and the box must come out
safety
of the converter mouth.
If there is excessive flame during charging, stop charging, signal the

11. Charging Hot Metal crane operators to move the ladle away, shake the converter to sub-
safety side the flames and then charge again. Hot metal charging in liquid
slag and liquid left over metal is prohibited.
12. Sampling and Tem-

Do not dip the thermocouple top in dry slag, there will be sparks and
perature Measure-
cause burns.
ment safety
Tap hole with spraying stream will lead to fork jamming of the Steel
13. Tap Safety
ladle, heavy spillage on ladle, ladle trunions, STC and track.
Over filling of the teaming ladle is not allowed. About 200 mm.
14. Tapping Safety
space in the ladle must be left for slag over.
Table 7.1 Safety hazards and emergency steps
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Industrial Safety
7.6.2 Cold Working Bending, Rolling and Turning Safety

Safety precautions during various cold working:
• Keeping cool: Aluminium-asbestos clothing made of dust suppressed materials is heat-resistant. The outside
is made of aluminium and the inner lining is cotton. This type of clothing is suitable for hot work, for example
in foundries.
• Welding and foundry clothing is flame retardant and is mainly of flame retardant cotton or wool materials.
Chrome leather is used for aprons, etc.
• Molten metal splash clothing is heat resistant and should resist molten metal splash up to 1600 degrees centigrade.
Cotton or cotton and polyester overalls with flame-retardant finishes are available to protect against sparks and
flame.
• Chainsaw protective clothing: The front of the leg is most vulnerable to chainsaw accidents although the back
of the leg is also at risk. Protective leg wear incorporates layers of loosely woven long synthetic fibres. On contact
with the saw chain, the fibres are drawn out and clog the chain saw sprocket, causing the chain to stop.
• Leg wear is available with all-round protection or with protection only for the front of the legs. The leg wear
with all round protection offers the greatest protection for users.
7.6.3 Safety in Painting Operations

While painting vehicles, paints may include solvents, oils, resins and polymer emulsions that are released to the air
as the paint dries. They are moderately toxic. Some vehicles are adsorbed through the skin and others may cause
skin disorders.
7.6.4 Painting Solvents

Painting solvents are used to thin paints and clean up materials.Solvents commonly used include turpentine,
mineral spirits, acetone, toluene, xylene, acetates and petroleum distillates. These materials evaporate quickly,
contaminating the air and are moderately toxic by inhalation. Some solvents are adsorbed through the skin. Many
are flammable.
7.6.5 Painting Varnishes and Lacquers

These are solutions of natural and synthetic resins that are dispersed in solvents such as mineral spirits, turpentine,
methyl and ethyl alcohol, acetates, toluene, and petroleum distillates. After being applied, the solvent base evaporates
leaving the resin to react and harden. These solvents are moderately toxic by inhalation and many are flammable.
Some solvents are adsorbed through the skin. Spray application paint pigments, vehicles and solvents, varnishes
or lacquers, spray guns, airbrushes and aerosol spray cans release very fine mist particles that can remain in the air
for several hours and are readily inhaled. All of the materials identified above (solvents, pigments, resins, and paint
vehicles) may be present. Spraying dramatically increases your risk of exposure to these toxic materials. Many of
these solvents are also flammable and spraying them into the air creates a flammable atmosphere. High-pressure
spray guns may actually inject paint directly under the skin if it gets in the way of the spray.
Best practices for auto refinishers when spray painting as under:

• A well-ventilated and maintained spray booth efficiently removes paint over spray from the air, ormalizin contact
with hazardous coating materials. For the environment, regular filter changes reduce releases of pollutants
from the shop. For business, controlled flow of dust-free air improves the quality of the paint job. Among spray
booths, the downdraft, semi-down and cross draft are the most effective at removing hazardous over spray. It
is always better to spray inside a booth or prep station than in an open bay.
• Use high-volume low- pressure (HVLP) spray guns. When operated correctly, HVLP spray guns have notably
higher transfer efficiencies (60-70%) than conventional spray guns (20-30%). The result: with HVLP spray
guns, more paint ends up on the car and less is lost as over spray. This efficiency is of great benefit to painters,
who have less contact with toxic paint components and the shop, which saves in paint costs.
• Wear air supplied respirators and chemical-resistant gloves and clothing.
136
• By using a supplied-air, positive-pressure respirator, painters are much less likely to breathe harmful chemicals in
paint spray. Most paint manufacturers say a supplied-air respirator is a must when spraying highly toxic materials
like isocyanate, the hardener in polyurethane clear coats and in many primers. An air-purifying respirator will
not provide adequate protection unless you develop and implement a proper filter change out schedule, which
can be a complex process.
• Chemical resistant gloves and paint suits help prevent skin contact with harmful paint materials. Select gloves
and clothing that offer protection from the variety of chemicals in paints and coatings. For gloves, nitrile or
butyl rubber make the grade, latex does not.
• The shop manager or owner should review material safety data sheets (MSDSs) and communicate chemical
hazards and health and safety practices to workers. Once aware of the shop hazards, workers are more likely
to take precautions, stay healthy.
7.6.6 Accident Causes in the Forging and Steel Industry

Where accidents have been investigated, the following basic deficiencies in operating are highlighted:
• Inadequate guarding
• Poor maintenance of safety devices
• Deliberate overriding of safety devices
• Failure of isolation systems and interlocks
Example: A damaged hinge guard allowed access between the platens of a jolt squeeze machine – amputation of
fingers resulted. The type and degree of guarding fitted to machines will be determined by an assessment of the risk
involved. The key factors to be considered are:
The need for access into danger zones created by the mechanical action of machinery and materials;
The frequency with which that access is required is every cycle, for setting only, at frequent intervals to
clean dies and never.
The potential severity of any injury that could ensue. The risk assessment will determine which guard is the
most suitable from the hierarchy of types available. An analysis of accidents and incidents at the foundry
machinery suggests that carrying out the risk assessment is necessary.
More than 50% machinery accidents in foundries occur during maintenance, setting and cleaning operations. It is
therefore essential that guarding systems take account of the need for interventions and enable them to be carried
out in a safe manner. Some ways in which this can be achieved are:
• Where fixed or perimeter fencing is provided, it may be possible to allow limited access to make adjustments,
so reducing the risk of injury while keeping the guards in place.
• Where reliance is placed upon interlocking guards, the opening of those guards should disperse all residual
power in the system; example: an operator received crush injuries to both hands when he attempted to clear a
blockage in a core-making machine without isolating. He touched a limit switch and activated the platen close
operation;
• Where there are guard override facilities for setting purposes, they should be operated only by ormalizin
persons and persons working on machinery. In this state, Moulds have direct control over any movement of
the machine.
• It will still be necessary for users to ensure that appropriate safe systems of work are introduced and adhered
to.
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Industrial Safety
7.6.7 Maintenance
All foundry machinery operates in a harsh environment. Safeguards should be the subjects of formal routine checks
to ensure that they are operating effectively. Most machinery accidents in foundries can be attributed to shortcomings
in such maintenance procedures. One method of ormalizing maintenance of safety devices is to introduce a checklist,
which can be filled in at appropriate intervals by a responsible person – this could be a machine operator, setter,
charge hand or supervisor. Such a checklist should be regarded as a useful adjunct to but not a replacement for, a
preventive maintenance system for all machinery. Example: Poor maintenance of interlocks led to amputation of
three fingers when an operator was lubricating dies at a core belting machine.
7.6.8 Degree of Risk

Many foundry machines are designed to operate automatically. In theory this means that operators will not be
required to enter danger zones during the normal course of events. In practice, conditions will prevail whether due
to sand quality, complexity of job, or reduction in machine efficiency when operators will need to make significant
interventions for cleaning and adjustment purposes. The standard of guarding fitted should reflect the practical rather
than the theoretical operation of the machine.
7.7 Safety Requirements in the Painting Industry

Safety requirements for the painting industry are mentioned below.
• Ingredients of paints are toxic. Direct inhalation is to be avoided.
• Solvents used as thinner, the volatile materials should be stored away from direct heat, flesh and avoid
friction.
• Always use protective clothing and equipment.
• Wear an air-fed respirator/visor where mists or vapour may be present, especially when spraying or brush/roller
painting on areas over 10 cm2.
• Ensure that the air supplied to the air fed respirator or visor is clean and the required pressure maintained.
• Check all filters in the air supply system regularly, wear clean and disposable overalls, gloves and face and
eye protection when mixing paint or brush, roller and spray painting to prevent isocyanate splashing onto your
skin.
• Keep the vehicle and panel in the spray booth, enclosure and bake oven with the doors closed while the paint
hardens or cures.
• Maintain all extraction equipment to ensure that it effectively controls exposure.
• Change filters regularly.
• Thoroughly examine and test your equipment at least every 14 months (keep records for at least 5 years), ensure
booths are not leaking.
• Monitor the effectiveness of the controls, possibly by air sampling or biological monitoring.
• Precautions to be taken have been identified and allow untrained employees to carry out any work only with
2-pack paints.
• Do ensure that the hazards and precautions are fully understood mix, brush and roller 2-pack paints except
in a well-ventilated booth or enclosure or mixing room with the doors closed. Spray 2-pack paints in an open
workroom.
• Do check that they are in order before use clean spray-guns in an open workroom.
• Do use an enclosed gun-cleaning machine or wait until early asthma symptoms occur.
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Summary
• The Factory Act describes safety and occupational health requirements vide schedule 27 of Factory Act.
• Surface of the floors of indoor workplaces where the processes are carried out, other than parts, which are of
sand, shall be of hard material.
• Dross and skimming removed from molten metal or taken from a furnace shall be placed forthwith in suitable
receptacles.
• Every worker employed in the processes shall be examined by a certifying surgeon within 15 days of his first
employment.
• Knowing full well that ‘people’ are the most important resource, asset and capital of the organisation, a safety
and health policy is necessary for the undertaking or the company.
References
• Tall, H., 2011. Cleanliness of the Workplace [Online] Available at: <http://ezinearticles.com/?Cleanliness-of-
the-Workplace&id=2444202>. [Accessed 10 May 2011].
• LeCreusetUK, 2009. Cast Iron Foundry Video 600x450 [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=kk5aX1Sp954>. [Accessed 10 May 2011].
• clee22may1975, 2010. Semiconductor manufacturing process video [Video online] Available at: <http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=i8kxymmjdoM>. [Accessed 10 May 2011].
Recommended Reading
• Mody, V. and Jakhete, R., 1990. Dust Control Handbook (Pollution Technology Review), William Andrew.
• Parsaie, H.J., 2001. Construction Materials for Civil & Structural Engineering: Part I – Concrete, iUniverse.
• Misra, K.B., 2008. Handbook of Performability Engineering, 1st ed., Springer.
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Industrial Safety
Self Assessment
1. In a blast furnace and steel melting shop, liquid hot metal temperature is around ___________°C.
a. 850
b. 1050
c. 1350
d. 2000
2. A well-ventilated and maintained spray booth efficiently removes paint over spray from the air useful for
______________.
a. minimising contact with hazardous coating materials
b. increase efficiency of painting
c. increase production
d. decrease production
3. For carrying molten metal where truck ladles are used exclusively, it should be at least _____________ wider
than the overall width of the ladle.
a. 650 millimeters
b. 600 millimeters
c. 60 millimeters
d. 200 millimeters
4. Every worker employed in the processes shall be examined by a ____________ within 15 days of his first
employment.
a. doctor
b. compounder
c. dentist
d. certifying surgeon
5. ______________ comprises of raw material storage, preparation and handling yards coke ovens and by-products
plant, sintering plant, blast furnaces, gas holders and pipelines.
a. Iron zone
b. Steel zone
c. Rolling mills zone
d. Utility zone
6. The ____________ describes safety and occupational health requirements vide schedule 27 of factory act.
a. Industry Act
b. Safety Act
c. Factory Act
d. Occupational Safety Act
140
1. Iron zone A. With common services, comprising of power plants with sub-stations.
B. Comprising of different rolling mills, with nucleonic control gauges, gas
2. Steel zone booster stations and pipelines, loading bays for the dispatch of finished
materials, electrical cable tunnels and oil cellars.
3. Rolling mills C. Comprising of steel melting shop, continuous casting shop, oxygen plant, slag
zone and scrap yard, gas holder and pipelines.
D. Comprising of raw material storage, preparation and handling yards coke

4. Utilities ovens and byproducts plant, sintering plant, blast furnaces, gas holders and
pipelines.
a. 1-D,2-C,3-B, 4-A
b. 1-C, 2-A, 3-B, 4-D
c. 1-B, 2-D, 3-A, 4-C
d. 1-D, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C
8. In factories or workplaces, efforts must be made to reduce the noise level within ___________ .
a. 9dB
b. 900dB
c. 19dB
d. 90dB
9. Understanding human mental and physical processes in work situations and ensuring that tasks required of an
operator are within his capabilities is known as ______________.
a. ergonomics
b. fire safety
c. shrub control
d. disaster management planning

a. Aluminium-asbestos clothing made of dust suppressed materials is heat-susceptible.
b. Tin-asbestos clothing made of dust suppressed materials is heat-resistant.
c. Aluminium-asbestos clothing made of dust suppressed materials is heat-resistant.
d. Lead-asbestos clothing made of dust suppressed materials is heat-resistant.
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Industrial Safety
Chapter VIII
Engineering Industry Part II
Aim
• explain the safety in the printing industry
• describe the safety requirements in power plants
• discuss safety requirements in sugar industries
Objectives
• describe safety requirements in cement industries
• define hotel safety
• highlight the causes of accidents in industries
Learning outcome
• understand safety instructions in industries
• enlist the factors contributing to heat problems
• identify safety passport training elements
142
8.1 Introduction
The cement manufacturing process is comparatively dirty compared to the sugar industry. Coal ashes, calcium
stones, stone powder, etc., the raw materials used for the production of cement are themselves occupationally
hazardous. Slips, trips and falls are another common cause of accidents in the cement and sugar industries. These
can arise from the uneven surfaces in quarries and roads and from lapses in good housekeeping within manufacturing
plants. Incidents and accidents resulting in burns arise from contact with hot clinker or cement powder. Hazards are
particularly associated with hot Cement Kiln Dust (CKD), and dust on preheated systems. Chemical (alkali) burns
may also result from contact with CKD.
Each year, printing companies report approximately 1,200 work related accidents in printing operations in UK.
Over 200 of these accidents will be classified as major injuries such as fractures and amputations. The three most
common types of accidents reported are manual handling, slips and trips and contact with machinery. Frequent and
heavy lifting and handling can cause back injuries. In 2003 and 04, over 33% of all the accidents reported by the
UK printing and publishing industries were manual handling related 393 accidents.
8.2 Printing Industry

This information sheet has been produced by the Printing Industry Advisory Committee (PIAC) in response to concerns
about the large maintenance of printing presses. It deals primarily with safety issues, as other PIAC publications
cover health risks. It provides guidance for employers and supervisors on suitable defined safe systems of work
appropriate for various cleaning and maintenance tasks on sheet-fed printing presses used in the offset lithographic
process. Employees will also find it useful. The safe systems of work described have been established following
risk assessment which takes into consideration the nature of the cleaning task, the safeguarding arrangements and
the machine controls provided.
8.2.1 Causes of Accidents

The causes of accidents are given below.
• Approximately 70 accidents occurred during cleaning
• Accidents at sheet-fed offset presses in operations such as inking, blanket, plate and transfer, total damping
impression cylinders rollers cylinders
• Most of the accidents are caused by l inadequate safeguards allowing access to in-running nips
• Guards failing due to lack of maintenance or guards being removed
• Control performance deteriorating (e.g. inch travel and crawl speed increasing) due to lack of maintenance
• Unsafe systems of work for cleaning the press.
Examples of incidents involving sheet-fed offset presses

An operator was seriously injured when cleaning the plate cylinder of a four-colour Man Roland Ultra lithographic
press on continuous slow crawl. The cleaning cloth was taken into the nip between the plate and blanket cylinders.
The trip nip bar caused the press to stop only when his left hand had been taken in as far as the wrist, i.e. the stopping
performance of the cylinder was excessive.
A printer suffered a crushed left-hand finger and friction burns on his palm when the cleaning cloth he was using
was pulled into the inking rollers of a Rot print sheet-fed offset press running at production speed. The inking roller
guards had been raised, as they were not interlocked.
An operator was injured while cleaning a Heidelberg MOVP. The interlocked guard was open to give access to the
cylinders, which were being moved using the inch control. Due to lack of maintenance, the length of inch movement
was excessive. While cleaning the cylinders, his cloth was caught between the transfer and impression cylinders,
drawing his right-hand middle finger into the nip. The inch stop lock clean system was not being used.
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Industrial Safety

Remember to consult employees and safety representatives at all stages of the process, they have valuable insights
into the daily operation of systems and machinery.
• Sensing safeguarding standards for print units
Compare the safeguarding standards (i.e., the combination of cylinder stopping performance, trip and nip
bar position and maximum crawl speed) on your own machines and decide whether you need to upgrade
what you now have to meet current standards.
• Safeguarding standards
Roller assemblies’ in-running nips all enclosing interlocked guards with inking powered movement or true
inch or hold-to-run and damping slow crawl only when the guard is raised.
An enclosing interlocked guard which allows between the limited powered movement when raised by plate,
blanket means of true or limited inch, or hold-to-run and impression continuous slow craw; and trip nip
bar cylinders adjusted to within 6 mm. of the cylinder surface which either meets the performance standard
in ‘control definitions’ or is supplemented by cylinder gap covers for both plate and blanket cylinders, or
there is no facility for continuous slow crawl. Or an enclosing interlocked guard as above supplemented by
fixed nip bars adjusted to within 6 mm. of the cylinder surface and gap covers for both plate and blanket
cylinders.
Fixed nip bars are not adequate in the absence of cylinder gap covers unless there is no-facility for continuous
slow crawl; or certain old machines, trip nip bars which do not meet the performance standard in ‘Control
definitions’ or fixed nip bars, in either case adjusted to within 6 mm. of the cylinder surface and close fitting
gap covers for both plate and blanket cylinders. There should be no facility for continuous slow crawl. Users
should plan to upgrade such presses by the addition of enclosing interlocked guards.
In-running nips on enclosing interlocked guard, which allows limited powered movement when impression
or transfer rose by means of true or limited inch.
True inch is a single depression of the control button causing a cylinder movement of 25 mm. It should not
be possible to cause uninterrupted movement of the cylinders by repeated depression of the button.
Limited inch is a single depression of the control button causing a cylinder movement greater than 25 mm.
but less than 75 mm. It should not be possible to cause uninterrupted movement of the cylinders by repeated
depression of the button.
To test inch movement mark the cylinder and machine frame, inch and measure. Hold-to-run slow crawl
uninterrupted movement of the cylinders at 1 m. per minute caused by continued depression of the control
button. Crawl speed may be substantial increase in hazard.
Continuous slow crawl uninterrupted movement of the cylinders at 1 m. per minute which does not require
continued depression of the control button. Crawl speed may be increased to a maximum of 5m per minute
only if there is no substantial increase in hazard. To measure crawl speed count the number of revolutions
per minute and multiply by the cylinder circumference.
Trip nip performance standard on tripping, the length of movement of the trip bar should be greater than
the stopping distance of the cylinder i.e., cylinder movement ceases within the deflection travel distance
of the bar. To test with the press stationary, measure the total deflection of the trip nip bar (t). Mark the
cylinder and machine frame. Operate the crawl control. Push the trip nip with a cardboard tube when the
two reference marks are in line. Measure the distance moved by the cylinder (c) and compare measurements
(t) and (c); (t) should be greater.
8.2.3 Decide on the Appropriate Safe System for Cleaning

This is determined by the standard of safeguards and the machine controls. Applying the following hierarchies
reduce the frequency of cleaning to that necessary to maintain the quality of work, so reducing the need to approach
hazardous parts.
• Use automatic wash-up systems. Where provided, make full use of automatic inking roller and blanket wash-
up systems.
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• Select a safe system of work, which ensures that operators do not need to place their hands near accessible
in-running nips.
8.2.4 Additional Precautions

Apply cleaning solvent with a suitable cloth folded to form a pad without loose edges, using close-fitting impervious
gloves. Keep cleaning solvent within a suitable sealed container to prevent spillage and evaporation. Put used
cleaning cloths in a closed, fire-resisting container. Provide adequate ventilation.
8.2.5 Safe Systems of Work for Press Cleaning

There are three main safe systems:
• Inch-stop-lock-clean: In this system, the press is subject to limited movement using the inch button, stopped
and the power isolated using the emergency stop button before applying the solvent soaked cloth.
• Multi-person operation: Here each person must retain control over the re-setting of their own emergency stop
button so that it is not possible for another person to cause the press to move unexpectedly.
• Inch-stop-clean: In this system, the cylinders are rotated enough to expose the next section of the cylinder
surface to be cleaned. The hand with the cleaning cloth is held clear of the cylinder while it is rotating. The
cylinder should be stationary before the oil vent- soaked cloth is applied. For machines with a true or limited inch
control, several depressions of the button may be required to expose enough of the cylinder surface to clean.
8.2.6 Train and Instruct Employees

As an employer, you need to train and instruct employees in the appropriate system of work and safeguard checks
for their printing presses. Systems of work and guard checklists need to be documented. Make sure you discuss the
options with employees and safety representatives and agree to safe systems of work with them.
You should ensure that the press controls are understood and that the reason a particular system of work is needed
is properly explained. Make it clear that employees will be accountable for this work. You also need to explain what
they should do if a safeguarding or control defect is found and you should support any employee who identifies a
hazardous defect. Any such defects should be investigated and dealt with before continuing to use the machine. It
is a good idea to attach a guard checklist to each press. This will act as a reminder and will show that the minder
has an important role to play.
Safeguard checklist
• interlocked guards prevent motion at production speed when raised
• Cams on interlocking guards have not moved out of adjustment
• Trip nip and fixed nip bars are adjusted to within 6mm. of the cylinder surface
• Gap covers are fitted (where provided); trip nip performance and inch travel have not deteriorated
• The crawl speed is limited to 1 m. per minute
• Pre-start warning devices are audible.
8.3 Safety Requirements in the Printing Industry

Following are the safety measures that should be taken care of:
A variety of acids and caustics are used to etch and clean various media in intaglio and lithography. These materials are
very corrosive to the skin, eyes and respiratory system, especially when concentrated. A wide variety of miscellaneous
materials used in lithography, intaglio, relief printing and screen-printing are irritants or moderately toxic.
• Consult the references for information sources on these materials and their hazards. Ensure that all work with
2-pack paints is properly managed and supervised. Prevent or control exposure to isocyanate mists and vapours
as far as practicable. Wear an air-fed respirator and visor where mists or vapour may be present, especially when
spraying or brush and roller painting on areas over 10 cm2.
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Industrial Safety
• Ensure that the air supplied to the air fed respirator and visor is clean and the required pressure maintained.
Check all filters in the air supply system regularly, wear clean and disposable overalls, gloves and face and eye
protection when mixing paint or brush , roller and spray painting to prevent isocyanate splashing onto your
skin. Keep the vehicle and panel in the spray booth, enclosure and bake oven with the doors closed while the
paint hardens and cures.
• Maintain all extraction equipment to ensure that it effectively controls exposure. Change filters regularly.
Thoroughly examine and test your equipment at least every 14 months (keep records for at least 5 years) ensure
booths are not leaking.
• Monitor the effectiveness of the controls, possibly by air sampling or biological monitoring. Provide health
surveillance for employees exposed to isocyanate. Mix, brush and roller, spray or harden and cure 2-pack paints
unless the risks and precautions to be taken have been identified allow untrained employees to carry out any
work with 2-pack paints.
• Do ensure that the hazards and precautions are fully understood. Mix, brush and roller 2-pack paints except
in a well-ventilated booth and enclosure or mixing room with the doors closed spray 2-pack paints in an open
workroom. Work only in a well-ventilated booth and enclosure with the doors closed. Lift or remove your
respirator and visor while spraying (even to inspect newly painted areas) and, if remaining in the booth, wait for
at least 10 minutes or until the vapour has cleared to allow unprotected people inside the spray booth, enclosure
and bake oven during or immediately after spraying or hardening and curing keep respirators and visors, gloves
or overalls in the spray booth and enclosure or hardening and curing oven.
• Do store them in a locker and clean area. Do check that they are in order before use. Clean spray-guns in an
open workroom. Do use an enclosed gun-cleaning machine or wait until early asthma symptoms occur. It’s too
late then!
8.4 Safety in the Power Industry

Power is a vital input to any economic and social development. It is a core industry and without its development,
no industrial development is possible. Generation of Rupees one billion worth electricity increases the production
in industries to Rupees eight to ten billions.
• Due to this reason, high priority has been given by the government for the development of the power sector.
While at the time of independence, the total installed capacity of power plants was about 1350 MW, and it has
now increased to about 65,000 MW.
• Like any other industry, thermal power plants also have intrinsic hazard potential involved in its processes.
Thermal power plants are synonymous with extreme temperature and pressure conditions, rotating machinery,
high voltage electricity, coal dust and toxic chemicals.
• Direct exposures to such conditions put the human being to a high degree of risk for injuries. Power plants are
capital intensive industry. For each 1000 MW plant, the cost may vary from 1200 to 1500 crores of rupees.
The generation value of electricity for each day comes to be around Rs. 1.20 crores. Due to this high value of
employed capital, it is necessary that extreme precaution should be taken to prevent any possible losses due to
accidents.
8.4.1 Safety Aspects of Thermal Power Generation

In India, all workers are not adequately literate and knowledgeable and therefore need strong motivation and training
to observe safety requirements, codes, rules and other loss prevention systems. Most important is the training of new
entrants, entering into the thermal power industry. These persons will be the future managers and supervisors and
inculcation at this stage shall be of lasting benefit to the power industry and those employed therein. The hazards
in power plants can be divided mainly in three parts namely, chemical hazards, fire and explosion hazards and
physical injuries.
• Of the many chemicals used in power plants, the most hazardous and those used in sizable quantities are
chlorine, hydrochloric acid and caustic soda. Fire and explosion hazards are the major hazards in most of the
thermal power plants. The explosion hazards are due to use of hydrogen in the cooling systems. Hydrogen is a
highly explosive gas and its lower explosive limit and higher explosive limit in air is 4% and 75% by volume
respectively. It catches fire very quickly.
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• Its auto-ignition temperature is 585°C. In most of the thermal power plants, considerable quantity of this gas
is used, which if not used properly can cause severe explosion. Many fires occur due to over loading and loose
connection and subsequent heating of electrical circuits. The generation and accumulation of static charge in
coal conveyors had led to many fires in power plants in different parts due to poor housekeeping. Fires also
occur in spilled oil or other areas where flammables are stored.
• Physical injuries may be caused in various situations. Some are as follows:
• Injuries due to fall of workers
Although measures are taken to ensure safety at heights, in some cases, fencings and railings are not provided or
during maintenance or otherwise the fencings are removed. This unfenced work placed at heights may cause fall of
persons. In some cases, openings are allowed during maintenance work without fencing. These also are potentially
hazardous conditions, which may lead to fall of workers.
Slip and fall at same level

This is a leading factor causing a number of injuries, although minor in mature. In thermal power stations, coal, oil,
etc. are used. Deposits of coal, dust and ash and its mixing with moisture and dew on the floors, ladders and stairs
makes them slippery. In addition to this, seepage of oil near the oil storage tanks and pipes may cause slipping of
persons on slippery floors. In addition, a number of injuries have been reported in various thermal power stations
due to poor housekeeping or inattention of the employees. In some cases, workers have slipped due to obstructions
and raised structures.
Electrocution
In the power plant, cable network on floors or galleries or structures is spread throughout. Most of the panels used
now are compact and electricians do not have much space to work freely. The study of electrical injuries indicates
that most of the instruments short-circuit the charged conductors. Some injuries have been reported in the power
plants due to lack of identification marks in the cables. Sometimes the employee fails to identify the faulty cable.
Although, they might have obtained the permit for a particular cable for the maintenance work, the worker by
oversight may work on the other cable with the possibility of electrocution. Some cases have been reported where
the employees met with electrocution due to coming in contact with live bare conductors.
Burn injuries
In the power station, there are possibilities of burn injuries, other than those specified under electrical injuries. The
steam used for power generation can cause injuries if any person comes in contact with the steam or the hot pipe,
etc. In power plants, burn injuries have been observed while opening the gate of the burners due to backfire. Many
times, burn injuries also occur at or near bottom ash hopper. This is specifically during poking of coal ash, which
forms a lump in the ash hopper. Although, the vibration system is provided on the bottom ash hopper, in case of its
failure, the workers remove these ash piles through the poking holes. During this operation, the hot burnt ash falls
into the water forming slurry, spilling on the workers.
Caught in injuries
Many times, the employees are caught in the machines at the point of operation. These types of injuries have occurred
during working on rotating machines. These injuries have occurred due to failure in providing adequate guard or
allowing workers to use loose clothing.
8.4.2 Case Studies

Some cases studies on fire in power plants and severe and physical injuries are given below:
• Fire: Obra thermal power plant
A devastating fire at Obra Thermal Power Plant resulted in a direct loss of about Rs. 300 million, besides
huge indirect loss. The fire originated in the cable galleries of two units of ‘B’ power station and all power
and control cables within the precincts of these units, 0.6 and 0.4 KV switchgear and unit control boards of
the units besides structural work was destroyed.
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Industrial Safety
Dense smoke and fire was reported to be seen by some of the employees at the lowest end of the vertical
cable shaft running close to a vertical column in the cable gallery at the 4 meter level and within a short
time, the fire assumed dimensions which were beyond tackling by the fire brigade of the power station.
The first aid fire fighting operations were of no avail and the water supply for fire fighting also failed at the
crucial moment.
However, the fire was extinguished by the plant fire brigade and assisting fire brigades after hectic operations
lasting for more than six hours spelling destruction of the multi-storied complex. It was found that the
main reason for the spread of fire to such a large proportion was failure of the water supply system feeding
hydrants for fire fighting. The fast spread of fire in cable bunches in all directions and the toxic fumes
emitting from burning cables complicated the situation to render it impossible to use first aid fire fighting
appliances available in the powerhouse. The possible cause of fire could not be ascertained but extremely
poor housekeeping and negligence in maintenance were reported to be the reasons for the catastrophe.
• Physical injuries
In one power plant, pigeons had made a nest near live bus bars provided for EOT cranes. One worker wanted
to catch the pigeon and thus went close to the EOT bus bars. When he tried to catch the pigeon, he came in
contact with the live bus bars and was electrocuted.
In a plant, an electrician was advised to carry out some maintenance work on an electric pole. The electrician
went to the, place of work along with one ladder lifted by his helper. To reach the point of work, the ladder
was placed on the electric pole and was supported at the base by the helper to prevent its sliding or collapse.
The electrician climbed the ladder for maintenance work. When he completed the maintenance job, he
wanted to descend. When he put his foot down, the rung of the ladder rotated causing imbalance.
In one Air Pre-heating unit of a plant, a gang of workers was sent. The appropriate permit for work was
obtained and the maintenance work was completed in 6-7 hours. While the task was being done, one of the
gang of workers slept inside the unit. After the completion of the task, the workers came out, while the one
who slept was left behind. The permit was cancelled and the unit was made functional. The worker who
slept inside the pre-heating unit, died inside.
8.4.3 Causes of Injuries

In most of the cases, it is very difficult to say for any individual, what went wrong, the management or the worker.
Largely, injuries occur due to faults of both of them. While the management fails to provide safe conditions,
employees do not take enough precautions. The hazardous conditions due to failure of the management and unsafe
acts of the workers cumulatively cause injuries. Showing types of accidents occurring in selected power plants,
unsafe conditions or unsafe actions are shown in the tables below.
8.4.4 Prevention of Injuries

Almost all the accidents can be prevented, if specific precautions are taken by the employer and the employees. The
employer needs to ensure safe working conditions for the employees, keep them informed about the likely hazards,
educate them on the protection systems and train them for overcoming those hazards. Employees should ensure
that their acts do not jeopardise their own safety or that of their other colleagues. They should help the management
in identifying the potential situations which may cause injuries. They should try to identify the hazards and should
bring them to the knowledge of the management for immediate remedial measures.
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Sl.No. Type of Accident No. of Injuries Percentage
1 Fall from height 16 9.4
2 Slip and fall at same level 22 12.9
3 Struck by speeding, falling other moving objects 32 18.7
4 Physically striking against objects 20 11.7
5 Caught in moving machinery 23 13.5
6 Electric shock / burn 14 8.2
7 Contact with high temperature 20 11.7
8 Inhalation, absorption, ingestion, etc. 3 1.8
9 Fall into pits 5 2.9
10 Others 16 9.4
Table 8.1 Types of accidents in operation and maintenance activities
Sl.No. Unsafe actions of workers No. of Injuries Percentage

1 Operation without authority 5 2.9
2 Failure to warn or secure 8 4.7
3 Making safety devices inoperative 5 2.9
Using defective equipment, materials, tools or
4 2 2.9
vehicles
5 Failure to use PPEs. 28 16.5
6 Failure to use equipment provided 1 0.6
7 Unsafe loading, placing or mixing 4 2.4
8 Unsafe lifting and carrying including unsecure grip 9 5.3
9 Taking an unsafe position 10 5.9
Cleaning / repairing of machines or motors while in
10 6 3.5
motion
11 Lack of team work 2 1.2
12 In-attention 18 10.6
13 Failure to follow safety rules 5 2.9
14 Others 19 11.2
15 No unsafe action 45 26.5
Table 8.2 Unsafe actions of workers in operations and maintenance activities
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Industrial Safety
Sl.No. Unsafe conditions No. of Injuries Percentage

1 Inadequate / lack of guard 8 4.7
2 Defective tools / equipment 20 11.8
3 Unsafe design 8 4.7
4 Unsafe / no scaffold 4 2.4
5 Unsafe / no ladder 1 0.6
6 No access 2 1.2
7 Lack of shield 1 0.6
8 Defective vehicles 1 0.6
9 Cables with damaged insulation 1 0.6
10 Unsafe slope 2 1.2
11 Congested area 8 4.7
12 Poor illumination 24 14.2
13 Lack of insulation on steam pipes 2 1.2
14 Unsafe ash hopper 7 4.1
15 Slippery floor 14 8.3
16 Uneven floor 5 3.0
17 Others 37 21.9
18 No unsafe condition 24 14.2
Table 8.3 Unsafe conditions in operations and maintenance activities
8.5 Sugar and Cement Industry

Cement production carries with it an inherent capacity to produce high levels of dust which without effective controls
can lead to respiratory disease. Hospitalisation and morbidity due to cement dust is not higher than in comparable
industries.
• When the dust contains silica components (not typical in most cement plants), regulations are stricter due to the
known carcinogenic properties of (crystalline) silica. In the USA a study showed that in the cement, concrete,
gypsum and plaster products industries, 17.9% of the 252 samples exceed the PEL (Permissible Exposure Limit)
of silica. Data for this group of industries suggest caution on the subject of dust, especially dust containing
(crystalline) silica. In recent years, considerable attention has been directed at eliminating and controlling
sources of dust, including extraction systems and filters, and maintenance programmes aimed at exposure to
hazardous substances.
• Many substances in industry are considered to be allergy-inducing. In the cement industry, chromate components
are raising concern because of their toxicity and known carcinogenic effects when the cement is used wet in
downstream construction activities. When the chromate concentration of the product warrants it, ensuring that the
chromium VI component is chemically reduced and kept in the chromium III state is suggested as a good measure,
as are improved awareness and safer handling campaigns aimed at users in the construction industry.
• Thallium is a highly toxic substance, which can be present in pyrite or iron oxide. Bothmaterials are used as a
source of an iron additive. If thallium were identified in these materials, the cement plant would be advised to
change its source of pyrite or iron oxide. Otherwise thallium might become a problem. This can be a particular
problem where cement kiln dust (CKD) is recycled, because of the potential to build up levels of thallium in
the recycle stream.
• The following tips are designed to help you use cement in a safe manner:
Avoid eye and skin contact by wearing suitable eye protection.
Use waterproof clothing, waterproof footwear and waterproof gloves.
Clothing contaminated by wet cement should be removed immediately and washed before re-use.
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Breathing dust is to be avoided. Keep out of the reach of children.
In case of accidental contact with eyes or skin, rinse immediately with plenty of clean water. Seek medical
advice after eye contact.
Use proper knee-pads when kneeling around cement.
Wash hands and face after working with cement, particularly before eating and drinking.
Cement should be stored as instructed on the delivery ticket or bag and used within the period stated.
Particularly if the overall load exceeds 25 kg. Injuries can be caused by lifting cement sacks.
Plan where you will be able to put down the load.
Stand close to the load and spread your feet. Partly bend your knees but keep your back straight and hold
the load firmly. Raise your head as you begin to lift and keep the load close to your body.
• Crushing, extraction, concentration, bleaching, purification and crystallisation are the important processes in the
sugar industry. There are hidden hazards as expressed under in sugar and cement manufacturing process. Heat
stress occurs when heat is absorbed from the environment faster than the body can get rid of it.
• The resulting strain on the body comes from the combined contributions of job (e.g. work activity), environmental
factors (e.g. air temperature, humidity, air movement and radiant heat), worker factors (e.g. extent of
acclimatisation and hydration). When conditions become increasingly hot, the most common health problems
that occur are fainting, transient heat fatigue and heat rash.
• However, with excessive exposure to heat, especially for those who are overweight, elderly or those on specific
medications, more serious heat illnesses such as heat cramps, heat exhaustion and heat stroke may occur.
8.5.1 Factors Contributing to Heat Problems

Examples of job factors are work of a strenuous nature (e.g. clearing chokes), work that is sustained for extended
periods, inadequate cooling off or rest periods. Examples of environmental and seasonal factors are - high air
temperatures, radiant heat from hot objects such as machinery (e.g. hot boiler drums, effete and pan vessels) and
radiant heat from working outdoors in the sun.
Examples of worker factors such as excessive or inappropriate clothing, protective or otherwise; dehydration from
poor diet, vomiting, diarrhea, alcohol and caffeine (diuretics) consumption and insufficient liquid intake, medical
condition (i.e. heart problems, diabetes, hypertension or fever caused by infections).
8.5.2 Possible Control Measures for Heat Stress

Altering the work environment, reducing the body’s metabolic heat production, using automation and mechanisation
of tasks, reducing radiant heat emissions from hot surfaces and plants (e.g. by insulation and shielding), using
ventilation and air-conditioning humidity reducing methods for example, install a dehumidifier (seek engineering
advice), creating some shade (i.e. tarp or umbrella) or at least find a tree for outdoor workers’ rest breaks.
• Hydration instead of depending on thirst; the worker should drink 150–200 milliliters of cool fluids every 15–20
minutes (rather than drinking a liter at less frequent intervals). Full re-hydration should be achieved before
recommencing work on subsequent days. Seek a doctor’s advice if working in hot environments and using
medications like sedatives, tranquillisers, anti-depressants, amphetamines, antispasmodics, diuretics or those
affecting blood pressure as they may interfere with heat tolerance.
• Avoid alcohol and caffeinated drinks, as they are diuretics. Adjusting administrative, work schedule and clothing
controls, limiting duration of exposure to hot work, scheduling regular work and rest breaks in cool, shady
areas with protective clothing removed. Isolate hot work practices in terms of location and time from other
workers.
• Supervisors may need training to be effective in identifying and addressing problems. Methods of identification
should be outlined clearly in workplace policy (e.g. number of sick days and if there is a safety risk).
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Industrial Safety
8.6 Noise Hazards in Sugar and Cement Industry

Noise is a hazard within most industries and a number of sources of noise exist in sugar mills and cane railways,
including: plants associated with steam and compressed air (e.g. vents, pressure reducing valves, silencers, pipes
or turbines), locomotives, powerhouse plants (e.g. shredders, high speed gearboxes, fans, blowers or centrifugals),
miscellaneous items (e.g. vacuum breakers, air operated valves, locomotives, warning horns, bumping cane bins or
truck movements), workshop activities (e.g. grinding, hammering, metal cutting operations).
• The auditory risk to workers from excessive noise exposure includes permanent loss of hearing and Tinnitus
(ringing in the ears). Health risks are also associated with exposure to noise and may include, among others,
increased heart rate, higher blood pressure, stress and fatigue.
• Additional control measures to minimise noise exposure may include conducting noise exposure surveys,
according to standards laid down in statutory rules and regulations. Operational measurement and assessment
of noise emission and exposure, to identify risk areas and activities is advisable.
8.6.1 Monitoring
A programme for the regular monitoring of noise exposure levels and checking of the effectiveness of noise control
measures should be implemented as part of the safety management system. A monitoring programme should
include:
Regular noise
exposure surveys
Periodic review of worker
of the noise
management Identification of
programme based sources of
on the results of noise hazardous
surveys, audiometric noise.
tests, and other control
measures
Monitoring
Assessment of
Regular
noise
audiometric
control
testing.
measures
Suitability of
personal hearing
protectors
provided
Fig. 8.1 Monitoring for effectiveness of noise management programme
The hierarchy of controls should consult with workers about their needs and expectations providing management
and workers with education, training and information on noise, its effects and the need for its control, providing
regular audiometric testing to exposed workers.
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8.6.2 Possible Control Measures for Excessive Noise in Sugar and Cement Industry
The risks to workers’ health and hearing can be prevented or minimised by using the hierarchy of controls.
Elimination (new plant and workplaces)

Design, purchase or construct plant or the workplace to minimise noise levels. Engineering noise control measures
are the most effective form of reducing excessive noise levels and should be implemented where practical.
Engineering controls (existing plant and workplaces)

Treat the noise source (silence the noisy plant, redesign or modify), treat the noise transmission path (enclose noisy
plant) or treat the receiver (locate the operator in a soundproof enclosure).
Administrative controls
Develop a noise policy and organise schedules so that noisy work is completed when as few as people as possible
are present. Implement job rotation and an adequate plant and equipment maintenance programme (maintenance
schedules should be put in place to ensure plant, acoustic enclosures and silencers are maintained in good condition
to achieve target noise levels). Erect signage-indicating noises greater than 85 db (A) and ensure hearing protection
is worn.
Personal protective equipment

Hearing protectors must be worn in situations where noise cannot be practically reduced below the excessive noise
limits by engineering and administrative controls or, as an interim, until such controls can be put in place. Workers
provided with personal hearing protectors need proper training and instructions on their correct use, care and
maintenance. Selection of personal hearing protectors must be on the basis of individual fit, comfort, work tasks and
work environment with respect to the protectors being worn and therefore achieving the noise attenuation required.
A policy of personal hearing protection for all persons entering the factory processing areas is recommended. A
programme for the regular monitoring of noise exposure levels and checking the effectiveness of noise control
measures should be implemented as part of the safety management system.
8.7 Accident Prevention Techniques in the Cement Industry

Modern plant design, operational procedures and practices mean that the risks in routine operations can be well
controlled. Most handling operations are automated to avoid the need for manual intervention and for contact between
workers and process materials. The worker groups most at risk are those involved in plant cleaning and maintenance.
Here the risk of contact with machinery, hazardous and hot substances is higher. Plant cleaning and maintenance
activities frequently involve working at heights or in awkward locations (for example confined spaces) presenting
access and egress difficulties and the handling of unusual or unfamiliar equipment, tools or situations.
• This is reflected in the percentage of incidents associated with manual handling and falls from heights. Contractors
are frequently used for cleaning and maintenance activities, especially during major planned plant shutdowns,
where additional workforce is required to meet tight schedules. As a result, contractors can be exposed to some
of the higher risk activities, leading to a higher rate of accidents if the contractors are not fully trained and
familiar with the plant and its hazards.
Safety precautions in the cement industry: statutory requirements

Safety in the cement manufacturing industry in India under the Factory Act is expected to practice the following
statutory requirements:
• Crushing, breaking, chipping, dressing, grinding, sieving, mixing, grading or handling of stone or any other
material containing shall be without silica.
• All floors, work places, shift rooms, canteens, shops, offices where fine dust is likely to settle to be thoroughly
cleaned by a moist method or any other method which would prevent dust being airborne in the process of
cleaning.
• No young person shall be employed or permitted to work in any of the operations involving manipulation or at
any place where such operations are carried out.
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Industrial Safety
• Every worker employed in the processes specified, shall be examined by a Certifying Surgeon within 15 days
of his first employment. Such medical examination shall include tests for lead in urine and blood, ALA in urine,
haemoglobin content, stippling of cells and steadiness test. Every worker employed in the said processes shall
be re-examined by a certifying surgeon at least once every twelve months. Such re-examination shall, wherever
the certifying surgeon considers appropriate, include all the tests as specified in sub-paragraph (1) except chest
X-ray which will be once every 3 years.
8.8 The Safety Passport System

Many developed countries utilise the contract system in the cement and sugar manufacturing processes, handling
and storage. Safety practices are controlled by the safety passport system.
The passport provides a simple means for both, the contractor and the company personnel to check if that person
is trained and suitable to undertake a given task, and when retraining is required. If the passport is not valid, the
contractor cannot do the work. This provides an incentive for contractors to ensure that they have the right training
and accreditation and to keep their passport up-to-date. Safety passport training elements could include:
Introduction to
Safe Working Electrical Lock-out
Health and Work Permits
Practices Procedures
Safety Law
Hot Works (welding

Fire Precautions Accident and First Safe Access and
and cutting)
and Procedures Aid Procedures Egress
Procedures
Hazardous substances Working with

Protective
handling and risks and Manual Handling Cranes and
Equipment
Personnel Heavy Equipment
Risk Assessment Tool Box Talks Excavations
Fig. 8.2 The safety passport system
In some cases, a number of companies operating similar facilities have got together and developed a common
contractor safety passport system. This avoids the need for unnecessary and repetitive training were the contractor
to need a different passport for every site.
154
Slips, trips and falls
Slips, trips and falls are another common cause of accidents in industry. These can arise from the uneven surfaces
in the quarries and roads and from lapses in good housekeeping within the manufacturing plants. Incidents and
accidents resulting in burns arise from contact with hot clinker or cement powder. Hazards are particularly associated
with hot cement kiln dust (CKD) and dust on pre-heater systems. Chemical (alkali) burns may also result from
contact with CKD dust.
• Cement production carries with it an inherent capacity to produce high levels of dust, which without effective
controls can lead to respiratory diseases. Hospitalisation and morbidity due to cement dust is not higher than in
comparable industries. When the dust contains silica components (not typical in most cement plants), regulations
are stricter due to the known carcinogenic properties of (crystalline) silica. In the USA, a study showed that
in the cement, concrete, gypsum and plaster products industries, 17.9% of the 252 samples exceed the PEL
(Permissible Exposure Limit) of silica. Data for this group of industries suggest caution on the subject of dust,
especially dust containing (crystalline) silica.
8.9 Airport Safety

At airports there are many potential risks to workers; in particular, the risk of being struck by moving aircraft or
airside vehicles. Control measures, such as the design of aircraft stands, roadways and parking areas that physically
segregate people from moving aircraft and their support vehicles should go a long way in reducing the risk. In
addition, maintenance of vehicle brakes, lights, rear view mirrors, etc. can also help to reduce risk along with driver
training and use of safe driving techniques. Nevertheless, certain groups of workers have to work very near aircraft
and vehicles and additional precautions are needed for their safety. It is essential that all airside workers are well
trained to be aware of the hazards around them and the measures needed to avoid them. Employers can further
reduce the risk of their employees being struck by providing them with high visibility (HV) clothing so that they
stand out as much as possible from their surroundings.
• Risk assessment in the aviation industry
The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations require employers to assess the risks to their
employees. Employers’ risk assessments should identify all the airside tasks for which the workers will
need HV clothing. Employers should also ensure that the clothing is not only suitable for the task but that
it will be worn when required.
The Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations (1992) covers the selection and use of HV clothing.
In practice, this means that HV clothing will be mandatory for the majority of people whose work involves
them spending time in or around aircraft. Workers in this category will include aircraft Marshallese,
loaders, baggage handlers and refueling engineers. Occasional visitors to these areas, such as the flight crew
performing pre-flight checks, security staff, supervisors and managers, will also need to be considered.
HV clothing and other Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) are always the last line of defense. Wherever
possible, other measures to reduce or control the risks should be adopted first. To be effective, HV clothing
should be of a colour that will allow the wearer to stand out against the ambient background found in the
working environment. In practice, the best colours for this purpose are likely to be day-glow or fluorescent
yellow.
Where necessary, the clothing should also incorporate retro reflective material to make the wearer visible
when seen in headlights in poor lighting conditions or during darkness. This may require reflective strips
at or below waist level on waistcoats or jackets, or strips on trousers.
For clothing when not in use; provide adequate information, instruction and training to enable employees
to use HV clothing correctly. This should include an explanation of the risks, why the clothing is needed,
how and when it should be worn; and supervise employees to ensure that they wear the clothing correctly
and whenever it is needed.
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Industrial Safety
8.10 Safety in Hotel Industry

Safety of the customer is the most important factor in the hotel and catering industry and it is important to plan
carefully when you buy and use equipment. This guidance follows from that and gives you the important health and
safety points you need to plan at each stage of selecting, modifying and using equipment and workplaces.
• Planning the tasks
Each catering task must be suitable for the equipment used to carry it out and must be suitable for your
premises too. Safety will depend on the relationship between the building, the equipment, the type and extent
of catering activities and the competence of your staff. Any one of these items may impose limitations on
the way you carry out your catering – for example, lack of space or ventilation may mean a new fryer you
are thinking of buying may not be safe.
Planning the layout is the key to good health and safety in your premises. When you plan a new layout
or review an existing one, you must take into account the importance of eliminating risks altogether, or
reducing them as far as possible. You need to consider the building, the equipment, processes, workflow, staff
and hygiene. Any arrangements you make should meet hygiene, as well as health and safety requirements
(for example equipment design, floor surfaces and workroom temperature). Make sure the workplace is
suitable.
The walls, floors, lighting, ventilation and other environmental aspects of your workplace must meet legal
requirements. Safe floor surfaces, ventilation and lighting are of particular importance. These are often
ignored in catering premises.
• Ventilation
Steam and combustion fumes must be extracted close to their source.
The workroom should be cooled and smells should be removed by circulating fresh air.
Make up air should be introduced to replace air that is extracted or consumed by combustion.
Routine testing of general air quality is not normally required. If you are in doubt about a particular situation,
then ask your trade association for help.
• Lighting
Adequate levels should be provided so employees can see hazards. Adequate levels should be provided in
corridors and work areas so employees can carry out tasks correctly and safely.
Only take into use equipment which is suitable with respect to health and safety. Identify all the possible
risks involved with a new piece of equipment before buying it. You must also identify all the possible risks
involved with existing equipment. Equipment must only be used in operations for which it is suitable.
Equipment must only be used in suitable work locations, and by staff that is competent to use it safely.
Don’t use equipment beyond its working life. The safe life of a piece of equipment will depend on its size,
how much it has been used, how suitable it is and how well it has been maintained. Additionally, newer
equipment may now incorporate better safeguards.
156
Summary
• The Appropriate Safe System for Cleaning is determined by the standard of safeguards and the machine
controls.
• Apply cleaning solvent with a suitable cloth folded to form a pad without loose edges, using close-fitting
impervious gloves.
• As an employer, you need to train and instruct employees in the appropriate system of work and safeguard
checks for their printing presses.
• Power is a vital input to any economic and social development. It is a core industry and without its development,
no industrial development is possible.
• In India, all workers are not adequately literate and knowledgeable and therefore need strong motivation and
training to observe safety requirements, codes, rules and other loss prevention systems.
• Noise is a hazard within most industries and a number of sources of noise exist in sugar mills and cane
railways.
• A programme for the regular monitoring of noise exposure levels and checking of the effectiveness of noise
control measures should be implemented as part of the safety management system.
• Modern plant design, operational procedures and practices mean that the risks in routine operations can be well
controlled.
• Safety of the customer is the most important factor in the hotel and catering industry and it is important to plan
carefully when you buy and use equipment.
References
• Kampani, B.S., TOYO INK INDIA. Indian print industry – an overview special emphasis on packaging [Online]
Available at: <http://www.npes.in/print/INDIAN%20PRINT%20INDUSTRY.pdf> [Accessed 11 May 2011].
• Printingtechnologies, 2008. Careers In The Printing Industry [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=m-CMtp40zj4> [Accessed 11 May 2011].
• FESPAtv, 2011. Towards a Greener Printing Industry [Video online] Available at: <http://www.veoh.com/watch/
v18885820HEbMEa6x> [Accessed 11 May 2011].
Recommended Reading
• Bernan, 2009. Protecting Workers in Hotels, Restaurants and Catering (European Agency for Safety and Health
at Work), Office for Official Publications of the Europ.
• Fairley, M.C., 1969. Safety Health and Welfare in Printing Industry (L.I.C.E.T.), 1st ed., Pergamon Pr.
• Cement Makers’ Federation, 1975. A guide to your safety in the cement industry (Your safety at work), Ceramics,
Glass and Mineral Products Industry Training Board.
157
Industrial Safety
Self Assessment
1. A variety of acids and caustics are used to etch and clean various media in intaglio and lithography in
______________.
a. cement industry
b. sugar industry
c. printing industry
d. power plant
2. ______________ is a vital input to any economic and social development.

a. Chemical
b. Power
c. Electricity
d. Printing
3. A programme for the regular monitoring of ______________ levels and checking of the effectiveness of noise
control measures should be implemented as part of the safety management system.
a. chemical exposure
b. acid exposure
c. noise exposure
d. ray exposure
4. A devastating fire at Obra Thermal Power Plant resulted in a direct loss of about______________, besides huge
indirect loss.
a. Rs. 30 million
b. Rs. 3 million
c. Rs. 3000 million
d. Rs. 300 million
5. In the cement industry, chromate components are raising concern because of their toxicity and known
___________ effects when the cement is used wet in downstream construction activities.
a. carcinogenic
b. nervous system
c. respiratory
d. digestive

A. In the power plant, cable network on floors or galleries or
1. Injuries due to fall of workers
structures is spread throughout.
B. In the power station, there are possibilities of burn injuries,
2. Slip and fall at same level
other than those specified under electrical injuries.
C. Seepage of oil near the oil storage tanks and pipes may cause
3. Electrocution
slipping of persons on slippery floors.
D. Deposits of coal, dust and ash and its mixing with moisture and
4. Burn injuries
dew on the floors, ladders and stairs makes them slippery.
a. 1-D, 2-C, 3-B, 4-A
b. 1-C, 2-D, 3-A, 4-B
c. 1-B, 2-A, 3-D, 4-C
d. 1-C, 2-A, 3-B, 4-D
158
7. Crushing, extraction, concentration, bleaching, purification and crystallisation are the important processes in
which industry?
a. Sugar
b. Cement
c. Printing
d. Thermal power plant
8. ______________ carries with it an inherent capacity to produce high levels of dust, which without effective
controls can lead to respiratory diseases.
a. Sugar production
b. Printing factory
c. Cement production
d. Hospitals
9. A single depression of the control button causing a cylinder movement of 25 mm is known as __________.
a. Limited inch
b. True inch
c. In-running nips
d. Fixed nip
10. PEL stands for ___________.

a. Permissible Exposure Life
b. Permissible Extended Limit
c. Primary Exposure Limit
d. Permissible Exposure Limit
159
Industrial Safety
Case Study I
Work at Height: Rain Water Gutter Cleaning Problem
An employer owns a medium sized industrial unit employing 10 people. Plastic guttering at the roof edge had
become blocked by loose leaves causing water to overflow and cause localised flooding within the yard. This in
turn flowed into the factory causing damage to stock. The guttering is 5 m above the floor and the asbestos cement
roof is sloping and has skylights, all of which are made of fragile materials.
Risk assessment, planning and organisation

When planning the work, the employer considered the access equipment, the staff available and the conditions of
the site. He had a ladder, a step ladder and a fork lift truck equipped with a working platform which was available
only for exceptional use, i.e. for non-routine tasks. He had some 17 year old trainees and a couple of employees in
their thirties who were more mature and experienced. At the back, there was sloping ground which made access to
the roof difficult. Parts of the external perimeter were used for storage and there were other obstructions such as a
gas cylinder storage cage and a compressor shed. The employer, while planning the work, asked himself whether
the gutters could be cleaned without working at height. The gutters were quite deep, so obstructions could not be
seen from ground level. This meant that access to height was needed; otherwise a long rake could have been used
from the ground level.
The employer asked himself if he could utilise an existing place of work. There were no existing access routes to
the roof. There was no access from inside the factory and no walkways on the edge of the roof with protective floor
coverings or edge protection. The owner decided how best he could carry out the work. If someone climbed onto
the roof he could access all the guttering. Perhaps one of the 17 year old trainees would have been agile enough to
climb onto the roof from a ladder. He immediately discounted this idea as there would be nothing to stop someone
falling off the roof edge or through it.
He assessed the existing work equipment he had at his disposal. His stepladder was not high enough. Someone
would have to stand on the upper rungs and would have no handholds. His two stage ladder was high enough but
he was worried that if it was leaned against the gutter, the gutter could break. He was also worried that there would
be a tendency by the user to overreach to save relocating the ladder as often. The working platform for use with his
fork-lift truck would have provided safe access to about one third of the perimeter where there was good flat ground
with no obstructions. This did not solve the problem with the sloping ground, the compressor shed or the cylinder
store. Some pallets could have been removed but this would have taken time and would have been disruptive to
both deliveries and production.
Solution
Having assessed the conditions and the equipment he had available, he decided to hire a small cherry picker type
Mobile Elevated Work Platform (MEWP), which could also be used for other work for high tasks within and around
the unit. This overcame the sloping ground problem because it could be located on flat stable ground beyond the
slope and its reach overcame the other obstructions. One of his more mature and experienced employees received
instructions from the hirer and safe access was provided from the basket for cleaning the gutters around the entire
unit.
How was this solution reached?

The employer’s risk assessment showed that the work needed to be carried out at a height as the task could not be
carried out from ground level.
• The roof was made of a fragile material and had no edge protection and so was not safe to work from. This
meant that some kind of work equipment needed to be used.
• The work equipment available to the employer was not suitable- it would not have been safe to work from
either the stepladder or the two-stage ladder, and the fork-lift truck and working platform could not cope with
the sloping ground and obstructions around parts of the industrial unit.
160
• The employer’s risk assessment concluded that hiring a MEWP was the safest way of carrying out the job. This
would not only be able to cope with the variety of surfaces in the area, but also provided a flat, level and stable
surface from which to perform the task. The MEWP also had the added advantage of being able to perform
other ad hoc tasks in and around the unit if necessary, thus reducing overall costs.
(Source: Health and Safety Executive, 2011. Gutter cleaning [Online] Available at: <http://www.hse.gov.uk/falls/
casestudies/guttercleaning.htm>. [Accessed on 12 May 2011.])
Questions
1. Describe the problem of the above case study.

Answer:
In the mentioned medium sized industry, plastic guttering at the roof edge had become blocked by loose leaves
causing water to overflow and cause localised flooding within the yard. This in turn flowed into the factory
causing damage to stock. The guttering is 5 m above the floor and the asbestos cement roof is sloping and has
skylights, all of which are fragile materials
2. What is the solution for the problem described in this case?

Answer:
Having assessed the conditions and the equipment the owner had available, he decided to hire a small cherry
picker type Mobile Elevated Work Platform (MEWP), which could also be used for other work for high tasks
within and around the unit. This overcame the sloping ground problem because it could be located on flat stable
ground beyond the slope and its reach overcame the other obstructions. One of the more mature and experienced
employees in the industry received instructions from the hirer and safe access was provided from the basket for
cleaning the gutters around the entire unit.
3. Discuss the risk assessments that conclude the solution in this case?
Answer:
The employer’s risk assessment showed that the work needed to be carried out at a height as the task could not
be carried out from ground level.
The roof was made of a fragile material and had no edge protection and so was not safe to work from. This
meant that some kind of work equipment needed to be used.
The work equipment available to the employer was not suitable- it would not have been safe to work from
either the stepladder or the two-stage ladder, and the fork-lift truck and working platform could not cope
with the sloping ground and obstructions around parts of the industrial unit.
The employer’s risk assessment concluded that hiring a MEWP was the safest way of carrying out the job.
This would not only be able to cope with the variety of surfaces in the area, but also provided a flat, level
and stable surface from which to perform the task. The MEWP also had the added advantage of being able
to perform other ad hoc tasks in and around the unit if necessary, thus reducing overall costs.
161
Industrial Safety
Case Study II
Provision of Safety Barriers on a Mezzanine Floor Problem
Following a review of a risk assessment, an employer was concerned about the risk of falls from openings along
the edge of a mezzanine floor when pallets were being placed and retrieved using a fork lift truck.
Removable metal bars and chains were placed across the openings when they were not in use. This relied on the
operators remembering to put the bars and chains back after use. The employer was also concerned that the chains
would give inadequate protection if someone fell against them.
Risk assessment planning and organisation

The employer considered the use of a harness system which, when worn, would prevent the operator from getting
to an unguarded edge during loading. However, if a second person approached, they would have nothing to stop
them falling from the open edge. In addition, there were time consuming issues and costs relating to training the
user and inspecting the equipment. There would also have been a danger that the trailing line used with the harness
system would constitute a tripping hazard for other workers.
Solution
The employer decided to install special pivoting safety barriers which would provide continuous edge protection
for all employees and not just the person engaged in loading. When a pallet is being landed from below, the barrier
is arranged so that it provides a pallet sized opening at the mezzanine edge with the internal edges guarded. Once
the pallet is landed, the barrier is pivoted forward so that the mezzanine edge is now guarded and the pallet can be
accessed from the mezzanine platform without the risk of a fall.
The safety barrier provided collective protection for all employees and was therefore a better alternative to providing
a harness which would only protect the wearer. Employees also no longer had to remember to put the bars back in
place and the unsatisfactory system of using chains was removed.
How was this solution reached?

• The review of the risk assessment showed that people working on the mezzanine floor were in danger of falling
from a height. The bars and chains previously used were not sufficient to protect workers from these dangers.
• The use of harnesses was discounted due to the inherent risks to anyone not wearing the equipment and the
additional costs.
• The employer decided that the best way to counteract the risk was to install a new system of pivoting safety
barriers. This ensured that edges were guarded at all times. They also ensured that all employees, rather than
just individuals who would have benefited from the use of harness systems, were given protection.
(Source: Health and Safety Executive, 2007. Case Study - Provision of safety barriers on a mezzanine floor [Online]
Available at: <http://www.dale-info.co.uk/HSE_casestudies_barriers.pdf>. [Accessed on 12 May 2011.])
Questions
1. Describe the risk assessment planning and organisation on the above case of Mezzanine floor problem?
2. How the problem of Mezzanine floor is solved?
3. Why the solution is required for the case of Mezzanine floor problem?
162
Case Study III
Printing Industry, Modifying the Task to Reduce the Risk
The task
Waste paper was being transferred in large high-sided trolleys over distances of 25-50 meters. Employees pushed
the trolley to an elevator from where it was mechanically emptied into a compactor.
Fig.1 Waste paper trolley

Assessing the risk
The trolleys were fitted with small plastic castors, which tended to stick in the gaps between the floor tiles. The
high-sided design of the waste trolleys meant that when pushing, the operators’ view of what was in front of them
was reduced. These factors hindered the movement, particularly when fully laden. The forces were measured using
a dynamometer the force measured was 690N (69kg of force) and to keep the trolley moving 430N (43kg of force)
was measured.
Fig.2 Wheel and flooring

The solution
A conveyor system was installed for automatic movement of waste paper to the delivery bay compactor. Automation
of the waste handling process minimised the manual handling involved with waste disposal which in turn reduced
the overall level of forceful handling that operators were expected to perform.
163
Industrial Safety
Alternative recommendations to reduce the risk to the worker

• Half-filling trolleys to reduce the force required to manoeuvre the trolleys and improve forward visibility to make
the task more efficient. This may increase the frequency with which waste trolleys would need to be handled.
• New larger wheels on the trolleys to improve movement across the tiled floor;
• Regular maintenance of wheel bearings to reduce maintaining force when pushing the trolleys.
(Source:Health and Safety Executive, 2011. Case study 3 – printing industry, modifying the task to reduce the risk
[Online] Available at: <http://www.hse.gov.uk/msd/pushpull/printing.htm>. [Accessed on 12 May 2011.])
Questions
1. What is the subject of the above discussed case study?
2. Outline the risk assessment of the case.
3. Describe the solution of the problem.
164
Biblography
References
• Alaimo, R.J., 2001. Handbook of Chemical Health and Safety, An American Chemical Society Publication.
• Design Codes - Plant. 2011. Design Codes - Plant. [Online] Available at: http://www.hse.gov.uk/comah/sragtech/
techmeasplant.htm. [Accessed 03 May 2011].
• Dr. Jolla, L., Blink, 2010. Engineering Controls for Laboratory Safety [Online]. Available at <http://blink.ucsd.
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• FESPAtv, 2011. Towards a Greener Printing Industry [Video online] Available at: <http://www.veoh.com/watch/
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• Kampani, B.S., TOYO INK INDIA. Indian print industry – an overview special emphasis on packaging
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May 2011.]
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165
Industrial Safety
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Industry, 4th ed., W.Heffer and Sons.
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Recommended Reading
• Bernan, 2009. Protecting Workers in Hotels, Restaurants and Catering (European Agency for Safety and Health
at Work), Office for Official Publications of the Europ.
• Blell, E.G., 1993. A guide to safety in the textile industry (NC-OSHA industry guide), Division of Occupational
Safety and Health, N.C. Dept. of Labor.
• Blockley, D.I., 1992. Engineering Safety (Mcgraw-Hill International Series in Civil Engineering), Mcgraw-
Hill.
• Byrne, T., 2001. The International Working at Height Handbook, North Sea Lifting Ltd.
• Cement Makers’ Federation, 1975. A guide to your safety in the cement industry (Your safety at work), Ceramics,
Glass and Mineral Products Industry Training Board.
• Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), 2003. Guidelines for Investigating Chemical Process Incidents,
2nd ed., Wiley-AIChE
• Chastain, L., 2008. Industrial Mechanics and Maintenance, 3rd ed., Prentice Hall.
• Fairley, M.C., 1969. Safety Health and Welfare in Printing Industry (L.I.C.E.T.), 1st ed., Pergamon Pr.
• Green, D. and Gosse, J.F., 2010. Industrial Maintenance, 3rd ed., Amer Technical Publication.
• James, M., 1998. Working at Heights, Thomas Telford Ltd.
• Jayaraman, S., Kiekens, P. and Grancaric A.M., 2006. Intelligent Textiles for Personal Protection and Safety,
IOS Press.
• Kern, D.Q., 1950. Process Heat Transfer, Tata McGraw Hill Education.
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Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd.
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SME.
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166
Self Assessment Answers
Chapter I
1. b
2. a
3. c
4. b
5. a
6. b
7. b
8. c
9. d
10. a
Chapter II
1. b
2. c
3. d
4. a
5. b
6. a
7. d
8. b
9. b
10. c
Chapter III
1. d
2. c
3. a
4. c
5. a
6. c
7. d
8. b
9. d
10. a
Chapter IV
1. c
2. a
3. b
4. d
5. c
6. b
7. d
8. a
9. a
10. c
167
Industrial Safety
Chapter V
1. b
2. a
3. c
4. d
5. a
6. b
7. c
8. a
9. d
10. b
Chapter VI
1. c
2. b
3. d
4. a
5. b
6. c
7. d
8. a
9. b
10. b
Chapter VII
1. c
2. a
3. b
4. d
5. a
6. c
7. a
8. d
9. a
10. c
Chapter VIII
1. c
2. b
3. c
4. d
5. a
6. b
7. a
8. c
9. b
10. d
168

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Industrial Safety

Prof. H. N. Verma Prof. M. K. Ghadoliya

Prof. Milind M. Kulkarni Ashwini Pandit

This book contains the course content for Industrial Safety.

First Edition 2013

II. List of Figures......................................................... VII

III. List of Tables...........................................................IX

V. Case Study.............................................................. 160

VI. Bibliography.......................................................... 165

VII. Self Assessment Answers................................... 167

Chapter VII............................................................................................................................................... 125

Chapter VIII.............................................................................................................................................. 142

• explain material handling methods

• elaborate protection measures against injuries

• describe machine safeguards

• analyse safety instructions

• explain safety requirement for material handling through conveyers

• discuss the concept of biomechanics

• understand safety at work place

• comprehend manual and mechanical handling of materials

• identify the key stages in achieving competency

The non-speculative or pure risks involve only loss such as:

Permanently fixed physical barriers

Interlocked physical barriers

Physical barriers securely fixed in position

Physical barriers securely fixed in position

Two Handed Controls

Safe system of Work for Unguarded Areas

Fig. 1.1 Range of guards

1.2.1 Permanently Fixed Barriers

Table 1.1 Fixed guards: advantages and limitations

1.2.2 Interlocked Physical Barriers

Fig. 1.2 Food mixer with an interlocking guard

1.2.3 Physical Barrier Securely Fixed in Position

Fig.1.3 Fixed guard

1.2.5 Presence-Sensing Systems

Laser guards Light guards

Fig. 1.5 Types of presence sensing guards

Fig. 1.6 Photoelectric light curtain used as a trip guard

Fig. 1.7 A photoelectric light curtain used as a trip guard

1.2.6 Two Handed Controls

1.2.7 Combination of Guards

Fig. 1.8 Paper cutting guillotine

1.2.8 Safe System of Work for Unguarded Areas

1.3 Manual Handling: Storage of Material

The task or method of handling may be hazardous when it involves:

Environmental factors include:

Operator characteristics that affect the handling of loads include:

1.3.1 Work Station Design

1.3.2 Work Practices

Biomechanics - good handling techniques for lifting

Fig. 1.10 Biomechanics

Two-hand squat lift

Assisted one-hand lift

Fig. 1.11 Assisted one-hand lift

Reach and grasp the object to be lifted

• Pushing and pulling

Fig. 1.12 Pushing and pulling of loads

Carrying and holding

1.3.4 General Precautions

1.4 Mechanical Handling

1.4.1 Types of Equipment

Fig. 1.13 Cryogenic handcart

Fig. 1.14 Two-wheeled hand truck

 avoid work at height where