TECHNICAL TERMS

 Measurement
Measurement is the result of a quantitative comparison between a predetermined
standard and an unknown magnitude.

 Range
It represents the highest possible value that can be measured by an instrument.

 Sensitivity
Sensitivity may be defined as the rate of displacement of the indicating device of an instrument
with respect to the measured quantity. OR
Sensitivity refers to the ability of measuring device to detect small differences in a quantity being
measured
 True value
It is the actual magnitude of a signal input to a measuring system which can only be
approached and never evaluated.
 Accuracy
It is defined as the agreement of measured value with the true value of the measured
quantity. It indicates the closeness of the measured value with the true value.
 Precision
It is the repeatability of the measuring process. It is usually expressed in terms of
deviation in measurement.
 Repeatability
It is the ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the same results under the same operating
conditions.
 Reliability
It is the ability of a system to perform and maintain its function in routine circumstances.
 Calibration
Calibration is the process of determining and adjusting an instruments accuracy to make sure its
accuracy is within the manufacturer’s specifications.
 CONCEPT OF MEASUREMENTS

Introduction to Metrology:

 Metrology is the science of precision measurement. Metrology word is derived from two
Greek words such as metro which means measurement and logy which means science.

 The development of the industry largely depends on the engineering metrology.

Types of Metrology:

1. Legal Metrology

Legal metrology' is that part of metrology. Its objective is to maintain uniformity of

measurement throughout the world. It is concerned with the units of measurements, methods of
measurements and the measuring instruments, in relation to the technical and legal requirements.

The activities of the 'Legal Metrology' are:

 Control of measuring instruments;

 Testing of prototypes/models of measuring instruments;
 Examination of a measuring instrument to verify its conformity to the statutory requirements

2. Dynamic Metrology

It is the technique of measuring small variations of a continuous nature. The technique has
proved very valuable, and a record of continuous measurement over a surface has obvious advantages
over individual measurements of an isolated character.

3. Deterministic metrology.

Deterministic metrology is a new philosophy in which part measurement is replaced by

process measurement. The new techniques such as 3D error compensation by CNC systems and
expert systems are applied, leading to fully adaptive control. This technology is used for very high
precision manufacturing machinery and control systems to achieve micro technology and
nanotechnology accuracies.

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Objectives of Metrology:
1. Complete evaluation of newly developed products.
2. Determination of the process capabilities and ensure that these are better than the relevant
component tolerances.
3. Determination of the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that they are quite
sufficient for their respective measurements.
4. Minimizing the cost of inspection by effective and efficient use of available facilities.
5. Reducing the cost of rejects and rework through application of Statistical Quality Control
Techniques.
6. To standardize the measuring methods.
7. To maintain the accuracies of measurement.
8. To prepare designs for all gauges and special inspection fixtures.

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Introduction to Measurement:
 Measurement is defined as the process of numerical evaluation of a dimension (or) The
process of comparison with the standard measuring instruments.

 The basic aim of measurement in industries is to check whether a component has been
manufactured to the required specification or not.

Methods of Measurements:

In precision measurement various methods of measurement are adopted depending upon the
accuracy required and the amount of permissible error.

l. Direct method 2. Indirect method

3. Absolute or Fundamental method 4. Comparative method

5. Transposition method 6. Coincidence method

7. Deflection method 8.Complementary method

9. Contact method 10. Contact less method

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Generalized Measurement System and Standards:

The term standard is used to denote universally accepted specifications for devices,
components or processes. The national institute of standards and technology (NIST) was
established in order to maintain accuracy and standards.

Standards in the national measurement system.

1. Calibration standards: Working standards of industrial or governmental laboratories.

2. Metrology standards: Reference standards of industrial or Governmental laboratories.
3. National standards: It includes prototype and natural phenomenon of Sl (Systems
International), the world wide system of weight and measures standards.

A standard provides a reference or datum for assigning a numerical value to a measured quantity.
The two standard systems of linear measurements are yard (English) and meter (metric).

Meter:
It is the distance between the center portions of two lines etched on a polished surface of a bar
of pure platinum alloy (90%) or irridum alloy (10%). It has overall width and depth of 16 mm each
and is kept at 0°C and under normal atmospheric pressure.

The bar has a wing-like section, with a web whose surface lines arc on the neutral axis. The
relationship between meter and yard is given by,
1 meter = 1.09361 yard

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Yard:

Yard is a bronze bar with square cross-section and 38 inches long. A bar of 38 inches long has a
round recess of 0.5 inches diameter and 0.5 inches deep. A round recess is 1 inch away from the two
ends. A gold plug of 0.1 inch diameter, having three lines is etched transversely and two lines
engraved longitudinally arc inserted into these holes. The yard is then distance between two central
transverse lines on the plugs when the temperature of bar is at 62°F.
1 yard = 0.9144 meter

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Line standard:

When the length being measured is expressed as a distance between the centers of two
engraved lines as in a steel rule, it is known as line standard. Line standards are used for direct length
comparison and they have no auxiliary devices.

Characteristics of Line Standards:

1. It is not possible to take measurements with high accuracy due to thickness of the engraved
lines on the scales.
2. It is easier and quicker to use a scale over a wide range.
3. The scale markings are not subject to wear although significant wear on leading ends leads to
under size measurements.
4. A scale does not possess “built in datum. Therefore it is not possible to align the scale with the
axis of measurement
5. Scales are subjected to the parallax error.
6. Also the assistance of magnifying glass or microscope is required to obtain the sufficient
accuracy.

End Standard:

When the length is measured as the distance between two flat parallel faces, it is known as end
standard. e.g. Measurement by slip gauges, end bars bars, ends of micrometer anvils and vernier
callipers etc.

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Characteristics of End Standards:

1. Highly accurate and well suited to close tolerance measurements.

2. Time-consuming in use.
3. Dimensional tolerance as small as 0.0005 mm can be obtained.
4. Subjected to wear on their measuring faces.
5. To provide a given size, the groups of blocks are "wrung" together. Faulty wringing leads to
inaccurate results.
6. There is a "built-in" datum in end standards, because their measuring faces are flat and parallel and
can be positively locked on a datum surface.
7. As their use depends on "feel' they are not subjected to the parallax error.
Note: The accuracy of line and end standards is affected by temperature changes and both are
originally calibrated at 20 ± ½°C.

Relative Characteristics of Line and End Standards:

Sr. Characeristics Line Standard End Standard
No
Priciple Length is expressed as the distance Length is expressed as the
1 between two lines distance between two flat
parallel faces
Accuracy Limited to ±0.2mm. In order to achieve Very accurate for
2 high accuracy, scales have to be used in measurement of close
conjunction with microscopes. tolerances upto ±0.001mm.
Time of Quick and easy Time consuming
3 measurement
Effect of wear Scale markings not subject to wear but Measuring faces get worn
the end of scale is worn. Thus it may be out. To take care of this end
4 difficult to assume zero of scale as pieces can be hardened,
datum. protecting type. Built-in
datum is provided.
Manufacture and Simple to manufacture and low cost Complex process and cost is
5 cost of equipment high.

Alignment Cannot be easily aligned with the axis Can be easily aligned with
6 of measurement. the axis of measurement

7 parallax error There are subjected to parallax error Errors may get introduced
parallax error due to improper wringing of
slip gauges.

8 Examples Scale Slip gauges, callipers

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Wave Length Standard:

In 1829, Jacqnes Babinet, a French philosopher, suggested that wave lengths of

monochromatic light might be used as natural and invariable units of length.
Material standards are liable to destruction and their dimensions change slightly with time. It is
because of this reason that International standard measures the meter in terms of wavelength of
krypton 86 (Kr 86).

Advantages of Wave Length:

1. It is not influence by effects of variations of environmental temperature, pressure and

humidity because it is not a material standard.
2. There is no need to store it under security and thus there is no fear of its being destroyed as in
the case yard and meter.
3. It is easily available to all standardizing houses, laboratories and industries.
4. It can be easily transferred to other standards.
5. This standard can be used for making comparative statement with much higher accuracy.
6. It is easily reproducible.

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Accuracy of Measurements:

The agreement of the measured value with the true value of the measured quantity is called
accuracy. Thus the term accuracy denotes the closeness of the measured value with the true value.
The difference between the measured value and the true value is the error of measurement. The lesser
the error, more is the accuracy.

Precision:

Precision is the repeatability of the measuring process. If the instrument is not precise it will give
different (widely varying) results for the same dimension when measured again and again. The scatter
of these measurements is designated as σ, the standard deviation. It is used as an index of precision.
Thus lower the value of σ, the more precise is the instrument.

Distinction between Precision and Accuracy:

Accuracy is very often confused with precision though much different. The distinction
between the precision and accuracy will become clear by the following example.

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Factors affecting the accuracy of the measuring system:

 Factors affecting the calibration standards.

 Factors affecting the work piece.

 Factors affecting the inherent characteristics of the instrument.

 Factors affecting the person, who carries out the measurements,

 Factors affecting the environment.

1. Factors affecting the Standard:

 coefficient of thermal expansion,

 calibration interval,

 stability with time,

 elastic properties,

 geometric compatibility

2. Factors affecting the Work piece:

 cleanliness, surface finish, waviness, scratch, surface defects etc.,

 hidden geometry,

 elastic properties,

 adequate datum on the work piece,

 arrangement of supporting work piece,

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3. Factors affecting the inherent characteristics of Instrument:

 adequate amplification for accuracy objective,

 scale error,

 effect of friction, backlash, hysteresis(lag between input and output in a system upon change

in direction), zero drift error,

 deformation in handling or use, when heavy work pieces are measured,

 calibration errors,

 mechanical parts (slides, guide ways or moving elements),

 repeatability and readability,

4. Factors affecting person :

 training, skill,

 sense of precision appreciation,

 ability to select measuring instruments and standards,

 sensible appreciation of measuring cost,

 Attitude towards personal accuracy achievements.

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5. Factors affecting Environment:

 temperature, humidity etc.,

 clean surrounding and minimum vibration enhance precision,

 adequate illumination,

 thermal expansion effects due to heat radiation from lights,

The above analysis of five basic metrology elements can be composed into the acronym.
SWIPE, for convenient reference
Where

S - STANDARD

W- WORKPIECE

I - INSTRUMENT

P-PERSON

E – ENVIRONMENT

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Sensitivity:

Sensitivity may be defined as the rate of displacement of the indicating device of an

instrument, with respect to the measured quantity. In other words, sensitivity of an instrument is the
ratio of the scale spacing to the scale division value.
dy
The sensitivity at any value of y = where dx and dy are increments of x and y, taken over the full
dx
instrument scale, the sensitivity is the slope of the curve at any value of y.

Sensitivity refers to the ability of measuring device to detect small differences in a quantity
being measured. High sensitivity instruments may lead to drifts due to thermal or other effects, and
indications may be less precise than that of the instrument of lower sensitivity.

Readability:

Readability refers to the ease with which the readings of a measuring instrument can be read.

 Fine and widely spaced graduation lines ordinarily improve the readability.

 If the graduation lines are very finely spaced, the scale will be more readable by using the

microscope and magnifying devices.

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Calibration:

Calibration is the process of checking the accuracy of an instrument by comparing it to the gauge that
has been certified as a standard.

It is carried out by making adjustments such that the read out device produces zero output for zero
measured input.

If the accuracy is to be maintained, the instruments must be checked and recalibrated if necessary.

Magnification:

This magnification means increasing the magnitude of output signal of measuring instrument
many times to make it more readable.

In order to measure small differences in dimensions the movement of the measuring tip in
contact with the work must be magnified. Generally, the greater the magnification, the smaller is the
range of measurement on the instrument.

The magnification obtained in measuring instrument may be

 Mechanical - Mechanical magnification is the simplest and economical method obtained by
means of levers or gear trains.
 Electrical- In electrical magnification, the change in the inductance or capacitance of electric
circuit, made by change in the quantity being measured is used to amplify the output of the
measuring instrument.
 Electronic- Electronic magnification is obtained by the use of valves, transistors or ICS.
 Optical- Optical magnification uses the principle of reflection
 Pneumatic Principles -Pneumatic magnification makes use of compressed air for amplifying
the output of measuring instrument.

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Repeatability:

It is the ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the same results for the measurements for
the same quantity, when the measurement are carried out

- by the same observer,

- with the same instrument,
- under the same conditions,
- without any change in location,
- without change in the method of measurement
- and the measurements are carried out in short intervals of time.

Reproducibility

Reproducibility is the consistency of pattern of variation in measurement i.e. closeness of the

agreement between the results of measurements of the same quantity, when individual measurements
are carried out:
- by different observers,
- by different methods,
- using different instruments,
- under different conditions, locations, times etc.

Consistency:

(i) It is the consistency of the reading on the instrument scale, when the same dimension is
measured number of times.
(ii) It affects the performance of the measuring instrument and complete confidence in the
accuracy of the process.

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Errors in Measurements:

It is never possible to measure the true value of a dimension there is always some error.

Error in measurement = Measured value - True value

The error in measurement may be expressed either as an absolute error or as a relative error.

Absolute Error:
True absolute error: It is the algebraic difference between the result of measurement and the
conventional true value of the quantity measured.

Apparent absolute error: The algebraic difference between one of the results of measurement
and the arithmetical mean is known as apparent absolute error.

Relative Error:
It is the quotient of the absolute error and the true value or the arithmetic mean for series of
measurement.

The error depends upon so many factors, such as:

- calibration standard
- Work piece
- Instrument
- Person
- Environment etc. as already described.

Usually 'Single Sample Test' or 'Multi-Sample Test' is used to minimize the error.

The multi-sample test avoids many controllable errors e.g., personal error, instrument zero
error etc. The multi-sample test is costlier than the single sample test and hence the later is in wide
use.
In practice good number of observations is made under single sample test and statistical
techniques are applied to get results which could be approximate to those obtainable from multi-
sample test.

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Types of Errors:

1. Systematic Error:

These errors include calibration errors, error due to variation in the atmospheric condition, variation in
contact pressure etc.

If properly analyzed, these errors can be determined and reduced or even eliminated hence also called
controllable errors. These errors are repetitive in nature and are of constant and similar form.

2. Random Error:

These errors are caused due to

 Variations in the position of setting standard and work-piece

 Slight displacement of lever joints of instruments

 backlash, friction

 Scale reading error

These errors are non-consistent and hence the name random errors.

3. Environmental Error:

These errors are caused due to effect of

 Surrounding temperature, pressure and humidity on the measuring instrument.

 External factors like nuclear radiation, vibrations and magnetic field.

Temperature plays an important role where high precision is required. e.g. while using slip gauges,
due to handling the slip gauges may acquire human body temperature, whereas the work is at 20°C. A
300 mm length will go in error by 5 microns which is quite a considerable error.

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4. Alignment Error (Cosine Error):

This error is based on Abbes principle of alignment which states that the line of measurement of the

measuring component should coincide with the measuring scale or axis of the measuring instrument.

To measure the actual size of the job L, using steel rule it is necessary that the steel rule axis should
be normal to the axis of the job as shown in Figure.

From Figure (b), L = actual size of job, I= measured size of job, e = error induced due to non-
alignment.
e=l-L
Therefore from the geometry,
L  l cos  , But
elL
e  l  l cos 
e  l l  cos  
The equation of error consist of cosine function, hence error is called cosine error.

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5. Elastic Deformation or Support Error:

Long bars due to improper support or due to self weight may undergo deflection or may bend. As

shown in Figure, due to less or high distance between the support, A long bar tends to deform.

Such errors can be reduced if the distance between the support point is kept as 0.577 of the total
distance of bar as shown in Figure.

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6. Dirt Error:

Sometimes, dirt particles can enter in to the inspection room through the door and the windows. These

particles can create small dirt errors at the time of measurement.

7. Contact Error:

While measuring the thickness of the curved plate if the jaws of the instrument are placed as shown in
Figure the error 'e' is developed, which is because of poor contact only.

8. Parallax Error (Reading Error):

The position of the observer at the time of taking a reading (on scale) can create errors in
measurement. To eliminate this error he should take readings by viewing eye position exactly
perpendicular to the scale.

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UNIT 1

SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCES AND GAUGING

 Introduction
 Definition of limits
 Need for limit system
 Tolerance
 Tolerance dimensions ( system of writing tolerance)
 Relationship between Tolerance Vs Cost
 Compound tolerance.
 Tolerance accumulation or tolerance “build –up”
 Specifying tolerances in assembly
 Interchangeability
 Selective assembly
 Limits of size
 Indian standard (IS 919-1963)
 Condition for the success of any system of limits and fits.
 Concepts of Limits of size and Tolerance
 Some Definitions
 Definition of Fit
 Types of Fit and their Designation (IS 919-1963)
 Specific types of Fit
 Allowance
 Geometrical Tolerance
 Positional Tolerance
 Symbols and terms used in IS 919-1965
 System of Fits
 Hole Basis System
 Staff Basis System
 Significance of Hole Basis System
 Tolerance Grade
 Numerical Problems

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INTRODUCTION:

 In nature two extremely similar (identical) things are difficult to obtain.

 If at all we come across exactly similar things, it must be only by chance.

 Its holds good for production of component parts in engineering.

 Every process is combination of three elements namely, man, machine and material

 A change in any of these constitutes a change in the process.

 The above said three elements are subjected to inherent and characteristics variations.

Example:

1. Drilling operation is to be performed on castings.

2. Shaft rotating in bearing.

Thus we conclude that:

1. It is not possible to make any part precisely to a given dimension, due to variability of

elements of production process.

2. Even if by chance the part made exactly to a given dimension, it is impossible to measure

it accuracy enough to prove it.

3. If attempts are made to achieve perfect size the cost of production will increase

tremendously.

Therefore, the magnitude of permissible variation in dimension has to be allowed to account for

the variability.

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Limits:

Definition: The maximum and minimum permissible sizes within which the actual size of a

component lies are called limits.

 Limits are fixed with reference to the basic size of that dimension.

 Upper limit (The high limit) for that dimension is the largest size permitted and the low

limit is the smallest size permitted for that dimension.

Need for limit system:

 The correct and prolonged functioning of manufactured products depends upon correct

size relationship between mating parts.

 This means that the parts must fit together in a certain way.

Example: Valve Assembly

Hence purpose of limit system is to establish the types of fits and recommend the dimensions of

the mating parts

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Tolerance:

Definition: Tolerance can be defined as “the permissible variation in size or dimension” of a part. Or

Tolerance is the difference between the upper limit and lower limit of a part.

The word Tolerance indicates that a worker is not expected to produce the part to the exact

size, but a definite small size error is permitted.

Tolerance Zone: The difference between upper limit and the lower limit of a dimension

represents the margin for variation in workmanship, and is called a “Tolerance zone”.

Example: a shaft of 25 mm basic size may be written as 25 + 0.02

Upper limit = 25 + 0.02 = 25.02 mm

Lower limit = 25 – 0.02 = 24.98 mm

Tolerance = upper limit – lower limit

= 25.02 – 24.98 = 0.04 mm

NOTE: The tolerance is always a positive quantitative number.

25
System of writing Tolerance (Toleranced dimensions):

There are two systems of writing tolerance

1. Unilateral system

2. Bilateral system

1. Unilateral system:

When the two limit dimensions are only above or only below the nominal size (basic

size) then the tolerances are said to be Unilateral.

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Advantages of unilateral system

Unilateral tolerance is preferred in interchangeable manufacture, especially when

precision fits are required.

 It is easy and simpler to determine deviations.

 GO gauge ends can be standardized, as the holes of different tolerance grades have the

same lower limit and all the shafts have same upper limit.

 This form of tolerance greatly assists the operator, when machining of mating parts.

27
2. Bilateral system:

When the limit dimensions are given above and below the nominal size (basic size) then

the tolerances are said to be bilateral.

Example: 25+0.02, 25 +0.01 etc

 In this system it is not possible to retain the same fit when tolerance is only varied and the basic

size of one or both the parts is to be varied.

 This system is used in mass production when machine setting is done for the basic size.

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Relationship between Tolerance and Cost:

Fig. The relationship between tolerance and cost of production

If the tolerances are made closer and closer, the cost of production goes on increasing,

because to manufacture the component with closer tolerances, we need

 Precision machines, tools, materials

 Trained and high skilled operators

 Tight inspection and more precise testing and inspection devices

 More concentration of the operators, frequent checking and more time which

slows down the rate of production

 Close supervision and control is essential

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Maximum and minimum Metal Limits

(Or Maximum and Minimum Metal conditions):

 If the tolerance for the shaft is given as 25+0.05, the upper limit will be 25.05 mm and the

lower limit will be 24.94 mm.

 The shaft is said to be have Maximum Metal Limit (MML) of 25.05mm, since at this

limit the shaft has maximum possible amount of metal.

 The limit of 24.95 will then be the minimum or “Least metal Limit” (LML) because at

this the shaft will have the least possible amount of metal.

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 Similarly, for hole is designated as 30+0.05 mm.

 The upper limit will be 30.05 mm and the lower limit will be 29.95 mm.

 Then, the maximum metal limit (MML) of hole will be equal to 29.95 mm, since at this

lower limit the hole has the maximum possible amount of metal.

 While the minimum metal limit (LML) of hole will be equal to 30.05 mm. then, the upper

limit of the hole has the minimum possible amount of metal.

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Terminologies used in Limits and Fits

Shaft: The term shaft refers not only to the diameter of a circular shaft but also to any external

dimension of a component.

Hole: The term shaft not only refers to the diameter of the circular hole but also any internal

dimension of a component.

 When an assembly is made of two parts, one is known as male-surface and the other

mating part as female (enveloping) surface.

 The male surface is called as shaft and the female surface is called as hole.

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Basic Size or Nominal Size: It is the standard size of a part in relation to which all limits of variation

are determined. The basic size is same for hole and shaft.

Actual size: actual size is the dimension as measured on manufacturing part.

Zero line: it is straight line drawn horizontally to represent the basic size. In the graphical

representation of limits and fits, all the deviations are shown with respect to the zero line (datum

line).

 The positive deviations are shown above zero line and negative deviation is shown below

zero line as shown in figure.

Deviation: Deviation is the algebraic difference between the size (actual, maximum, etc) and

the corresponding basic size.

Upper deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the upper (maximum) limit of size

and the corresponding basic size.

 It is positive quantity when the upper limit of size is greater than the basic size and

negative quantity when the upper limit of the size less than the basic size as shown in

figure.

 It is denoted by “ES” for hole and “es” for shaft.

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Lower deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the lower (minimum) limit of size

and the corresponding basic size.

 It is positive quantity when the lower limit of size is greater than the basic size and

negative quantity when the lower limit of the size less than the basic size.

 It is denoted by “EI” for hole and “ei” for shaft.

Fundamental deviation: Either the upper or lower deviation, which is the nearest one to the

zero line for either a hole or a shaft.

 It fixes the position of Tolerance zone in relation to the zero line.

34
From the figures it is very clear that

When the tolerance zone is above the zero line, then lower deviation is fundamental deviation.

When the tolerance zone is below zero line, then upper deviation is fundamental deviation.

Basic shaft: basic shaft is the shaft whose upper deviation is zero. Thus upper limit of the basic

shaft is same as the basic size. It is denoted by letter “h”

Basic hole: basic hole is the hole whose lower deviation is zero. Thus lower limit of the basic

hole is same as the basic size. It is denoted by letter “H”

Tolerance Zone: It is the zone bounded by two limits of size of a part in the graphical

representation of tolerance.

Tolerance Grade: It is an indication of degree of accuracy of manufacture and it is designated by

the letters ‘IT’(International Tolerance Grade) followed by a number.E.g IT01,IT0,IT1,upto

IT16.Larger the number larger will be the tolerance.

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The relationship of deviation with tolerance is given by,

For shaft, IT = es – ei (upper deviation – lower deviation)

For hole, IT = ES – EI (upper deviation – lower deviation)

36
Definition of fits, types of fits and their Designation (Is 919 – 1963):

Fit: Fit may be defined as a degree of tightness or looseness between two mating parts to

perform a definite function when they are assembled together.

Accordingly, a fit may result either as a moveable joint or a fixed joint.

For example: a shaft running in a bearing can move in relation to it and thus forms a

moveable joint, whereas, a pulley mounted on the shaft forms a fixed joint.

Types of fits (Classification of fits):

On the basis of positive, zero and negative values of clearance, there are three types of fits:

1. Clearance fit

2. Transition fit.

3. Interference fit

37
 1. Clearance fit:

 In this type of fit shaft is always smaller than hole.

 In this type of fit, the largest permitted shaft diameter is smaller than the diameter

of the smallest hole as shown in figure.

 The shaft can rotate or slide through with different degree of freedom according to

the purpose of mating part.

Example: Tailstock spindle of lathe, Gearbox bearings

Maximum clearance: it is the difference between maximum size of hole and the

minimum size of shaft.

Minimum clearance: it is the difference between the maximum size of shaft and

minimum size of hole.

38
2. Interference fit:

 In this type of fit the minimum permissible diameter of the shaft is larger than the

maximum allowable diameter of the hole.

 Here the shaft and hole members are intended to be attached permanently and used

as a solid component.

Example: bearing bushes, steel rings on a wooden bullock cart wheel etc.

Fig. Interference fit

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Transition fit:

 Transition fit lies mid way between clearance and interference fit.

 In this type of fit, the diameter of the largest allowable hole is greater than that of

the smallest shaft, but the smallest hole is smaller than the largest shaft, so that a

small positive and negative clearance exists between the shaft and hole as shown

in figure.

 Thus clearance or interference may occur depending upon the actual sizes of

mating parts

Example: Spigot in mating holes, coupling rings.

40
Types of clearance Fit:

1. Slide Fit: This type of fit has very small clearance, the minimum clearance being zero.

 Sliding fits are employed when the mating parts are required to move slowly in

relation to each other.

Example: Tailstock spindle of lathe, feed movement of spindle quill in drilling.

2. Easy Slide Fit: It provides a small guaranteed clearance.

 It is applicable for slow and non regular motion

Example: Spindle of lathe and dividing heads, Piston and slide valves.

3. Running Fit: It is obtained when there is an appreciable clearance between the mating

parts for lubrication.

 It is employed for rotation at moderate speed.

Example: gear box bearings, crank shafts in their main bearings.

4. Slack running Fit: It is obtained when there is a considerable clearance between the

mating parts.

 It is required as compensation for mounting errors.

Example: Shaft of a centrifugal pump, arm shaft of I.C. engine etc.

5. Loose running Fit: It is employed for rotation at very high speed.

Example: Idle pulleys on their shaft such as that used in quick return mechanism of

a planer.

41
Types of Transition Fit:

1. Push fit or Snug fit:

 It provides a small clearance

 It is employed for parts that must be dis-assembled during operation of a machine

Example: change gears.

2. Wringing Fit:

 It provides either zero interference or a clearance

 It is used when the parts are to be replaced without difficulty during minor

repairs.

 Example: gears of machine tools.

42
Types of Interference Fit:

1. Force fit or pressed fit:

 Force fit is employed when the mating parts are not required to be dis-assembled

during their total service life.

 In this assembly is obtained only when high pressure is applied.

Example: Gears on the shaft of concrete mixture, forging machine etc.

2. Tight fit: It provides less interference than force fit.

 Tight fits are employed for mating parts that may be replaced while overhauling

of the machine.

Example: Stepped pulleys on the drive shaft of a conveyor, cylindrical grinding machine

etc.

3. Heavy force and Shrink fit: It refers to maximum negative allowance.

 Considerable force is necessary for the assembly.

 The fitting of frame on the rim can also be obtained first by heating the frame and

then rapidly cooling it in its position.

Example: Steel rings on a wooden bullock cart wheels.

43
Allowance:

 Allowance is the prescribed difference between the dimensions of two mating

parts for any type of fit.

 It is the intentional difference between the lower limit of the hole and upper

limit of the shaft.

 The allowance may be positive or negative.

 The positive allowance is called clearance and negative allowance is called

interference.

Fig. Allowance

44
Difference between tolerance and allowance:

Tolerance Allowance

1. It is the difference between the upper 1.It is the intentional difference between

limit and lower limit of a part lower limit of hole to upper limit of shaft

2. It is the permissible difference 2. It is the prescribed difference between

in dimension or size of a part. the dimensions of two mating parts.

3. It is absolute value without sign 3. allowance may be +ve or –ve

4. Tolerance is provided on the dimension 4. Allowance is provided on mating parts to

of apart as it is not possible to produce a obtain desired type of fit.

part to exact size.

45
Systems of obtaining Different Types of Fits:

A limit and fit system is the system of series of standard allowances to suit a specific

range of basic size. These standard allowances are to be selected and assigned to mating

parts to ensure specific classes of fit.

There are two systems of fit to obtain various types of fits

1. Hole basis system

2. Shaft basis system.

Hole basis system: In 'Hole basis system' the limits on the hole are kept constant and

the shaft sizes are varied to obtain the various types of fits.

46
 Shaft basis system: In 'Shaft basis system' the limits on the shaft are kept constant

and the sizes of hole are varied to obtain the various types of fits.

The hole basis system is most commonly used because a great many holes are produced by

standard tooling, for example, drills, taps, reamers and broaches etc. and their sizes are not

adjustable. Subsequently the shaft sizes can be very easily varied about the basic size by

means of turning or grinding operations.

In shaft basis system due to non-adjustable nature of reamers, drills etc. great variety (of

sizes) of these tools are required for producing different classes of holes for one class of

shaft for obtaining different fits.

47
 Interchangeability:

 Interchangeability occurs when one part in an assembly can be substituted for a

similar part which has been made to the same drawing.

 When one component assembles properly with any mating component, both being

chosen at random, then this is interchangeable manufacture.

Example

Suppose there are 100 parts each with a hole, and 100 shafts which have to fit into

any of the holes.

 If there is interchangeability then any one of the 100 shafts should fit into any of

the holes and the required kind of fit can be obtained.

Advantages of interchangeability:

1. The assembly of mating parts is easier. Since any component picked up from its lot

will assemble with any other mating part from another lot without additional fitting

and machining.

2. It is possible to produce mating parts at different places by different operators.

3. It eliminates assembling the parts by trial and error method

4. Worn out and defective parts can be easily replaced.

5. Maintenance cost and shut down period is reduced.

6. The operator becomes specialized in a particular operation, thus improving quality

and saving the time for operations

7. It reduces the production cost and enhances the production rate.

8. The standardization of machine parts and manufacturing methods is possible.

48
Selective Assembly:

 In selective assembly, the parts manufactured to the wider tolerances are classified

into various groups according to their size by automatic gauging.

 In which only parts from matched groups are assembled.

Example: Assembly of piston with cylinder bores.

Let the bore size be 50mm & the clearance required for the assembly 0.12mm on the

diameter. Let the tolerance on bore and the piston each = 0.04mm. Then, Dimension of

bore diameter is 50+0.02 mm. Dimension of piston shaft is 49.88+0.02 mm.

By grading the pistons and bores, they may be selected and assembled to give the

clearance of 0.12 mm as given below.

Cylinder bore 49.98, 50.00, 50.02

Piston 49.86, 49.88, 49.90

49
 Uses of Selective Assembly

 Selective assembly is often used in aircraft, automobiles and other industries

where the tolerance are very narrow(closer) and are not possible to

manufacturer by a sophisticated machine at reasonable cost.

 It is used in applications when more number of parts are to be piled up for an

assembly.

Significance of Selective Assembly in manufacturing

 It reduces manufacturing cost and gives high quality in assembly at economical price.

 Reduces the scrap rate in manufacturing.

 It produces tight tolerance of assembly, although the components are made with wide

tolerances.

 It reduces machining cost and defective assemblies.

 It increases the efficiency of fit, without reducing the tolerance zone of

component.

50
Differences between Selective assembly and Interchangeability

Selective assembly Interchangeability

1. It is a concept in which sub components

1.It is the ability of a product to be replaced
are assembled to obtain a final assembly
to satisfy the requirements of the another
which will have high tolerance specifications
product.
than that of making sub-components.

2. It is results in high quality in assembly. 2. It results in higher outputs.

3. Standardization of parts is necessary for

3. No requirement of standardization of parts.
economical aspects.

4. It produces tight tolerance of assembly, 4. It eliminates assembling of parts by trial

although the components are made with wide
and error method.
tolerances.

5. It helps in replacing worn out and

5. It reduces the scrap.
defective parts.

6. It reduces defective assemblies. 6. It reduces shut down period of the unit.

51
Specifying tolerance in an assembly:

The type of assembly or fit between the mating parts will be decided based on the

functional requirements (i.e., clearance type of fit like in bearing and shaft.)

Accordingly tolerances on the shaft and hole are decided using the following two methods:

1. Complete interchangeability

2. Statistical approach.

In complete interchangeability, no risk is taken even for a single non-confirming

assembly.

If the fit between shaft and hole is clearance type then for the complete

interchangeability.

Tolerance on shaft = Tolerance on hole = Half of the maximum clearance – half of the

minimum clearance

In Statistical approach:

 Statistical approach bases the permissible tolerance on the normal distribution

curve.

 Considering that only 0.3% of the parts would lie outside ±3σ limits.

 This approach, obviously, allow wider tolerances and permits cheaper

production methods especially in mass production.

 It was estimated that about 33% more tolerance may be permitted by

statistical approach compared to complete interchangeability.

52
 Compound Tolerance:

 A compound tolerance one which is derived by considering the effect of tolerance

on more than one dimension.

 For example: in figure the tolerance on dimension L are dependent on tolerances

on D, H, and Ө.

 This compound tolerance on L is the combined effect of all the three tolerances.

 The dimension L will be maximum when the base dimension is D+a, θ+α and the

vertical dimension is H-d.

 The dimension L will be minimum when the base dimension is D-b, θ-β and the

vertical dimension is H+c.

c 
d
    

 


a
b
D

figure: Compound tolerance

53
Tolerance accumulation or Tolerance “Build-up”:

If a part consists of several steps, each step having some tolerance over its length, then

overall tolerance on complete length will be the sum of the tolerance on individual lengths

as shown on figure.

Limits of Size:

In deciding the limits for a particular dimension it is necessary to consider following.

1. Functional requirements: The intended function that a component should

perform

2. Interchangeability: Replacements of the component in case of failure/ damage

without difficulty

3. Economy in production time and cost.

 Thus degree of tolerance provided on the mating components calls for a compromise.

 Number of standards on limit and fit systems has been published to help the designer in

selecting the uniform limits and fits.

54
Standard Limit Systems

 Limit systems helps the user in selecting the basic clearances and interferences for a

given type of fit.

 For universal interchangeability it is essential to follow a uniform standard

throughout the world.

(a) British standard BS-4500-1969

(b) The International Standard ISO: 286-1988

(c) Indian Standard IS-919

All these three standards make use of standard tolerance and fundamental deviation.

Indian standard Systems of Limits and Fits (IS 919 and 2709):

 The Indian standard system of limits and fits comprises suitable combination of 18 grades

of fundamental tolerances for manufacturer (IT01,IT0 to IT16), and 25 types of

fundamental deviations represented by letter symbols for both holes and shafts (capital

letters A to ZC for holes and lower case letters a to zc for shafts).Letter symbols I, L, O, Q

and W are not used

 The 25 fundamental deviations of hole are represented BY

A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,JS,J,K,M,N,P,R,S,T,U,V,X,Y,Z,ZA,ZB,ZC

 Similarly letters a to zc are used to represent fundamental deviations of shaft

 Tolerance unit is denoted by two symbols –Letter symbol denotes fundamental deviation

and the number symbol represents fundamental tolerance.

 The basic size 1 to 500 mm has been sub divided into 13 steps or ranges. From 500 to 3150

mm, there are 8 nominal steps.

 The fundamental tolerance is a function of the standard tolerance unit i, which is given by

55
 i= 0.045 D(1/3)+0.001D where I is in microns and D in mm(geometric mean of the limiting

values of basic steps). This relation is valid for grades 5-16 and sizes from 3-3150 mm.

Fig. Graphical illustration of tolerance zones

Grades of Tolerance

IT5

56
57
58
Geometrical Tolerance:
 In addition to linear dimensions it is necessary to specify and control the

geometric features of a component, such as straightness, flatness,

roughness etc.

 Geometric tolerances are concerned with the accuracy of the relationship

of one component to another, and it should be specified separately.

 Geometric tolerance may be defined as the maximum permissible overall

variation of form, or position of form, or position of feature.

Geometric characteristics and symbols:

It is of two types

1. Single feature

2. Related feature.

Positional Tolerance:

If A particular hole is to be drilled in a plate.

First axis of the hole will be defined and located. Some tolerance is allowed on this.

Thus center of hole itself can occupy any position within a square at the center

depending on the tolerance specified to locate center

Then some tolerance has to be specified for manufacturing hole. Thus hole

obtained will be having cumulative effect of two tolerances.

This problem is obviated by specifying positional tolerances.

 In conventional method a positional tolerance is given by tolerance

coordinates is as shown in figure.

59
 In case of hole illustrated, it will be seen that the tolerance zone for a hole

center is square.

 If the tolerance coordinate are not equal then zone would be rectangle.

 Thus permissible error in position of center varies within the direction of error.

 But, in most of the cases, the designer wishes to restrict the amount by

which the hole may vary from its true position irrespective of direction of

error.

 The method of tolerancing as shown in figure a and figure b provides a

circular tolerance zone for the center and consequently permits the same

error in any direction.

 A careful study of figure shows how much tolerancing allows a large

positional error for a hole which is not on maximum metal condition.

60