Lou Elieza D.

Soledad February 26, 2018

12 STEAM - E

Digestive System
The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into energy
and basic nutrients to feed the entire body. Food passes through a long tube inside the
body known as the alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). The alimentary
canal is made up of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, and
large intestines. In addition to the alimentary canal, there are several important accessory
organs that help your body to digest food but do not have food pass through them.
Accessory organs of the digestive system include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas.

Diseases of the Digestive System

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)

When stomach acid backs up into your esophagus — a condition called acid reflux —
you may feel a burning pain in the middle of your chest. It often occurs after meals or at
night, says Neville Bamji, MD, a clinical instructor of medicine at the Icahn School of
Medicine at Mount Sinai and a gastroenterologist with New York Gastroenterology
Associates.

While it’s common for people to experience acid reflux and heartburn once in a while,
having symptoms that affect your daily life or occur at least twice each week could be a
sign of GERD, a chronic digestive disease that affects 20 percent of Americans, according
to the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). If you
experience persistent heartburn, bad breath, tooth erosion, nausea, pain in your chest or
upper part of your abdomen, or have trouble swallowing or breathing, see your doctor.

Most people find relief by avoiding the foods and beverages that trigger their symptoms
and/or by taking over-the-counter antacids or other medications that reduce stomach acid
production and inflammation of the esophagus. But some cases of GERD require stronger
treatment, such as medication or surgery.

Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Is your digestive tract irritable? Do you have stomach pain or discomfort at least three
times a month for several months? It could be irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), another
common digestive condition.
An estimated 10 to 15 percent of people worldwide suffer from irritable bowel syndrome,
and of that percentage between 25 and 45 million people live in the United States,
according to the International Foundation for Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders. Signs
of IBS can vary widely: You can be constipated or have diarrhea, or have hard, dry stools
on one day and loose watery stools on another. Bloating is also a symptom of IBS.

What causes IBS isn’t known, but treatment of symptoms centers largely on diet, such as
eating low-fat, high-fiber meals or avoiding common trigger foods (dairy products,
alcohol, caffeine, artificial sweeteners, and foods that produce gas).

Friendly bacteria, such as the probiotics found in live yogurt, may also help you feel
better. Stress can trigger IBS symptoms, so some people find cognitive-behavioral
therapy or low-dose antidepressants to be useful treatments, as well.

Celiac Disease

An estimated 1 in 133 Americans has celiac disease, according to Beyond Celiac,

formerly the National Foundation for Celiac Awareness. The group also estimates that 83
percent of people who have celiac disease don’t know they have it, or have been
misdiagnosed with a different condition.

Celiac disease is a serious sensitivity to gluten, which is a protein found in wheat, rye,
and barley. Eat gluten, and your immune system goes on the attack: It damages your villi,
the finger-like protrusions in your small intestines that help you absorb nutrients from the
foods you eat. Symptoms of celiac disease in children include abdominal pain and
bloating, diarrhea, constipation, vomiting, and weight loss. Symptoms in adults can also
include anemia, fatigue, bone loss, depression, and seizures.

Yet some people may not have any symptoms. The only treatment for celiac disease is to
completely avoid eating gluten. Common alternatives to gluten include brown rice,
quinoa, lentils, soy flour, corn flour, and amaranth.

Respiratory System
The human respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and
expelling carbon dioxide. The primary organs of the respiratory system are lungs, which
carry out this exchange of gases as we breathe. Red blood cells collect the oxygen from
the lungs and carry it to the parts of the body where it is needed, according to the
American Lung Association. During the process, the red blood cells collect the carbon
dioxide and transport it back to the lungs, where it leaves the body when we exhale.

The human body needs oxygen to sustain itself. A decrease in oxygen is known as
hypoxia and a complete lack of oxygen is known as anoxia, according to the National
Institutes of Health. These conditions can be fatal; after about four minutes without
oxygen, brain cells begin dying, according to NYU Langone Medical Center, which can
lead to brain damage and ultimately death.

In humans, the average rate of breathing depends on age. A newborn's normal breathing
rate is about 40 times each minute and may slow to 20 to 40 times per minute when the
baby is sleeping, according to the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia.

For adults, the average resting respiratory rate for adults is 12 to 16 breaths per minute,
according to Johns Hopkins Medicine. Physical exertion also has an effect on respiratory
rate, and healthy adults can average 45 breaths per minute during strenuous exercise.

Diseases of the Respiratory System

Pneumonia

Pneumonia is an infection in one or both lungs. It can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or

fungi. Bacterial pneumonia is the most common type in adults. Pneumonia causes
inflammation in the air sacs in your lungs, which are called alveoli. The alveoli fill with
fluid or pus, making it difficult to breathe.

What are the symptoms of pneumonia?

Pneumonia symptoms can be mild to life-threatening. The most common symptoms of

pneumonia can include:

 coughing that may produce phlegm (mucus)

 fever, sweating, and chills

 shortness of breath

 chest pain

Other symptoms can vary according to the cause and severity of the infection, as well as
the age and general health of the individual.

Symptoms by cause

 Viral pneumonia may start with flu-like symptoms, such as wheezing. A high
 fever may occur after 12–36 hours.

 Bacterial pneumonia may cause a fever as high as 105°F along with profuse
sweating, bluish lips and nails, and confusion.

Symptoms by age

 Children under 5 years of age may have fast breathing.

 Infants may vomit, lack energy, or have trouble drinking or eating.

 Older people may have a lower-than-normal body temperature.

What are the types and causes of pneumonia?

The major types of pneumonia are classified by the cause of the infection, where the
infection was transmitted, and how the infection was acquired.

Pneumonia can be classified according to the organism that caused the infection.

 Bacterial pneumonia. The most common cause of bacterial pneumonia is

Streptococcus pneumoniae. Chlamydophila pneumonia and Legionella pneumophila
can also cause bacterial pneumonia.

 Viral pneumonia. Respiratory viruses are often the cause of pneumonia, especially in
young children and older people. Viral pneumonia is usually not serious and lasts for
a shorter time than bacterial pneumonia.

 Mycoplasma pneumonia. Mycoplasma organisms are not viruses or bacteria, but they
have traits common to both. Mycoplasmas generally cause mild cases of pneumonia,
most often in older children and young adults.

 Fungal pneumonia. Fungi from soil or bird droppings can cause pneumonia in people
who inhale large amounts of the organisms. They can also cause pneumonia in
people with chronic diseases or weakened immune systems.

One kind of fungal pneumonia is called Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PCP). This
condition generally affects people with weakened immune systems, such as those with
AIDS. In fact, PCP can be one of the first signs of infection with AIDS.
Pneumonia is also classified according to where it was acquired.

 Hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP): This type of bacterial pneumonia is acquired

during a hospital stay. It can be more serious than other types, because the bacteria
involved may be more resistant to antibiotics.

 Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP): This refers to pneumonia that is acquired

outside of a medical or institutional setting.

Pneumonia can also be classified according to how it is acquired.

 Aspiration pneumonia: This type of pneumonia occurs when you inhale bacteria into
your lungs from food, drink, or saliva. This type is more likely to occur if you have a
swallowing problem or if you become too sedate from the use of medications,
alcohol, or some types of illicit drugs.

 Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP): When people who are using a ventilator get
pneumonia, it’s called VAP.

Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection spread through inhaling tiny droplets from the
coughs or sneezes of an infected person. It mainly affects the lungs, but it can affect any
part of the body, including the tummy (abdomen) glands, bones and nervous system. TB
is a serious condition, but it can be cured if it's treated with the right antibiotics.

Typical symptoms of TB include:

 a persistent cough that lasts more than three weeks and usually brings up phlegm,
which may be bloody

 weight loss

 night sweats

 high temperature (fever)

 tiredness and fatigue

 loss of appetite

 swellings in the neck

You should see a GP if you have a cough that lasts more than three weeks or you cough
up blood.

What causes TB?

TB is a bacterial infection. TB that affects the lungs (pulmonary TB) is the most
contagious type, but it usually only spreads after prolonged exposure to someone with the
illness. In most healthy people, the body's natural defence against infection and illness
(the immune system) kills the bacteria and there are no symptoms. Sometimes the
immune system can't kill the bacteria, but manages to prevent it spreading in the body.
You won't have any symptoms, but the bacteria will remain in your body. This is known
as latent TB. People with latent TB aren't infectious to others. If the immune system fails
to kill or contain the infection, it can spread within the lungs or other parts of the body
and symptoms will develop within a few weeks or months. This is known as active TB.
Latent TB could develop into an active TB disease at a later date, particularly if your
immune system becomes weakened.

Lung Cancer

Cancer of the lung, like all cancers, results from an abnormality in the body's basic unit of
life, the cell. Normally, the body maintains a system of checks and balances on cell
growth so that cells divide to produce new cells only when new cells are needed.
Disruption of this system of checks and balances on cell growth results in an uncontrolled
division and proliferation of cells that eventually forms a mass known as a tumor.

Tumors can be benign or malignant; when we speak of "cancer," we are referring to those
tumors that are malignant. Benign tumors usually can be removed and do not spread to
other parts of the body. Malignant tumors, on the other hand, often grow aggressively
locally where they start, but tumor cells also can enter into the bloodstream or lymphatic
system and then spread to other sites in the body. This process of spread is termed
metastasis; the areas of tumor growth at these distant sites are called metastases. Since
lung cancer tends to spread or metastasize very early after it forms, it is a very
life-threatening cancer and one of the most difficult cancers to treat. While lung cancer
can spread to any organ in the body, certain locations -- particularly the adrenal glands,
liver, brain, and bones -- are the most common sites for lung cancer metastasis.

The lung also is a very common site for metastasis from malignant tumors in other parts
of the body. Tumor metastases are made up of the same types of cells as the original
(primary) tumor. For example, if prostate cancer spreads via the bloodstream to the lungs,
it is metastatic prostate cancer in the lung and is not lung cancer.

The principal function of the lungs is to exchange gases between the air we breathe and
the blood. Through the lung, carbon dioxide is removed from the bloodstream and
oxygen enters the bloodstream. The right lung has three lobes, while the left lung is
divided into two lobes and a small structure called the lingula that is the equivalent of the
middle lobe on the right. The major airways entering the lungs are the bronchi, which
arise from the trachea, which is outside the lungs. The bronchi branch into progressively
smaller airways called bronchioles that end in tiny sacs known as alveoli where gas
exchange occurs. The lungs and chest wall are covered with a thin layer of tissue called
the pleura.

Lung cancers can arise in any part of the lung, but 90%-95% of cancers of the lung are
thought to arise from the epithelial cells, the cells lining the larger and smaller airways
(bronchi and bronchioles); for this reason, lung cancers are sometimes called
bronchogenic cancers or bronchogenic carcinomas. (Carcinoma is another term for
cancer.) Cancers also can arise from the pleura (called mesotheliomas) or rarely from
supporting tissues within the lungs, for example, the blood vessels.

Lung cancer is the most common cause of death due to cancer in both men and women
throughout the world. Statistics from the American Cancer Society estimated that in 2018
there will be about 244,000 new cases of lung cancer in the U.S. occurred and over
154,000 deaths were due to the disease. According to the U.S. National Cancer Institute,
approximately 6.5% of men and women in the U.S. will be diagnosed with cancer of the
lung at some point in their lifetime based on data from 2011-13.

Lung cancer is predominantly a disease of the elderly; almost 70% of people diagnosed
with lung cancer are over 65 years of age, while less than 3% of lung cancers occur in
people under 45 years of age. The median age at diagnosis is 70 years.

Lung cancer was not common prior to the 1930s but increased dramatically over the
following decades as tobacco smoking increased. In many developing countries, the
incidence of lung cancer is beginning to fall following public education about the dangers
of cigarette smoking and the introduction of effective smoking-cessation programs.
Nevertheless, lung cancer remains among the most common types of cancers in both men
and women worldwide. In the U.S., lung cancer has surpassed breast cancer as the most
common cause of cancer-related deaths in women.

Symptoms of lung cancer are varied depending upon where and how widespread the
tumor is. Warning signs of lung cancer are not always present or easy to identify. Lung
cancer may not cause pain or other symptoms in some cases. A person with lung cancer
may have the following kinds of symptoms:

 No symptoms: In up to 25% of people who get lung cancer, the cancer is first
discovered on a routine chest X-ray or CT scan as a solitary small mass sometimes
called a coin lesion, since on a two-dimensional X-ray or CT scan, the round tumor
looks like a coin. These patients with small, single masses often report no symptoms
at the time the cancer is discovered.
 Symptoms related to the cancer: The growth of the cancer and invasion of lung
tissues and surrounding tissue may interfere with breathing, leading to symptoms such
as cough, shortness of breath, wheezing, chest pain, and coughing up blood
(hemoptysis). If the cancer has invaded nerves, for example, it may cause shoulder
pain that travels down the outside of the arm (called Pancoast syndrome) or paralysis
of the vocal cords leading to hoarseness. Invasion of the esophagus may lead to
difficulty swallowing (dysphagia). If a large airway is obstructed, collapse of a
portion of the lung may occur and cause infections (abscesses, pneumonia) in the
obstructed area.
 Symptoms related to metastasis: Lung cancer that has spread to the bones may
produce excruciating pain at the sites of bone involvement. Cancer that has spread to
the brain may cause a number of neurologic symptoms that may include blurred
vision, headaches, seizures, or symptoms of stroke such as weakness or loss of
sensation in parts of the body.
 Paraneoplastic symptoms: Lung cancers frequently are accompanied by symptoms
that result from production of hormone-like substances by the tumor cells. These
paraneoplastic syndromes occur most commonly with SCLC but may be seen with
any tumor type. A common paraneoplastic syndrome associated with SCLC is the
production of a hormone called adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) by the cancer
cells, leading to oversecretion of the hormone cortisol by the adrenal glands
(Cushing's syndrome). The most frequent paraneoplastic syndrome seen with NSCLC
is the production of a substance similar to parathyroid hormone, resulting in elevated
levels of calcium in the bloodstream.
 Nonspecific symptoms: Nonspecific symptoms seen with many cancers, including
lung cancers, include weight loss, weakness, and fatigue. Psychological symptoms
such as depression and mood changes also are common.