Chapter 3

Boundary Layer Over Flat Plate

Based on Y. Cengel and J. Cimbala, 3rd Edtion:

Chapter 10-6 – The boundary layer approximation,
p554-559, p559-578, p583-586.
 “Father of modern aerodynamics”
“an extroadinary scholar, a
successful teacher and a good man“

Ludwig Prandtl (4 February 1875 – 15 August 1953);

German engineer, Prof. in later years

Paul Richard Heinrich Blasius (1883–1970);

German fluid dynamics physicist

Theodore von Kármán (May 11, 1881 – May 6, 1963);

Hungarian-American mathematician,
aerospace engineer and physicist
Uniform velocity
𝑉
Flat plate

𝑳
Leading edges
 Turbulent spots in supersonic
boundary layers (LES)

Transition to turbulence initiated by “oblique breakdown” for a Mach 3 flat-plate boundary layer.
Wall-normal density gradient indicating breakdown to turbulence. (Ref: AIAA-2009-3558)

Laminar flat plate BL

profile visualized with
the tellurium method.
Flow is from left to
right, and the leading
edge of the flat plate is
far to the left of the
field of view.
Historical Perspectives of BL Approximation
• By mid-1800s, Navier-Stokes eq.
was known, but couldn’t be
solved for flow with complex
geometry
• Euler eq. & Potential flow eq. (i.e.
simplified N-S eq.) can be solved,
Use continuity & Euler eq. or
but the results is meaningless
potential flow eq. for 𝑉
• a major breakthrough occurred Use Bernoulli eq. for 𝑝
in 1904 when Ludwig Prandtl
(1875-1953) introduced the BL
approximation
Historical Perspectives of BL Approximation
• BL concept became the tool of
engineering fluid mechanics
throughout most of the 1900s
• Today, CFD enabled numerical
solution of the N-S eq. for flow
with complex geometry Use continuity & Euler eq. or
• Hence, we no longer need to split potential flow eq. for 𝑉
the flow into two regions Use Bernoulli eq. for 𝑝
 Why do we still studying BL approximation?
Not just CFD?

• BL effects are important in many aspects of flow,

e.g.
 Skin friction drag,
 Wing stall,
 Heat transfer especially at high speed flow, etc
• By studying BL, we can learn a lot about the
behaviour of flow
Physical characteristics of BL
• BL thickness 𝛿 BL extended from 𝑦 = 0 (at the wall)
to 𝑢 = 0.99𝑉
where 𝑢 is the component of velocity
parallel to the wall
• 𝛿 is not a constant, but varies with downstream distance 𝑥

𝑢
Physical characteristics of BL
• In reality, 𝛿 is very thin
Greatly
exaggerated
vertical scale for
illustration
purpose

(Much longer)

Thickness of the boundary layer on a flat plate, drawn to scale

Physical characteristics of BL
• Effect of Reynolds Number

The larger the Re,

the thinner the BL
along the plate at a
given x-location
 Physical characteristics of BL
Jets
• Even though a solid wall
boundary many not even
be present, BL
approximation may be Wakes
applied to free shear
layers provided that the
Re is sufficiently high (that
these regions are thin)

Mixing layers
Physical characteristics of BL
• As BL thickness grows downstream,
streamlines passing through the BL
must diverge slightly upward to
satisfy conservation of mass
 Physical characteristics of BL
• Laminar & turbulent BL

Critical Reynolds number Re𝑥, critical

Transition Reynolds number Re𝑥, transition
 Physical characteristics of BL
• In real-life engineering flow, transition usually occurs
more abruptly, and much earlier
• factors that contribute to earlier transition location
 Surface roughness, free-stream disturbances, acoustic noise, flow
unsteadiness, vibrations, wall curvature

Critical Reynolds number Re𝑥, critical

Transition Reynolds number Re𝑥, transition
Physical characteristics of BL
• Transition process is unsteady and difficult to predict
• In some cases, engineers install rough sandpaper or
wire along the surface to force transition at a desired
location

Eddies from the wire cause

enhanced local mixing and
create disturbances that
very quickly lead to a
turbulent BL
Physical characteristics of BL
Ignored transition region
Assumed laminar Assumed turbulent

Engineering critical Reynolds number Re𝒙, cr = 5 x 105

Example 3-1
• Water flows over the fin of a small underwater vehicle at a
speed of 𝑉 = 10 km/h.
• The temperature of the water is 5 deg. C, and the chord
length 𝑐 of the fin is 0.5 m.
• Is the boundary layer on the surface of the fin laminar or
turbulent or transitional?

At 5 deg. C, the density and

viscosity of water are 999.9 kg/m3,
and 1.519 x 10-3 kg/m.s,
respectively.

𝑐
The BL Equations
• For simplicity, we consider only steady, 2-D flow in the
xy-plane in Cartesian coordinates
• We neglect gravity since we are not dealing with free
surfaces or with buoyancy-driven flows where
gravitational effects dominate
• We consider only laminar BL
• Turbulent BL equations are
beyond the scope of this course

For this particular body, x = 0

is normally set at the front BL coordinate system
stagnation point for flow over a body
x is parallel to the wall
y is normal to the wall
The BL Equations
• Navier-Stokes eq.  conservation of momentum
𝑚𝑎 𝐹
Volume Volume

𝐷𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝜌 =𝜌 + 𝑉 ∙ 𝛻 𝑉 = −𝛻𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔 + 𝜇𝛻 2 𝑉
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Local Convective Surface force due to viscosity

acceleration acceleration
(neglected) Body force due to gravity
(neglected)
Surface force due to pressure
The BL Equations
• Navier-Stokes eq.  conservation of momentum
𝑚𝑎 𝐹
Volume Volume

𝐷𝑉 𝜕𝑉 For BL flow, what

𝜌 =𝜌 + 𝑉 ∙ 𝛻 𝑉 = −𝛻𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔 + 𝜇𝛻 2 𝑉 terms remain?
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡

x-component:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 1 𝑑𝑃 𝜇 𝜕2𝑢 𝜇 𝜕2𝑢
𝑢 +𝑣 =− + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜌 𝑑𝑥 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 2

y-component:
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝑑𝑃 𝜇 𝜕2𝑣 𝜇 𝜕2𝑣
𝑢 +𝑣 =− + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜌 𝑑𝑦 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 2
The BL Equations
• Within the BL at some value of x,
the order of magnitude are

𝑢~𝑈 𝑃~𝜌𝑈 2
---10.62
𝜕 1 𝜕 1
~ ~
𝜕𝑥 𝐿 𝜕𝑦 𝛿

• For 𝑣, we apply the continuity eq.

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝑈𝛿
+ = 0  𝑣~ ---10.63
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝐿 BL coordinate system
for flow over a body
Since 𝛿 𝐿 << 1, x is parallel to the wall
Thus 𝑣 << 𝑢 y is normal to the wall
The BL Equations
• Use 10.62 and 10.63 to
nondimensionalize the variables
such that they are of unity order

𝑥 𝑦
𝑥∗ = , 𝑦∗ = ,
𝐿 𝛿

𝑢 𝑣𝐿 𝑃
𝑢∗ = , 𝑣∗ = , 𝑃∗ = ,
𝑈 𝑈𝛿 𝜌𝑈 2

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= 𝐿 , = 𝛿
𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝜕𝑦
BL coordinate system
---10.63a for flow over a body
x is parallel to the wall
y is normal to the wall
The BL Equations
Orders of magnitude
• Substituting 10.63a into the smaller than the
y-momentum eq., pressure term due to
Orders of magnitude Re𝐿 >> 1
smaller than other terms
due to Re𝐿 >> 1
∗ ∗ 2 2
∗
𝜕𝑣 ∗
𝜕𝑣 𝐿 𝜕𝑃∗ 1 𝜕2𝑣 ∗ 1 𝐿 𝜕2𝑣 ∗
𝑢 ∗
+𝑣 ∗
=− ∗
+ ∗2
+
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝛿 𝜕𝑦 Re𝐿 𝜕𝑥 Re𝐿 𝛿 𝜕𝑦 ∗2

• Hence, 𝜕𝑃∗ Orders of magnitude

∗
≅0 ---10.65 greater due to
𝜕𝑦
𝐿 >> 𝛿
The BL Equations
• In terms of the physical variables
𝜕𝑃
≅0
𝜕𝑦

The pressure across a boundary layer in

the y-direction is nearly constant
The pressure in the
irrotational region of flow
outside of a boundary layer
can be measured by static
pressure taps in the
surface of the wall. Two
such pressure taps are
sketched.

https://hackaday.com/tag/manometer/
The BL Equations
• Substituting 10.63a into the
x-momentum eq.,
Orders of magnitude
smaller than other terms
due to Re𝐿 >> 1
∗ ∗ ∗ 2 𝑢∗ 2
∗
𝜕𝑢 ∗
𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑃 1 𝜕 1 𝐿 𝜕 2 𝑢∗
𝑢 ∗
+𝑣 ∗
=− ∗+ ∗2
+
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥 Re𝐿 𝜕𝑥 Re𝐿 𝛿 𝜕𝑦 ∗2

Must be kept to account

for viscous effects
The BL Equations
∗ ∗ ∗ 2
∗
𝜕𝑢 ∗
𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑃 1 𝐿 𝜕 2 𝑢∗
𝑢 ∗
+𝑣 ∗
=− ∗+ ---10.66
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥 Re𝐿 𝛿 𝜕𝑦 ∗2

• Since all the remaining

terms are of order unity,
1 𝐿 2 𝛿 1
~1  ~ ---10.67
Re𝐿 𝛿 𝐿 Re𝐿
The larger the Re,
the thinner the BL
Flow over a flat plate

Boundary layer
Flow direction

32
The BL Equations
• In terms of the physical variables,
10.66 becomes
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 1 𝑑𝑃 𝜇 𝜕2𝑢
𝑢 +𝑣 =− + ---10.68
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜌 𝑑𝑥 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 2
• Applying the Bernoulli eq. to the
outer flow region,
𝑃 1
+ 𝑈 2 = constant
𝜌 2

• Differentiate with respect to x,

1 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑈
= −𝑈 ---10.69
𝜌 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The BL Equations
• Substitute 10.69 into 10.68,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑈 𝜇 𝜕2𝑢
𝑢 +𝑣 =𝑈 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 2 ---10.70

• For a steady, incompressible,

laminar BL in xy-plane without
significant gravitational effects,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 ---10.71
BL equations
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑈 𝜇 𝜕2𝑢
𝑢 +𝑣 =𝑈 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 2
Interesting Quantities of BL
• When applying the BL equations
for flow of uniform stream over an
infinitesimally thin semi-infinite
flat plate, with following BCs:
𝑢 = 0 at 𝑦 = 0 𝑢 = 𝑈 as 𝑦 → ∞
𝑣 = 0 at 𝑦 = 0 𝑢 = 𝑈 for all 𝑦 at 𝑥 = 0

These equations and BCs seem

simple enough, but
unfortunately no convenient
analytical solution is available!
Interesting Quantities of BL
• However, a series solution was obtained in
1908 by P. R. Heinrich Blasius (1883-1970)
• He introduced a similarity variable 𝜂 that
combines independent variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 into
one nondimensional independent variable
𝜌𝑈
𝜂=𝑦
𝜇𝑥

• And solved for a nondimensionalized form of

the x-component of velocity
′
𝑢
𝑓 = = function of 𝜂
𝑈
Interesting Quantities of BL
• It was found that
𝑢
= 0.990 at 𝜂 = 4.91
𝑈

• So, 𝑦 = 𝛿 when

𝜌𝑈 𝜹 𝟒. 𝟗𝟏
𝜂 = 4.91 = 𝛿  =
𝜇𝑥 𝒙 Re𝒙

𝜌𝑈𝑥
Re𝒙 =
𝜇
Interesting Quantities of BL
• It was found that
𝑢
= 0.990 at 𝜂 = 4.91 𝜌𝑈
𝑈 𝜂=𝑦
𝜇𝑥
• So, 𝑦 = 𝛿 when

𝜌𝑈 𝜹 𝟒. 𝟗𝟏
𝜂 = 4.91 = 𝛿  =
𝜇𝑥 𝒙 Re𝒙

𝜌𝑈𝑥
Re𝒙 =
𝜇
Interesting Quantities of BL
• Conditions of BL velocity profile:

𝑢=𝑈 at 𝑦 = 𝛿
𝜕𝑢
=0
𝜕𝑦

𝑢=0
at 𝑦 = 0
𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
= 2=0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Interesting Quantities of BL
• Shear stress at the wall
𝜕𝑢
𝜏𝑤 = 𝜇
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0

• Based on Blasius’s solution,

𝝆𝑼𝟐
Wall shear stress 𝝉𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟐
Re𝒙
 Interesting Quantities of BL
• Shear stress at the wall
𝜕𝑢
𝜏𝑤 = 𝜇
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0

• Based on Blasius’s solution,

𝝆𝑼𝟐
Wall shear stress 𝝉𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟐
Re𝒙

• In nondimensionalized form,
𝝉𝒘 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟒
Local friction coefficient, 𝑪𝒇,𝒙 = =
𝟏 Re𝒙
laminar flat plate 𝝆𝑼𝟐
𝟐
Example 3-2
• You are driving at 30 km/h
• Kinematic viscosity of the air
is 𝜈 = 1.7 × 10−5 m2/s
• We approximate the hood as
a flat plate of length 1.2 m
moving horizontally at a
speed of 𝑉 = 30 km/h
• Is the assumption of laminar
flow appropriate?
• Estimate the thickness of BL
by the end of the hood
 Displacement Thickness

• Streamlines within and outside a

boundary layer must bend
slightly outward away from the
wall in order to satisfy
conservation of mass as the BL
thickness grows downstream
• This is because the y-component
of velocity 𝑣 is small, but finite
and positive
Displacement Thickness
Definition:
• Displacement thickness 𝜹∗ is
the distance that a streamline
just outside of the BL is
deflected away from the wall
due to the effect of the BL
Displacement Thickness
Definition:
• Displacement thickness 𝜹∗ is
the distance that a streamline 𝜹∗
just outside of the BL is
deflected away from the wall 𝒉 𝒉
due to the effect of he BL
• By performing a control 1 2
ℎ ℎ
volume analysis using 𝑚1 = 𝜌𝑈𝑑𝑦 𝑚2 = 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑈𝛿 ∗
conservation of mass 0 0

∞
𝑢
𝛿∗ = 1− 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑈
Displacement Thickness
Definition:
• Displacement thickness 𝜹∗ is
the distance that a streamline 𝜹∗
just outside of the BL is
deflected away from the wall 𝒉 𝒉
due to the effect of he BL
• By performing a control 1 2
ℎ ℎ
volume analysis using 𝑚1 = 𝜌𝑈𝑑𝑦 𝑚2 = 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑈𝛿 ∗
conservation of mass 0 0

∞
𝑢
𝛿∗ = 1− 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑈
 Displacement Thickness

• Based on Blasius’s solution, for

a laminar flat plate,
𝜹∗ 𝟏. 𝟕𝟐
=
𝒙 Re𝒙

• 𝛿 ∗ grows with 𝑥 as the BL grows

• At any x-location, 𝛿 ∗ is approximately
three times smaller than 𝛿
Physical Significance of Displacement Thickness

• Obvious example is flow

bounded by walls…

The core flow accelerates

due to ‘narrowing’ of
flow cross section
Example 3-3
• A small low-speed wind tunnel is being
design for calibration of hot wire
• The air is at 19℃ (𝜈 = 1.507 × 10−5 m2/s)
• The test section of the wind tunnel is 30 cm
in diameter and 30 cm in length
• The flow through the test section must be as
uniform as possible
• The wind tunnel speed ranges from 1 to 8
m/s, and the design is to be optimized for an
air speed of V = 4.0 m/s
a) At 4 m/s, how many percent increment in
the centerline air speed by the end of the
test section?
b) Recommend a design that will lead to a
more uniform test section flow
 Momentum Thickness
• Another measure of BL thickness
• Apply conservation of mass to
the control volume,
𝑌 𝑌+𝛿 ∗
W𝜌 0
𝑈𝑑𝑦 = W𝜌 0
𝑢𝑑𝑦 𝒙=0
At x=0 At x Width = W
∞
𝑈𝛿 ∗ = 𝑈 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 ---10.75
0

Mass flow deficit due to BL is replaced

by a chunk of free-stream flow of
thickness 𝛿 ∗ 𝑼−𝒖
 Momentum Thickness
• The net force acting on the
control volume (due to friction
on the plate, not pressure) must
equal the rate of momentum
exiting the control volume minus
𝒙=0
that entering the control volume
Width = W
𝑌+𝛿 ∗ 𝑌
𝐹𝑥 = −𝐹𝐷,𝑥 = 𝜌𝑊 𝑢2 𝑑𝑦 − 𝜌𝑊 𝑈 2 𝑑𝑦
0 0
At x=x At x=0

1 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑈
= −𝑈 , since U is constant, thus dP/dx = 0
𝜌 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Momentum Thickness
• After some algebra and substitution
of eq. 10-75, 𝑌
𝐹𝐷,𝑥 = 𝜌𝑊 𝑢 𝑈 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑦
0
• Finally, we define momentum
thickness 𝜃 such that the viscous
drag force on the plate per unit
width is equal to 𝜌𝑈 2 times 𝜃, i.e.,
𝑌
𝐹𝐷,𝑥
=𝜌 𝑢 𝑈 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝑈 2 𝜃
𝑊 0
momentum thickness is useful for
determining the viscous drag!
 Momentum Thickness
• In words,
Momentum thickness 𝜃 is defined as
the loss of momentum flux per unit
width divided by 𝜌𝑈 2 due to the
present of the growing BL
• Hence 𝑌
𝑢 𝑢
𝜃= 1− 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑈 𝑈

• Outside of BL, Y is arbitrary. So we

can replace 𝑌 by ∞, ∞
𝑢 𝑢
𝜃= 1− 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑈 𝑈
 Momentum Thickness
• Based on Blasius’s solution, for a
laminar flat plate,
𝜽 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟒
=
𝒙 Re𝒙

• At any x-location,
𝜃 is approximately 13.5% of 𝛿
 Shape Factor
• A shape factor 𝑯 is used in BL flow to
determine the nature of the flow
𝜹∗
𝑯=
𝜽
• The higher the value of H, the stronger the
adverse pressure gradient
• A high adverse pressure gradient can
greatly reduce the Re at which transition
into turbulence may occur
• Typically,
H = 2.59  laminar flows
H = 1.3 - 1.4  turbulent flows
Example 3-4
• The velocity distribution in the BL is given
by
𝑢 𝑦
=
𝑈 𝛿

• where u is the velocity at a distance y

from the plate, and 𝑢 = 𝑈 at 𝑦 = 𝛿, 𝛿
being the BL thickness. Find:
a) The displacement thickness 𝛿 ∗
b) The momentum thickness 𝜃
c) The value of shape factor 𝐻
 Turbulent Flat Plate Boundary Layer

• All turbulent expressions

discussed here represent
time-averaged values
• One common empirical
approximation for the time-
averaged velocity profile of a
turbulent flat plate BL is using
Power law
𝑢 𝑦 1𝑛 • Illustration of the unsteadiness
=
𝑈 𝛿 of a turbulent boundary layer
• Thin, wavy black lines are
7 5 × 105 < Re𝑥 < 107 instantaneous profiles
𝑛= 8 107 < Re𝑥 < 108 • Thick blue line is a long time-
9 108 < Re𝑥 < 109 averaged profile
 Turbulent Flat Plate Boundary Layer

• All turbulent expressions

discussed here represent
time-averaged values
• One common empirical
approximation for the time-
averaged velocity profile of a
turbulent flat plate BL is using
Power law Example of
𝑢 𝑦 1𝑛 one-seventh power-low
=
𝑈 𝛿
7 5 × 105 < Re𝑥 < 107
𝑛= 8 107 < Re𝑥 < 108
9 108 < Re𝑥 < 109
Another common approximation is the log law, a semi-empirical expression that
turns out to be valid not only for flat plate boundary layers but also for fully
developed turbulent pipe flow velocity profiles.
The log law turns out to be applicable for nearly all wall-bounded turbulent
boundary layers, not just flow over a flat plate.
The log law is commonly expressed in variables nondimensionalized by a
characteristic velocity called the friction velocity u*.
𝒖 𝟏 𝒚𝒖∗
The log law: = ln +𝐵
𝒖∗ 𝒌 𝝂

𝜏𝑤
Friction velocity: 𝑢∗ =
𝜌

A clever expression that is valid all the way to the wall is

called Spalding’s law of the wall,
𝑦𝑢∗ 𝑢 𝑘 𝑢 𝑢∗ 2 𝑘 𝑢 𝑢∗ 3
= + 𝑒 −𝑘𝐵 𝑒 𝑘 𝑢 𝑢∗
− 1 − 𝑘 𝑢 𝑢∗ − −
𝜈 𝑢∗ 2 6

64
The Momentum Integral Technique for
Boundary Layers
• In many practical engineering applications, we do not need
to know all the details inside the boundary layer; rather we
seek reasonable estimates of gross features of the boundary
layer such as boundary layer thickness and skin friction
coefficient.
• The momentum integral technique utilizes a control volume
approach to obtain such quantitative approximations of
boundary layer properties along surfaces with zero or
nonzero pressure gradients.
• It is valid for both laminar and turbulent boundary layers.
 Width = 𝑊

𝑌
𝑚left face = 𝜌𝑊 𝑢𝑑𝑦
0
𝑌 𝑌
𝑑
𝑚right face = 𝜌𝑊 𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑊 𝑢𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑑𝑥 0
𝑌
𝑑
𝑚top = 𝑚left face − 𝑚right face = −𝜌𝑊 𝑢𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 0
 𝑚𝑢 Due to pressure and shear stress

Net momentum flux out of CV = Net force acting on CV

𝑌 𝑌 𝑌 𝑌
𝑑 𝑑
−𝜌𝑊 𝑢2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑊 2
𝑢 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑊 2
𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝜌𝑊𝑈 𝑢𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0 0 𝑑𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥 0

𝑑𝑃
= 𝑌𝑊𝑃 − 𝑌𝑊 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑊𝑑𝑥𝜏𝑤
𝑑𝑥
Some of the terms cancel, thus the eq. becomes
𝑌 𝑌
𝑑 2
𝑑 𝑑𝑃
𝜌 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 − 𝜌𝑈 𝑢𝑑𝑦 = −𝑌 − 𝜏𝑤
𝑑𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥
𝑌
Note that 𝑌= 𝑑𝑦
0
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑈  Applying x-momentum eq. on the outer flow
And = −𝜌𝑈
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 where 𝑢 = 𝑈, and 𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑦 = 0,
also neglecting viscous and gravity terms
Substituting 𝑌 and 𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑥, and dividing by 𝜌,
𝑌 𝑌 𝑌
𝑑 2
𝑑 𝑑𝑈 𝜏𝑤
𝑢 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑈 𝑢𝑑𝑦 = 𝑈 𝑑𝑦 −
𝑑𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥 0 𝜌

Simplify the eq. by using product rule of differentiation in reverse,

𝑌 𝑌
𝑑 𝑑𝑈 𝜏𝑤
𝑢(𝑈 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑦 + (𝑈 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑦 =
𝑑𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥 0 𝜌

Multiply and divide by 𝑈 2 Multiply and divide by 𝑈

∞ ∞
𝑑 𝑢 𝑢 𝑑𝑈 𝑢 𝜏𝑤
𝑈2 (1 − )𝑑𝑦 + 𝑈 (1 − )𝑑𝑦 =
𝑑𝑥 0 𝑈 𝑈 𝑑𝑥 0 𝑈 𝜌

Momentum thickness 𝜃 Displacement thickness 𝛿 ∗

𝑑 𝑑𝑈 ∗ 𝜏𝑤
Karman integral eq.: 𝑈2𝜃 + 𝑈 𝛿 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜌
 Karman integral eq.:
𝑑 2
𝑑𝑈 ∗ 𝜏𝑤
𝑈 𝜃 +𝑈 𝛿 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜌

Performing product rule on the first term, and dividing by 𝑈 2 ,

Karman integral eq., 𝑑𝜃 𝜃 𝑑𝑈 𝜏𝑤 𝐶𝑓,𝑥

alternative form: + 2+𝐻 = 2=
𝑑𝑥 𝑈 𝑑𝑥 𝜌𝑈 2

𝛿∗
Shape factor 𝐻 =
𝜃

𝜏𝑤
Local skin friction coefficient 𝐶𝑓,𝑥 = 1
2
𝜌𝑈 2
In the case of flat plate, 𝑈 𝑥 = 𝑈 = constant, 𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑥 = 0,

Karman integral eq., 𝑑𝜃

Flat plate BL: 𝐶𝑓,𝑥 =2
𝑑𝑥
• The momentum integral eq. can be used along
with an assumed velocity profile to obtain
reasonable approximate BL results

• Velocity profile:
 Linear profile, 𝑢 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑦
 Parabolic profile, 𝑢 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑦 2
 Cubic profile, 𝑢 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑦 2 + 𝑑𝑦 3
 Sinusoidal profile, 𝑢 = 𝑎 + sin 𝑏𝑦
 etc
 𝐷𝑓
Friction drag coefficient 𝐶𝐷𝑓 = 1
𝜌 𝑈 2 𝐿𝑊
2
Local friction coefficient 𝐶𝑓
BL thickness 𝛿

Munson, Young, and Okiishi, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 4th ed., p558

Note:
𝐷𝑓 is friction drag, 𝐿 is length of plate, and W is width of plate
 1.328 0.031
𝐶𝐷𝑓 = 1/2
𝐶𝐷𝑓 = 1/7
Re𝑙 Re𝑙

𝐶𝐷𝑓 turbulent: Frank White, Fluid Mechanics 5th edition, p467

Example 3-5
A plate 360 mm long and 1830 mm wide is
placed in a seawater flow of 12 m/s, with the
properties 1026 kg/m3 and 1.022 × 10−6 m2/s
a) Estimate the boundary layer thickness at
the end of the plate
b) Estimate the friction drag for turbulent
smooth-wall flow from the leading edge