Finite Element Analysis - 2019

Finite Element Analysis (M6FEA29)
Dr D. M. Madyira, Pr. Eng. [ B4 Lab 218, 0115594030, dmadyira@uj.ac.za ]
June 2019
Course Contents
 Background to Finite Element Analysis
 Introduction to Finite Element Analysis
 Foundational Theory of Elasticity
 Variational Calculus
 The Basic Raleigh-Ritz Method
 The Raleigh-Ritz Method Applied to Structural Analysis
 1D Finite Element Analysis
 2D Finite Element Analysis
 FEA Using Abaqus
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira
Course Objectives
At the end of this module you should be able to:
 Formulate the basic finite element governing equations for
general 1D & 2D stress analysis
 Formulate the governing equations for 3D cases
 Use variational calculus to formulate 1D, 2D and 3D element
equations
 Use the matrix method to analyse basic 2D and 3D structural
problems
 Develop a numerical model in Abaqus to solve basic structural
analysis problems
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira
Course Prerequisites
The key pre-requisites for this course are:
 Basic undergraduate matrix algebra

 Basic undergraduate calculus
 Undergraduate strength of materials
 Undergraduate materials science especially properties of
engineering materials
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira
Course Assessment
Exercises Date Venue
1 14 June 2019 Lecture Venue

2 28 June 2019 B3 Lab Computer Room B
Examination Date Venue
1 TBA TBA
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira
Background to Finite Element Analysis
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira
• In 1909 Ritz developed an effective method for the
approximate solution of problems in the mechanics of
deformable solids based on Rayleigh’s formulations
• It included an approximation of the energy functional by

the use of known functions with unknown coefficients.
• Minimisation of the functional in relation to each

unknown led to a system of equations from which the
unknown coefficients could be determined.
• One of the main restrictions in the Rayleigh-Ritz method

was that functions used could not satisfy general boundary
conditions of the problem.
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira 7
• In 1943, Courant considerably increased possibilities of the
Ritz method by introduction of the special linear functions
defined over triangular regions and applied the method for
the solution of torsion problems.
• As unknowns, the values of functions in the node points of

triangular regions were chosen, thus removing the main
restriction of the Ritz functions – satisfaction to the
boundary conditions was achieved.
• The Ritz method together with the Courant modification is

similar with FEM proposed independently by Clough many
years later.
• The Finite Elements Method (FEM) is a powerful numerical analysis tool used to
solve differential equations that describe most physical problems
• FEM originated from the need to solve complex elasticity and structural analysis
problems where no analytical solution could be used
• Its roots are in aircraft and aerospace structural analysis as an extension of the
force and displacement methods
• The term “finite element” was coined by Clough in the paper “The finite element
method in plane stress analysis”, 1960
• The first book on FEM, which can be considered a textbook, was published in
1967 by Zienkiewicz and Cheung and called “The finite element method in
structural and continuum mechanics”
• Thus, FEM represents the convergence of Matrix
Structural Analysis (MSA), Variational Approximation
Theory (VAT) and the convenience of powerful digital
computers
• Its application extends to other field problems such as heat

transfer, fluid flow, electromagnetics, electrostatics, etc.
• FEM also allows detailed visualization (simulation) of where

structures bend or twist, and indicates the distribution of
stresses and displacements (or any other field variable)
• It has become one of the most powerful structural analysis

tools in engineering
The Finite Element Method can be applied to three broad

classes of field problems:
► Steady state problems
► Eigen value problems
► Transient problems
Such problems can also be either linear or non-linear.
• In early 1960s, the MacNeal-Schwendle Corporation (MSC)
developed the first general FEA code which was limited to
68000 degrees of freedom.
• When contract with NASA ended, MSC developed its own

code called MSC/NASTRAN
• Now there are many general purpose commercial codes

including Ansys, MSC/MARC, ABAQUS, SAP etc.
• Abaqus, which is now owned by the French company

Dassault Systems, will be used during this course
• Basic FEM functionality is also now integrated on most CAD

systems such as Solidworks for quick design calculations
• Pre-processing
→Define the geometric domain of the problem
→Define the element type(s) to be used
→Define the material properties of the elements
→Define the geometric properties of the elements (length, area, and the like)
→Define the element connectivities (mesh the model)
→Define the physical constraints (boundary conditions)
→Define the loadings
• Solution
→computes the unknown values of the primary field variable(s)
→computed values are then used by back substitution to compute additional, derived variables, such as reaction forces, element
stresses, and heat flow
• Post-processing
→Postprocessor software contains sophisticated routines used for sorting, printing, and plotting selected results from a finite
element solution
Background to Finite Element Analysis: Direct Heated Rotary Kiln
Background to Finite Element Analysis: Pipework T-junction
Background to Finite Element Analysis: Pipework T-junction Reinforcement
Introduction to Finite Element Analysis
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Common Methods for Solving General Field Problems
• Solutions using either Strength of Materials or Theory of Elasticity are

normally accomplished for regions and loadings with relatively simple geometry
• Many applications involve cases with complex shape, material behaviour,

boundary conditions and loading
• Therefore, a gap exists between what is needed in applications and what can be
solved by analytical closed-form methods
• This has led to the development of several numerical/computational schemes

including: Finite Difference Method (FDM), Finite Element Method (FEM),
Boundary Element Methods (BEM) , and Finite Volume Method (FVM)
• FEM has become more widespread than other techniques

• The finite element method is a computational scheme to solve field problems

(boundary value) in engineering and science
• The fundamental concept involves dividing the body under study into a finite
number of pieces (subdomains) called elements
• Particularassumptions are then made on the variation of the unknown

dependent variable(s) across each element using so-called interpolation or
approximation functions
• This approximated variation is quantified in terms of solution values at special

element locations called nodes
• Through this discretization process, the method sets up an algebraic system

of equations for unknown nodal values which approximate the continuous
solution
• Because element size, shape and approximating scheme can be varied to suit
the problem, the method can accurately simulate solutions to problems of
complex geometry and loading and thus this technique has become a very
useful and practical tool
• Often a trade off has to be made between solution accuracy and

computational resources and computation time
Example of Discretized Domain
Example of Discretized Domain
Advantages of FEM include:
• Models bodies of complex shape

• Can handle general loading/boundary conditions
• Models bodies composed of composite and multiphase materials
• Model is easily refined for improved accuracy by varying element size and
type (approximation scheme)
• Time dependent and dynamic effects can be included

• Can handle a variety of nonlinear effects including material behaviour, large
deformations, boundary conditions, etc.
Introductory Theory of Elasticity
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 What is Strength of Materials?
 What is Solid Mechanics?

 What is Elasticity?
 What is Theory of Elasticity?

 What makes the beam theory approximate?
What is Strength of Materials?
The terms "theory of elasticity" and "strength of materials" (the engineer’s

solution) refer to the same subject; the former term being used when the
subject is treated by the mathematician who emphasizes on mathematical rigor
while the later term refers to the subject in the hands of an engineer.
Strength of Materials generally aims for approximate solutions which are easy
to use in general applications. Such solutions are obtained by invoking
simplifying assumptions.
Theory of Elasticity attempts to address the problems in complete by

minimizing simplifying assumptions and using detailed mathematical
formulations.
What is Theory of Elasticity?
Theory of elasticity aims for a solution very close to the actual.
Assumptions are minimized so that the obtained solution is as close as

possible to the real behavior of the system.
This leads to more accurate design solutions.
However, the computation effort increases significantly!
For practical applications, this can be a challenge.
What is Solid Mechanics?
Solid Mechanics is a more general term encompassing both strength of
materials and theory of elasticity. Areas of application include:
1. Geomechanics - modeling of the shape of planets; tectonics; and
earthquake prediction
2. Civil engineering - designing foundations or structures
3. Mechanical engineering - designing load bearing components for vehicles
power generation and transmission;
4. Manufacturing engineering - designing metal and polymer forming
processes, machining etc
5. Biomechanics - designing implants; bone mechanics
6. Materials Science - designing composites; alloy microstructures, thin films,
and developing materials processing methods
7. Microelectronics - designing failure resistant components
8. Nanotechnology - stress driven self-assembly on surfaces
Defining a problem in Solid Mechanics
Solid Mechanics problems are typically boundary value problems. Regardless

of application, the general procedures of solving solid mechanics problems is
as follows:
 Decide upon the goal of the problem and desired information

 Identify the geometry of the solid to be modeled
 Determine the loading applied to the solid
 Decide what physics must be included in the model
 Choose (and calibrate) a constitutive law that describes the behavior of the
material
 Choose a method of analysis
 Solve the problem
What can be computed using Solid Mechanics?
 The deformed shape of a structure or component subjected to loading

 The forces required to cause a particular shape change
 The stiffness of a structure or component
 The internal forces (stresses) in a structure or component
 The critical forces that lead to failure by structural instability (buckling)
 Natural frequencies of vibration for a structure or component
 Predict the critical loads to cause fracture in the presence of cracks
 Predict the fatigue life of a component under cyclic loading
 Predict the rate of growth of a stress-corrosion crack in a component
 Predict the creep life of a component
 Predict the critical crack size in loaded component
 Predict the wear rate of a surface under contact loading
 Predict the fretting or contact fatigue life of a surface
What makes the beam theory (strength of materials) approximate?
P
Stress Concentration Point
Stress concentrations shown above are largely ignored in Strength of Materials

analysis i.e. using the simple bending theory.
Saint Vernant’s Principle
“The stresses in a structure caused by a certain load distribution at a distance

from the load of the order of magnitude of the size-extent of the loading is
independent of the details of the load and determined only by the static
resultant of that load”.
What are the issues to consider in analyzing a loaded body?
F2 Governing equations of this body are

F3 based on:
F1
1. Equilibrium
- Newton’s laws of motion
Deformable Body 2. Compatibility
- Compatible displacements
3. Constitutive Relations
- Hooke’s law
R1 4. Boundary conditions
R2 - Interaction with external environment
Equilibrium
F2
• At any point in time, the forces acting on a F3
deformable body must obey Newton's laws of F1
motion
• Resultant force acting on the body should be Deformable
zero unless the body is undergoing Body
acceleration
• Resultant moment about any point should be
zero unless the body is undergoing angular R1
acceleration R2
Compatibility
 Assume body is a continuum

 Displacements are not independent but are related
by the compatibility relations
 These relations depend on geometry and are Un-deformed State
independent of the forces

 What these relationships state is that deformations
of material elements should be such as to prevent
the development of cracks within the component
material Deformed State
Constitutive Relations
 The stresses and strains in a body subjected to some form of loading are
related in some way, which is governed by the properties of the material that
the body is made from
 In elastic analysis we assume that the materials obey Hooke's law
 This implies that the induced stress is always proportional to the induced
strain
M6FEA_9 2018 DM Madyira 42

Boundary Conditions F2
F3
F1
•Any real engineering problem will consist of a set
of forces acting on a body Deformable
Body
•These forces can act on the boundary or the
interior of the body
R1
•The stresses and strains that we seek to find are a R2
result of these forces
System Approach LOADING
AND B.C.
KINETIC
RELATIONS
RESPONSE
GENERATED GENERATED
DEFORMATION FORCES
Absolute Relative Absolute Relative
Displs. Strains Stresses

Reactions
  
KINEMATIC CONSTITUTIVE
RELATIONS RELATIONS
Stress Equations of Equilibrium

y
In strength of materials stress analysis, we

have assumed that the stresses on a cubic x x
element on opposite sides are equal as x
shown in the Figure.

z
However, we know that in general Y
engineering applications this is not the

case. zx
x Fx
dy
X
yx
Stresses generally vary within an
engineering component. In addition to this Z dz
dx
fact, we also know that the equilibrium of
the component must always be maintained.
For equilibrium of forces in the x-direction we have:
 σ x    τ yx    τ zx 
 σx + dx - σx  dy dz +  τ yx + dy - τ yx  dxdz +  τ zx + dz - τ zy  dxdy + Fxdxdydz = 0
  x    y    z 
Simplifying this equation and dividing through by the volume of the element
(dx,dy,dz) leads to :
 σ xx τ τ
+ yx + zx + Fx = 0
x y z
In a similar manner, it can be shown that the equilibrium of forces in the y and z
directions are described by:
 σ yy τ τ
+ xy + zy + Fy = 0
y x z
 σ zz τ  τ yz
+ xz + + Fz = 0
z x y
For a complete check on equilibrium, consider equilibrium of moments about
any given point yields:
τ yx = τ xy 

τ zy = τ yz 

τ xz = τ zx 
Moment balance implies that shear stresses and their complements are equal
and opposite. The immediate mathematical implication is that the nine stress
components required to fully define the state of stress at a point are reduced to
six.
These sets of equations give us the general equations that a loaded solid has
to satisfy to maintain equilibrium.
Strain-displacement Relations
Consider the deformation of two initially perpendicular lines in a deformable body as shown in
the figure below.
Y  u 
  y dy
 
 v  B
v + dy
 y 
B
 C
 v 
dy    x dx
u  
A v
C
A dx  u 
u + dx
 x 
X
Considering direct strains, we have:

u
Change length of AC = dx
x
Hence the strain in the x-direction is given by:
AC - AC
εx =
AC
u
dx
= x
dx
That is:
u
εx =
x
In a similar manner, the direct strains in the other Cartesian directions (y and z)
can be shown to be:
v
εy =
y
w
εz =
z
Shear strain is the change in the 90o angle and hence is given by:
γ xy = α+β
But the angles α and β are given by:
v u
dx dy
x y
α = β =
dx dy
v u
= =
x y
It follows that:
u v
γ xy = +
y x
And similarly:
v w
γ yz = +
z y
u w
γ zx = +
z x
Compatibility Equations
 Thus in all, we have six strain equations relating six strains to three
displacements
 It is clear that the problem is over determined
 We therefore need to have another set of equations if our solution is to be non-
trivial and unique
 Assume that by some practical approach we have managed to determine the 6
strain components and have to solve for the three displacement components
 With the derived system of equations we have an excess of 3 equations since
we only need three equations to find the displacement components u, v and w.
 Any three equations can give three displacements

 However the obtained solution must satisfy the other three equations if the
solution is to be unique
 This implies that the strains have to satisfy certain conditions if the solution is
to exist
 These conditions are known as the compatibility conditions. Remember that
we are dealing with continuous structures. As such the strains must lead to
continuous displacements. Alternatively we can say that the strains must be
compatible.
The compatibility relations can be obtained by eliminating the displacement

variables from the strain displacement equations as follows:
u  εx u
2 3
εx =  =
x y 2
x  y 2
v  εy
2
v
3
εy =  =
y x 2
 x 2y
Now if we differentiate γxy twice with respect to x and then y we have:
 γ xy  u v 
2

2
xy  y y 
= +
xy
u v
3 3
= +
x y 2  x 2y
Combining the equations and we have:
 γ xy
2
 εx  εy
2 2
= +
xy y 2
x2
Similarly, we have:
 γ yz
2
 εy  εz
2 2
= +
yz z 2
 y2
 γ zx  εz  εx
2 2 2
= +
zx x 2
z2
The second set of compatibility relations is obtained in a similar way giving:
 εx
2
   γ xy  γ zx  γ yz 
2 =  + - 
yz x  z y x 
 εy
2
   γ yz  γ yx  γ xz 
2 =  + - 
xz y  x z y 
 εz
2
   γ yz  γ zx  γ xy 
2 =  + - 
yx z  x y z 
Therefore, the complete set of compatibility relations is:
 γ xy
2
 εx
2
 εy
2

= + 
xy y 2
x2 
 γ zx
2
 εz
2
 εx
2 
= + 
zx x2 z2 
 γ zy
2
 εy 
 εz
2 2
= + 
zy  y2 z2 

 εx
2
   γ xy  γ zx  γ yz  
2 =  + -  
yz x  z y x 

 εy
2
   γ xy  γ yz  γ xz  
2 =  + -  
xz y  z x y  
 εz
2
   γ zx  γ zy  γ xy  
2 =  + -  
xy z  y x z  
Constitutive Relations
Constitutive relations introduce the material properties into the analysis i.e.
1 
εx =  σ x - ν( σ y + σ z )  
E

εy =
1
 σ y - ν( σ x + σ z )  
E 
1 
εz =  σ z - ν( σ x + σ y )  
E 

τ xy 2(1 + ν) 
γ xy = = τ xy
G E 
τ yz 2(1 + ν) 
γ yz = = τ yz 
G E 
τ zx 2(1 + ν) 
γ zx = = τ zx 
G E 
Boundary Conditions
Boundary Conditions
If
l = cos (x)
m = cos (y)
n = cos (z)
then area:
AOB = A cos (z) = An

AOC = A cos (y) = Am
COB = A cos (z) = Al
Boundary Conditions
Equating forces in the x-direction and assuming that the body force per unit volume is
Fx + εx we have:
(σ1 + ε1)A + ( Fx + εx )(1/3)Ah - (σx + εx)Al - (σyx + εyx)Am - (σzx + εzx)An = 0
Now if we let h  0 , it implies that ε 0 and we get
σ1 = σx l + σyx m + σzx n
The balance of forces in the other two directions gives :
σ2 = σy m + σxy l + σzy n
σ3 = σz n + σyz m + σxz l
Boundary Conditions
Boundary Conditions
X = σ xl + σ yx m + σ zx n 



Y = σ xyl + σ y m + σ zy n 


Z = σ xzl + σ yz m + σ z n 

Variational Calculus
• M6FEA_9 DM Madyira
• Calculus of variation is a classical mathematical subject, which is mainly

concerned with functional extremisation problems
• For such problems, it is required to find the unknown function, or functions

which extremise (maximise or minimise) a functional or a system of
functionals, satisfying some given boundary conditions
• One of the questions one might ask is the difference between maxima and
minima in ordinary calculus and that in the calculus of variations
• In ordinary calculus, the maxima/minima solution will be in the form of a

number while that of the calculus of variations will yield conditions that the
functions must satisfy to ensure that the functionals attain stationary values
• The second questions is, ‘What is a functional?’

• A functional is nothing more than a quantity whose value depends on the
entire shape of some functions and not just on a number of discrete variables
• As an example, consider a beam subjected to certain end conditions and

loading and we have to determine the shape the beam will take
• We can assume various types of deflected shapes

• These are the functions satisfying the end conditions
• The region of the function is the domain of the beam while that of the
functional is all such possible shapes or functions
• The objective of the variational functional method is to find the conditions

the shapes must satisfy so that the functional will be stationary
• In other words, a functional is a function of a function!
For the case of one-dimensional problems, the variational statement can

generally be expressed as follows:
x2
χ  y =  F  x, y, y ' , y" , . . dx = extremum

x1
In order to extremise the functional ‫א‬, its first variation should vanish, i.e.
δχ = 0
This condition has an associated equivalent differential equation called the
Euler, or Euler-Lagrange equation, which can be expressed as follows:
F d  F  d2   F 
-  ' + 2  " 
- .K .K = 0
y dx   y  dx   y 
The Basic Raleigh-Ritz Method
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira
• In 1870, Rayleigh presented a direct method for solution of variational

problems and Ritz refined and extended Rayleigh’s method in 1909
• The Rayleigh-Ritz method can also be used for the solution of differential
equations, provided that an equivalent variational statement can be found
• More details of calculus of variations can be reviewed in specialised texts
Consider that it is required to extremise the following functional:
1
 1  dy 2 
  
0
    xy  dx
 2  dx  
with the boundary conditions:
i.) y(0)  0
i.) y(1)  0
Note that the corresponding differential equation can be deduced from the
Euler-Lagrange equation as follows:
1 ' 2 
1
χ = 0  2 (y ) + xy  dx

Then:
F  x, y, y1  =
1
y '2 + xy
2
i.e.
F d F d '
- = x - y = 0
Y dx y '
dx
or
d2 y
2
- x = 0
dx
The procedure for using the variational solution technique is outlined in the
following steps.
Step 1
Assume an approximate solution of the form:
~ m
y(x) = y (x) =  α ψ x
j=1
j j
αj are coefficients to be determined, ψj(x, y) are elements of a given sequence of

a linearly independent function (the basis function). The basis function can be a
trigonometric series, Legendre polynomials, algebraic series etc. The simplest
choice is the algebraic series i.e.
ψ j  x  = x
j-1
Step 2
Verify that the assumed solution satisfies the given boundary conditions.
The given boundary conditions (say t conditions) are to be substituted into the
previous solution and t coefficients are to be eliminated to reduce the solution
into the form:
~ n
y (x) = α
j=1
j Φj x
where n = m – t. For the given problem the assumed solution would be:
y  x  = α1 + α 2 x + α3 x 2 + α 4 x 3 + .....
Applying given boundary conditions we would have:

y  0  = 0 = α1
y 1 = 0 =α1 + α 2 + α3 + α 4 + .....
That is:
α1 = 0
α 2 = -  α3 + α 4 + .....
Substituting into the assumed solution we have:

y x = -  α3 + α 4 + .... x + α3 x 2 + α 4 x 3 + ....
This can be simplified to:
y෤ x = a1 φ1 x + a2 φ2 x + a3 φ3 x +
where a1 = α3, a2 = α4, etc. and:
φj x = x j+1 − x
Step 3
Substitute the assumed approximate solution into the variational expression, to

obtain:
~
χ  a1 , a 2 , ..., a n  =  F  Y  dx
domain  
For the given problem we have:
F  y =
1
2
y  ' 2
+ xy
where
y  x  = a1  x 2 - x  + a 2 x 3
- x  + ....
and
= a1  2x -1 + a 2  3x 2 -1 + ....
dy
dx
Hence:
a1  2x - 1 + a 2  3x - 1 + ....
1
F  y =
2
 2

2 
+ a1  x 3 - x 2  + a 2  x 4 - x 2  + ....
Substituting into the variational statement yields:
1
χ =  F  y dx
0
1
- 1 + a 2  3x - 1 + .... dx
1
 2x
2
  a1 2
= 
2 0
1
+   a1
 x 3
- x2  + a2 x 4
- x 2  + .... dx
0
Step 4
Extremise the variational functional.
From variational calculus, in order to extremise ‫א‬,

δχ = 0
i.e.
χ χ χ
 a1 + δa 2 + .... + δa n = 0
 a1 a 2 a n
or
χ
= 0, i = 1, 2, ..., n
a i
For the given example we have:

χ
1 1
1
= .2   2x - 1 . a1  2x - 1 + a 2  3x - 1 + .... dx +
2
 x
3
- x 2  dx = 0
a1 2 0 0
i.e.
1 1
  a1  2x - 1 + a 2  2x - 1  3x 2 - 1  dx+  x - x 2  dx = 0
2 3
 
0 0
This can be expressed as:

c11 a1  c12 a 2  ...  b1
where:
1
  2x - 1 dx
2
c11 =
0
1
  dx
1
c12 =   2x - 1 3x 2
- 1 dx b1 = -
0
x 3
- x 2
0
Now the variation with respect to a2 gives:
 
1 1
   3x  1  a1  2x  1  a2  3x  1  ... dx   x  x 2  dx  0
2 2 4
 a2 0 0
i.e.
c21 a1 + c22 a 2 + .... = b 2
In this case the constants of integration are given by:
 
1
c 21   3x 2  1 2 x  1 dx  c12
0
 
1
c 22   3x 2  1 dx
2
 
1
b2    x 4  x 2 dx
0
Step 5
Solve the resulting equations

c nxn a nx1 = b nx1
where
 c11 c12 ... c1 n 
c c 22 ... c 2 n 
c =  21
 ... ... ... ... 

 
c n 1 c n 2 ... c n n 
a = a1 a 2 .. a n 
b = b1 b2 .. bn 
If it is required to complete the solution for the case of:
y = a1  x 2 - x  + a 2  x 3 - x 
the coefficients of the above system of equations can be expressed as follows:

1
1 c12 =   2x - 1  3x 2
- 1 dx
  2x - 1 dx
2
c11 = 0
0 1
  6x - 3x 2 - 2x + 1 dx
3
3 1 =

 2x  1 0
.
2 3 6 3 2
0 = - - + 1
1 4 3 2
 1
3 =
2
and:
1 1
  3x 2 - 1 dx    dx
2 3 2
c 22 = b1 = - x - x
0 0
1
 1 1
  9x + 1 dx = -  - 
4 2
= - 6x
0
 4 3
9 6 1
= - + 1 =
5 3 12
1
 x - x 2  dx
4 4
= b2 = -
5 0
1 1
= -  - 
 5 3
2
=
15
Hence the equations are:
1 1 1
a1  a 2 
3 2 12
1 4 2
a1  a 2 
2 5 15
These equations can be simplified to:
4a1  6a 2  1
15a1  24a 2  4
which can be solved to yield:
1 6 4 1
4 24 15 4
a1 = a2 =
4 6 6
15 24 16 - 15
=
24 - 24 6
= 1
96 - 90 =
6
= 0
Substituting these constants into the assumed solution we have:
y =
1
6
 x3 - x 
which is the exact solution.
The Raleigh-Ritz Method Applied to Structural
Analysis
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira
The Raleigh-Ritz Method Applied to Structural Analysis
Introductory definitions:
Vector
A vector is a column matrix, for example:
 a1 
a 
A =  2
 .. 
 
 a n 
Row Matrix
A row matrix is a matrix, which contains one row. The transpose of a vector is a
row matrix, for example:
A t = a1 a 2 .. a n  1×n
Scalar Product
Let A be defined as above and B be:
B = b1 b2 .. bn 
The scalar product of two vectors can be defined as follows:
n
t
AB = BA = t

i=1
a i bi
Stress Vector
The state of stress at any point in a continuum, is defined by a stress tensor
which can be expressed as follows:
 σx τx y τx z 
 
τij =  τ y x σy y τy z 
 τz x τz y σ z 

which is symmetric. For the finite element method it is preferable to represent
the stress tensor with the vector:
σ = σ x σy σz τx y τy z τz x 
Strain Vector
The state of strain at any point in a continuum may be defined in terms of the
following strain tensor:
ε xx ε xy ε xz 
 
ε ij =  ε yx ε yy ε yz 
 ε zx ε zy ε zz 

The strain vector can be defined as follows:
ε = ε x εy εz γ xy γ yz γ zx 
Variational Statement
 For many problems of continuum mechanics, there are forms of energy
balance theorems which provide variational statements directly
 There are many energy theorems that can be used for structural analysis
 The basic energy theorem employed in this course is the minimum total
potential energy theorem, which states that:
The exact solution of a structural

analysis problem is the one, for all
compatible displacements, whose energy
of the structure is a minimum.
Variational Statement
The total potential energy of the structure can be expressed as follows:
χ = U + V
where U is the strain energy of the structure which is given by:
U = 
structure
  σ dε
t
 d  Vol.
and for a linear elastic material, we have:

1
 σ ε d  Vol.
t
U =
2 structure
and V is the potential energy of the externally applied loads i.e.

V  W
EXAMPLE
Consider the problem of a heavy bar illustrated below.
a Pa
x, u P(x)
L
b
Pb
EXAMPLE
Suppose that it is required to determine the deformation and stress-strain
distribution for the heavy bar, which is hung vertically from one end, and
carries a heavy rigid mass at the other. The problem can be modelled as a bar
a-b fixed at end ‘a’ and subjected to a linearly distributed thrust.
x
P  x  = Pa +  Pb - Pa 
L
If we let A be the cross–sectional area of the bar and E be the Young’s

Modulus of the bar material, then it follows that the stress at any point is given
by:
Thrust Force Px
σ = =
Cross-sectional Area A
EXAMPLE
Let the displacement at any point with coordinate x be u. Then the

displacement at coordinate x + ∆x is:
du
u + Δ x + higher order terms
dx
EXAMPLE
Hence the engineering strain can be expressed as follows:

 du 1 d 2
u 
 u  Δx 
 2
Δx      u
2
lim  dx 2 dx 
ε 
Δx  0 Δx
Neglecting higher order terms we have:

du
ε =
dx
Therefore, the stress can be expressed in terms of displacement through
constitutive laws i.e.
du
σ = Εε = Ε
dx
EXAMPLE
Now we can derive the variational statement for the problem. The strain energy
is given by:
1
U =
2  σ ε dxdydz
2
1  du 
=  Ε   dxdydz
2  dx 
Since U is a function of x only, we then have:
  dydz  dx
2
1  du 
U =
2   dx 
E
EXAMPLE
From the above figure it can be shown that the double integral is cross sectional area A of the
section, hence:
1 L 2
 du 
U =  AE   dx
2 0  dx 

EXAMPLE
The work done by the external load is given by:
 du 
L
W =  Pdu =  P   dx
Bar 0  dx 
Finally, the total potential energy is given by:
1 L 2 L  du 
 du 
χ = U - W =  AE   dx -  P   dx
2 0  dx  0  dx 

EXAMPLE
Raleigh-Ritz Solution
Step 1
Assume a solution of the following form

u  x  = α1 + α 2 x + α3 x 2
Step 2
Verify that the assumed solution satisfies the given boundary conditions.
The only boundary condition we have is that u = 0 at x = 0 implying that α1 = 0. Hence the
assumed solution reduces to:
~
u(x)  a1x  a 2 x 2

EXAMPLE
Step 3
Substitute the appropriate solution into the variational expression. The required
derivatives are:
u  x  = a1x + a 2 x 2
du
= a1 + 2a 2 x
dx
This gives the variational statement as:
2
 du   du 
L L
1
χ =
2 0  dx  dx -
AE 0  dx  dx
 
L L
1 x
 AE  a1 + 2a 2 x  dx - 0  a L b a   a1 + 2a 2 x  dx
 
2
= p + p - p
2 0

EXAMPLE
Step 4
Extremise the variational functional i.e.

χ χ
= = 0
 a1 a 2
This leads to:

χ
L L
 a1
=  AE  a1 + 2 a 2 x  dx -
0
 pa +
0
X
L  pb - p a   dx = 0
AE  a1x + a 2 x   pb - p a   = 0
L
2
-  p a x + X2
2L
o
a1 + L a 2 = 1
2AE  pa + pb 
EXAMPLE
For variation with respect to a2 we have:
χ
L L
=  2 xAE  a1 + 2 a 2 x  dx -  2 x pa + X
 pb - p a   dx = 0
a 2 0 0
L
L L
 AE  a1x + 2 a 2 x  dx -   x pa + X2
 pb - p a   dx = 0
2
L
0 0
AE  a1 X2 + 2 a32 X
2 3
 -  X2 p a +
2
X3
3L  pb - p a   L
0 = 0
This can be evaluated and simplified to:

pa + p b
3a1 + 4La 2 =
AE
EXAMPLE
Step 5
Solve the resulting equations, which are:
a1  L a 2  1
2 AE
 pa  pb 
3a1  4 La 2  1
AE
 pa  2 pb 
Solution of these equations yields:
a1 
pa
AE
pb  p a
a2  2 LAE
Therefore the displacement distribution function for the problem is:

1  x2 
u(x)  p a x  p b  p a 
EA  2L 
DISCRETIZATION CONCEPTS

Point Wise Discretisation
Let y (x) be a general field function in the domain (0, L), i.e.
0xL
and it is required to calculate:
L
I =  y  x  dx
0
For exact graphical representation of y(x), a theoretically infinite number of points is required.
An acceptable approximation is to represent y(x) in terms of a finite number of points i.e. y1, y2,.
. . . . . . . yn at x = x1, x2,. . . . . . . . xn.
This concept is known as ‘Pointwise Discretisation’.
An approximate continuous model can be obtained from the discretised model by fitting a
continuous curve, which passes through the points (xi, yi), i = 1, 2,. . . . ., n
This can be achieved generally by employing Lagrangian interpolation as
follows:
~ n
yx =  L x y
n
i i
i =1
where the Lagrangian polynomial is given by:

n
 x - xr 
Li  x  = 
n
 
r=1  xi x r 
-
r¹i
Hence the integration may be approximated analytically as follows:

L
I  y% x  dx
0

Piece Wise Discretisation
Using pointwise discretisation, for the previous example, the function y(x) can
be approximated to a very high degree, but the resulting integral expression is
not simple.
The second approach is to divide the whole domain into a finite number of
subdomains.
The function y(x) does not require to be approximated accurately for each sub
domain.
An acceptable approximation is to use linear interpolation, as shown below.


For this case:
x2 x3
y dx = 14 2y 4dx
x1
3
+ 14 2y dx
x2
43
+ LLLL
Subdomain1 Subdomain 2
For the ith sub-domain:

x i+1
I i
=  yx dx
xi
For a simple trapezium, we know that:
y  x  - yi x - xi
=
yi + 1 - yi xi + 1 - xi

Recalling that:
 yi + 1 - yi 
y  x  = yi +   x
 xi + 1 - xi 
It can be deduced that:
 xi + 1 
- x i  yi + 1 + yi 
Ii =
2
which is the well-known Trapezoidal Rule for numerical integration.

DISCRETIZATION OF THE RALEIG-RITZ METHOD
Any boundary value problem, which has a variational statement, can be solved
by means of the Raleigh–Ritz method as described earlier.
Generally, the Rayleigh–Ritz procedure has the following basic difficulties.
a. Satisfaction of general boundary conditions
b. The need to make the assumed solution valid for the whole domain.
The ‘Discretisation Concept’ can be employed in order to overcome such

difficulties.


Consider the bar problem discussed before. The first step of the Rayleigh –Ritz
method is to assume an approximate solution as follows:
m
u x = α x
j -1
j
j=1
but it is difficult to allocate a physical meaning to the coefficients i.

Alternatively, the values of u at m points; u1 , u2 , . . . , um can be assumed as
unknown parameters, i.e.
m
u x =  u N x
j=1
j j
where Nj(x), j = 1, 2, . . , m are simple algebraic polynomials which satisfy the

following condition:
N j  x i  = δi j  Kronecher Delta 
Accuracy of the interpolation function can be improved by dividing the domain
into smaller sub-domains as shown below:
u = u1 u = u2 u = u3
(1) (2) (3)
x=0 x = L/2 x=L

Instead of assuming that:
u  x  = 1 +  x + α3 x 2
the following expression will be used:
u  x  = u1 N1  x  + u 2 N 2  x  + u 3 N3  x 
Applying Lagrange’s interpolation, it can be shown that:
 x - x 2   x - x3
N1  x  =
 x1 - x 2  x1 - x 3 
N2  x  =
 x - x1  x - x 3 
 x 2 - x1  x 2 - x 3 
N3  x  =
 x - x1  x - x 2 
 x 3 - x1  x 3 - x 2 
This leads to an assumed solution of the form:
 x x 
2
 x x 
2
 x x 
2
u  x  = u1 1 - 3   + 2    + u 2 4   - 4    + u 3 -   + 2   
 L  L     L   L     L   L  

In this case the interpolation functions can be expressed in the form:
N1  x  = 1 - ξ  1 - 2 ξ 
N 2  x  = 4 ξ 1 - ξ 
N3  x  = ξ 2 ξ - 1
where
x
ξ =
L
Points 1, 2, and 3 are called nodes. N1, N2, and N3 are known as shape
functions.
Discretised Rayleigh-Ritz Solution
STEP 1
u    u1 1   1  2 
 4 u 2  1   
 u 3  2  1
STEP 2
u1  0
u    4u 2  1     u 3  2  1

STEP 3
   u 2 , u 3 
STEP 4

0
 u2

0
 u3
STEP 5
u2 
L
3 Pa  Pb 
8 AE
u3 
L
Pa  Pb 
2 AE
This process implies that the whole domain is to be divided into a number of
sub domains, which are known as finite elements.
Each sub domain should obey the same physical principles applied to the
whole domain, and can be treated as a separate problem.
The equations for the whole domain can be obtained by summing the sub
domain equations.
The Rayleigh-Ritz method with piecewise and point wise discretization is the
well-known finite element method, as illustrated next.

The Finite Element Method
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira
SIMPLIFY SIMPLIFY
RAYLEIGH-RITZ
SATISFACTION ASSUMED
METHOD
OF BC’s SOLUTION
POINT WISE PIECE WISE

DISCRETISATION DISCRETISATION
FEM

The finite element method may be considered as a pointwise and piecewise
discretised Rayleigh-Ritz method. The finite element solution procedure
consists of two basic parts.
A.) Formulation of Sub-domain or Finite element Equations
This is the part that may differ from one problem to another. It may be deduced
directly from the discretised Rayleigh-Ritz method.
For some applications the finite element equations are deduced from the
weighted-residual approach or the Garlekin approach.
This part involves the derivation of element equations. This exercise normally
results in the element stiffness matrix.

B.) Solution for the Whole Domain
Generally speaking this part has a standard algorithm, which is independent of

the type of problem.
It involves discretisation of the domain, compilation of individual element

equations, assembling these equations to give global system equations,
applying boundary conditions and finally solving the resulting system of
equations.
In order to understand each part in more detail, let us apply the method to the
previous bar problem.

FORMULATION OF ELEMENT EQUATIONS
Consider the 2 Node bar element shown below.
The steps used in the formulation of element equations are outlined next.

STEP 1
Assume a solution in terms of nodal parameters and shape functions.
u  x  = u i Ni  x  + u j N j  x 
where
x - xj  x - xj 
Ni  x  = = - 
xi - x j  L 
x - xi  x - xi 
Nj x = =  
x j - xi  L 
This gives the assumed solution as:
- u i  x - x j  + u j  x - x i  
1
u x =
L  
where:
L = x j - xi
STEP 2
This step must be postponed because the sub domain boundary conditions
are not defined generally. Boundary conditions can be applied only on the
global system equations.
STEP 3
Substitute the assumed solution into the variational functional.
χ = U - W

Strain energy is given by:
xj 2
 du 
U = 1
2 x AE   dx
 dx 
i
xj 2
 u j - ui 
= 1
2 x AE  L  dx
i
AE
u - ui 
2
1
= 2 j
L
And work done is:
xj
 du 
W = Fi u i + Fj u j   P  x    dx
xi  dx 
Therefore the variational functional is:
AE
 u j - ui  - F u + Fj u j 
2
χ = U - W = 1
2 i i
L
STEP 4
Minimise total potential energy i.e.

χ χ
= 0 , = 0
ui u j
That is:
χ AE
 ui
= -
L
 u j - u i  - Fi = 0
χ AE
 uj
=
L
 u j - u i  - Fj = 0

The resulting equations are:
AE
L
u i - u j  = Fi
AE
L
- u i + u j  = Fj
In matrix form this can be expressed as:

AE  1 -1  u i   Fi 
  u  = F 
L -1 1  j   j
In summarised form we have:
K   δ 
e e
= F 
e

In this representation, the element nodal displacement vector is:
ui 
δ  =  
u j 
e
The element nodal force vector is given by:

 Fi 
F  =  
Fj 
e
And the element stiffness matrix is given by:
EA  1  1
K (e) 
L  1 1 
STEPS FOR THE SOLUTION OF THE WHOLE DOMAIN
STEP 1: Discretisation of the Domain
The domain can be divided into two subdomains and each subdomain can be
considered as a 2-node element.
The equivalent nodal forces should satisfy the equilibrium equations.
For the problem at hand, a logical solution is to assume that the nodal forces
are the average values of the thrust distribution for each element.



STEP 2: Derivation of Element Equations
The two node bar element equations were derived to be:
AE  1 -1  u i   Fi 
    =  
L -1 1   u j  F j
Applying this to the previous problem, the following can be deduced:
For Element 1
AE  1 -1  u1  -  3 Pa + Pb  4 
    =  
L -1 1   u 2  +  3 Pa + P b  4

STEP 2: Derivation of Element Equations
For Element 2
AE  1 -1  u 2  -  P a + 3P b  4 
    =  
L -1 1   u 3    P a + 3P b  4 
STEP 3: Assembly of sub-domain equations to obtain the equations for the

whole domain
It is useful to note, in the above element equations that ui is the total or actual
displacement at the ith node and Fi is a partial local force, for the considered
sub-domain. Hence, the law of the assembly is based upon the mechanical
principle.
whole domain
The total force at each node is equal to the sum of the contributions from the
local element forces for elements connected to that node.
Assembly can be carried out by means of matrices, if the nodal displacement

vector is the same for each element. This can be achieved by making the
displacement vector the same as the global displacement vector.
For the first element, inserting a correct number of zeros, the equations for the
element can be expressed as follows.

whole domain
  AE   AE    3Pa + Pb 
 L     0
   L   - 
   u1  
4

  AE   AE      a3P + Pb 
     0 u 2  =  
  L   L   u  
4

 0 0 0  3   0 
   
 
 
0 0 0 
   u1   0 
  AE   AE      
 0   -    2 
u =   a
- P + 3Pb 4 
  L   L   u    P + 3P  4 
  3  
 AE   AE  
a b
0 -    
  L   L  
whole domain
The two matrices can be added together to yield:
  AE   AE  
  L  -   0 
   L 
   u1   -  3Pa +Pb  4 
  AE   AE   AE      
 -  2   -    u 2  =   2Pa - 2Pb  4 
  L   L   L     Pa + 3Pb  4 
  u3 
 AE   AE 
 0 -     
  L   L  
This can be written in the form:
K   F
where K is the global stiffness matrix, δ is the global nodal displacement vector
and F is the global nodal force vector.
STEP 4: Apply boundary conditions
For this case, the boundary condition is u1 = 0.
The first equation and first column of stiffness matrix are eliminated, and a
reduced system of equations will be obtained, as follows:
 AE   AE  2Pa - 2Pb
2   u2 -   u3 =
 L   L  4
 AE   AE  pa + 3p b
-  u2 +   u3 =
 L   L  4

STEP 5: Solve the Resulting Equations
The equations are:

L  2Pa - 2Pb 
2u 2 - u 3 =   .... 1
AE  4 
L  Pa + 3Pb 
-u 2 + u 3 =   ....  2 
AE  4 
Adding the two equations we have:
L  3Pa + Pb 
u2 =  
AE  4 
L
u3 =  Pa + Pb 
AE
STEP 5: Solve the Resulting Equations
Noting that:
L = S2
The exact solution is:
S
u2 =  3Pa + Pb 
8AE
S
u3 =  Pa + Pb 
2AE
General 1D Finite Element Modelling
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira
Coordinate Transformation
The local stiffness matrix for a pin-jointed bar was derived as:
AE  1  1  ui   Fi 
  u    F 
L  1 1   j   j 
However, this is not very useful because in general, trusses are inclined to the
horizontal.
Therefore, the stiffness matrix needs to be transformed to two or three

dimensional form.
This is done by first establishing the relationship between the local and global
coordinate systems.

Consider the general case shown in the Figure below where x, and y are local
coordinates and xo and yo are global coordinates.
The local and global coordinates are

related by:
u   cos  cos   u o 

    o
v   cos  cos   v 
u   l m u o 
   o 
  
v  m l  v 

Where l = cos α and m = cos β are the direction cosines of the local x-axis.
 
This may be expressed as:
Ui   ξ  Uio
if the displacements are those of node i in a truss. Since the element has two
nodes, the total displacement vector is given by:
 ui  u 0 
v   0
i
 i  0  v 
      0
i
u j  0   u j 
v j  v 0 
 j

This can also be simplified to:
U  λUo 
The same type of coordinate transformation will apply to the terms of the force
vector:
F  λF0 
Now since:
F  k U
Substituting the transformation equation yields:
λF0   k λU0 
However, λ is orthogonal, so that λT= λ-1, and we have:
F 
0
 λ k λU 
T 0
Therefore, the elemental stiffness matrix in 2D global coordinates is given by:
k 0
   k  
T
This leads to:

u 0 
 0 i
λU0 
u i   l m 0 0  v 
      0 
i
u j  0 0 l m  u j 
v0 
  j

If expanded this gives the global stiffness matrix as:
 l2 lm  l2  lm 
 2
m2  lm  m 
k  
AE  lm
L   l 2  lm l2 lm 
 2 
 lm  m m 
2
lm

Summary of 1D Element Equations
Bar Element
Fi  EA  1  1 u i 
F    1 1  u 
 j L   j
Beam Element
Fiy   12 6L  12 6L  δiy 
   6L 4L2  6L 2L2  θ 
M i   EI   i 
Fjy  L3  12  6L 12  6L  δ jy 
   2  
 6L 2L  6L 4L  θi 
2
M i 
2D Finite Element Modelling
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira
Generally speaking, most engineering problems are three-dimensional, but by

employing some acceptable approximation they may be reduced to one-or two-
dimensions.
A three-dimensional elasticity problem may be approximated into either a

plane-stress, or a plane-strain, two-dimensional problem as shown below.

For such a case, the stress and strain vectors become:
   x  y  xy 
   x y  xy 
and the strain energy for a linear elastic material can be expressed as follows:
   dxdydz

1 t
U 2
  t   dxdy
1 t
2

Now let us consider the derivation of element equations for a 4 node

quadrilateral element as shown below.

STEP 1: Define the nodal parameters
The element has 4 corner nodes and 4 straight-line sides. Rectangular and
parallelogram elements are special cases.
Using a local node numbering system, the element can be defined as shown in
the above figure.
Neglecting the displacement component along the z-axis, the nodal

displacement vector can be defined as follows:
  u1 v1 u2 v2 u3 v3 u4 v4 
and the nodal force vector is:

F  F x1 Fy1 Fx2 Fy2 Fx3 Fy3 Fx4 Fy4 
STEP 2: Express the displacement components at any point in terms of
nodal displacements and shape functions.
Define the nodal displacement vector at the ith node as:


qi  u i iˆ  v i ˆj
The vector q at any point (x, y) is to be expressed as follows:

 4

q x , y    q i N i x , y 
i 1
where N1, N2, N3 and N4 are shape functions. Hence, it can be deduced that:
u  x , y   u1 N 1  u 2 N 2  u 3 N 3  u 4 N 4
v  x , y   v1 N 1  v 2 N 2  v 3 N 3  v 4 N 4

Now we need to determine the shape functions. For the case of the 4-node
quadrilateral element, it can be assumed that:
u  x , y    1   2 x   3 y   4 xy
Substituting values at the four nodes, we arrive at:
u1   1   2 x1   3 y1   4 x1 y1
u2  1   2 x2   3 y2   4 x2 y 2
u3   1   2 x3   3 y 3   4 x3 y 3
u4  1   2 x4   3 y4   4 x4 y 4

In matrix form this can be expressed as:
1 x1 y1 x1 y1   1   u1 
1 x2 y2 x 2 y 2   2  u 
   2
1 x3 y3 x 3 y 3   3  u 3 
    
1 x4 y4 x 4 y 4   4  u 4 
This matrix equation represents 4 simultaneous equations in the 4 unknowns

α1, α2, α3 and α4, which can be solved. By substituting back into the u (x, y)
expression, the functions can be deduced.
The major difficulty is that these shape functions depend upon the nodal global
co-ordinates and for every different sub domain the previous procedure of
shape function derivation should be repeated.

It is useful to employ a local system of coordinates, which is simple, unique and

independent of the global system of coordinates.
Such a system is known as an intrinsic system and its co-ordinates are the
intrinsic co-ordinates  and .
Let us discuss the unique intrinsic element in the  -  system and then try to
correlate the  -  system with the x – y system.
One very good idea is to transform the quadrilateral element into a square of
unit length as shown next.
Using an element of unit length reduces the computation time significantly.


In this case the rectangular element shape functions can be employed, where:
N1  1   1   
N2   1   
N3  
N4  1    
This leads to assumed solutions of the form:
4
u  ,    u i N i  ,  
i 1
4
v ,     v i N i  ,  
i 1

The problem now becomes one of obtaining the equation of the transformation:
x  x ,  
y  y  ,  
One approach is to assume that x and y are field functions defined within the
element domain in terms of their nodal values and that they obey the same
interpolation formula, i.e.
x ,    x1 N 1  x 2 N 2  x 3 N 3  x 4 N 4
y  ,    y1 N 1  y 2 N 2  y 3 N 3  y 4 N 4

Such a transformation is known as “Isoparametric transformation”.
Therefore, the displacement vector at any point (x,y) can be expressed as

follows:
u   N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 0 
q   
 v  0 N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 
Step 3
Express the strain component at any point in terms of nodal displacements and
shape functions.
If the displacement vector is given by:

  u1 v1 u 2 v 2 u 3 v3 u 4 v 4 
Then:
u  x, y    N1 0 N 2 0 N3 0 N4 0 
v  x, y   0 N1 0 N 2 0 N3 0 N4  
We already know from theory of elasticity that the strains are related to
displacements through kinematics relations:
u  N1 N 2 N 3 N 4 
x   0 0 0 0 
x  x x x x 
u  N1 N 2 N 3 N 4 
 y   0 0 0 0  
y  y y y y 
u v  N1 N1 N 2 N 2 N 3 N 3 N 4 N 4 
 xy     
y x  y x y x y x y x 
This can be reduced to:
 B 

3 1 3 8 8 1
where:
   x  y  xy 
 N1 N 2 
 0 0 
 x x 
N1 N 2
B   0 0 
 y y 
 N1 N1 N 2 N 2 
 
 y x y x 

Since the shape functions are expressed in terms of the intrinsic co-ordinates ,
 it is useful to deduce the Cartesian derivatives in terms of intrinsic derivatives.
Consider the shape function, and apply the chain rule of partial differentiation
i.e.
N i N i x N i y
 
 x  y 
N i N i x N i y
 
 x  y 
In matrix form, this can be expressed as:
 N i   N i 
    x, y   x 
 N   J   N 
 i   ,   i 
    y 
where:
 x y 
 x, y     
J   
  ,  x y 
 
   
is the Jacobian matrix. Therefore:
 N I   N i 
 x  1  x, y    
 N   J  
 
 i   ,   i 
N
 y    

Step 4
Express the stress components at any point in terms of nodal displacements

and shape functions i.e.
σ D ε

3 1 3 3 3 1
Hence:
σ  D B δ
In this case note that D is the material stiffness matrix given by:
1  1 0 
E  
D  1 1 0 
1 
2
1 
 0 0
2 
where:
 y y 
   

1  
J 1 
J  x x 


   
x y
 
J 
x y
 
x y x y
 
   

Step 5
Substitute the assumed solution into the variational functional
1
χ   σ t ε dVol  Fδ t
2

1
 D B δ t
Bδ dVol  Fδ t
2
1
  δt Bt D B δ dVol  Fδ t
2

1 t
2
 
δ  Bt D B dVol δ  Fδ t

Step 6
Extremise the variational functional i.e. minimise total potential energy which is
satisfied for:
χ
t
 0
δ
Using matrix identities we have:
 Bt D B dVolδ  F
Therefore the element stiffness matrix is:

t
K (e)   B D B dVol
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira
The main aim of this section is to introduce 3D elements in the same way done
for 2D.
We first consider a full 3D 8-node hexahedral element as shown below.

STEP 1:
Define nodal values
For 3D elasticity, displacement is in terms of u, v and w. For 8-node element,
the nodal displacement vector is:
δ  u1 v1 w1 u2 v2 w2  u8 v8 w8
And the nodal force vector is:
F  Fx1 Fy1 Fz1 Fx2 Fy2 Fz2  Fx8 Fy8 Fz8 

STEP 2:
Express displacement in terms of nodal values and shape functions
In the same way used for 2D, interpolation functions can be found of the form:
Ni x, y, z  i  1, 2,  , 8
That is:
8
u x, y, z    u i Ni x, y, z 
i 1
8
v x, y, z    vi Ni x, y, z 
i2
8
w x, y, z    w i Ni x, y, z 
i 1

In order to have a general set of equations, intrinsic coordinates can be used
i.e. ξ-η-ζ:

Consider one of the displacement components, say u (component in the x
direction), it can be expressed in terms of ξ, η, ζ using an algebraic polynomials
as follows:
u ξ, η, ζ   α1  α 2ξ  α3η  α 4ζ  α5ξη  α 6ξ ζ  α 7 η ζ  α8ξ η ζ
Applying the 8 conditions:
u  u1 at ξ  0, η  0 ζ  0
u  u2 at ξ  1, η  0 ζ  0
   
u  u8 at ξ  0, η  1 ζ  1

The unknown parameters can be obtained leading to:
N1 ξ, η, ζ   1  ξ 1  η1  ζ 
N 2 ξ, η, ζ   ξ 1  η1  ζ 
N3 ξ, η, ζ   ξ η 1  ζ 
N 4 ξ, η, ζ   1  ξ  η 1  ζ 
N5 ξ, η, ζ   1  ξ 1  η ζ
N 6 ξ, η, ζ   ξ 1  η ζ
N 7 ξ, η, ζ   ξ η ζ
N8 ξ, η, ζ   1  ξ  η ζ
The relationship between the Cartesian system (x, y, z) and the intrinsic
system (ξ, η, ζ) can be obtained through isoparametric transformation i.e.
8
x ξ, η, ζ    x i Ni ξ, η, ζ 
i 1
8
y ξ, η, ζ    yi Ni ξ, η, ζ 
i 1
8
z ξ, η, ζ    zi Ni ξ, η, ζ 
i 1

3D Finite Element Modelling εx 
u

8
 ui
 Ni
x i 1 x
STEP 3:
Express the strain components at v 8  Ni
εy    vi
y i 1 y
any point in terms of nodal
w 8  Ni
displacements and shape εz    wi
z i 1 z
functions.
u  v 8   Ni  Ni 
γ xy      u i  vi 
y x i 1  y  x 
Using the strain displacement
v w 8   Ni  Ni 
relationships, and the expressions γ yz      i v  w i 
z  y i 1  z y 
of step 2, it can be deduced that
u  w 8   Ni  Ni 
γ zx      u i  wi 
z  x i 1  z  x 

The strain vector is given by:
ε  ε x εy εz γ xy γ yz γ zx 
It can also be shown that:
ε 61  B624 δ 241
where:
B  b1 b2  b8 

This translates to:
  Ni 
 x 0 0 
 
 0  Ni
0 
 y 
  Ni 
 0 0 
z 
bi  
  Ni  Ni 
 y 0 
x
 
 0  Ni  Ni 
 z y 
  Ni  Ni 
 0 
 z x 

Cartesian derivatives of the intrinsic shape functions need to be determined.
Consider a function f(ξ, η, ζ). Using the chain rule of partial differentiation, it can
be deduced that:
f f  x f  y f  z
  
ξ  x ξ  y ξ  z ξ
f f  x f  y f  z
  
η  x η  y η z η
f f  x f  y f  z
  
ζ  x ζ  y ζ  z ζ

This can be expressed in matrix form as:
 f   f   x y z 
 ξ  x      
     
     
 f   f   x y z 
   x, y, z     x, y , z   
  η   J  ξ, η, ζ  y  J        
        , ,    
 f   f   x y z 
     
 ζ   z      
     
     

Applying the above analysis to the intrinsic shape functions of the hexahedral
element, it can be deduced that:
  Ni    Ni 
 x   ξ 
   
   
  Ni    Ni 
  1  x, y, z   
  y   J  
 ξ, η, ζ    η 
     
N  N 
 i  i
 z   ζ 
   
   
It has also been shown that | J | = The volume of the parallelopiped element.

STEP 4:
Express the stress components at any point in term of nodal displacements
 
and shape functions
σ  σ x σ y σ z τ xy τ yz τ zx
σ  D ε  DB δ
1- ν ν ν 0 0 0
ν 1- ν ν 0 0 0
ν ν 1- ν 0 0 0
D 
E
1  ν 1 ν  0 0 0
1 - 2ν
0 0
2
1- 2ν
0 0 0 0 0
2
1 - 2ν
0 0 0 0 0
2
STEP 5:
Express the total potential energy of the element in terms of nodal
displacements
χ  U-W
The strain energy is given by:
ε t 
U     σ d ε  dxdydz
element  ε  o
where the stress vector is given by:

σt  δ t Bt Dt
Since D is symmetric, we have:
Dt  D

STEP 5:
Express the total potential energy of the element in terms of nodal
displacements
 
U  1
2
δ   B DB dxdydz  δ
t t
 element 
The work done by external forces is given by:
W  δ t FE
Thus the total potential energy of the element is given by:
 
χ  1
2
δ   B DB dxdydz  δ  δ t FE
t t
 element 

STEP 6:
Apply the minimum total potential energy theorem.
χ δ   minimum
This means that:
χ
 0
δ
This results in the equation:
K    Bt
DB dxdydz
element
This is the element stiffness matrix.

Practical Implementation of FEM
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira
Reminder of Basic Facts
1. Finite element modelling is an approximation
2. The approximations include:
a. Geometry
b. Material properties
c. Loading
d. Method of discretization (type and number of elements)
3. It is important to understand how these affect your solution
4. Strategies must be implemented to ensure that the model produces the most
accurate solution

Model Vallidity
1. FEM will give the correct answer if the model is both valid and accurate
2. Validity refers to how faithfully the model represents the physical problem e.g.
plane stress model will converge to a 2D solution not the actual 3D problem
3. For properly formulated model, an increase in mesh density will result in the
solution converging to the exact answer (accuracy)
4. The layout of the element and the distortion of the element also affect
convergence
5. The issue of available computational resources also comes into play
6. Careful consideration must be given to the development of the model

Geometry Issues
1. The are two levels of geometrical approximations:
a) Element level – How accurately the small details are captured by the
element especially when considering first order element (linear)
b) Component Level – Simplifications to the geometry

Material Properties
1. Materials properties are usually approximated to linear elastic in most FEM
simulations
2. Material behavior is also assumed to be homogenous and isotropic but this
might not apply for composite material simulations
3. However, most material properties vary with temperature etc.
4. Most FEM software allows input of user defined material properties which can
be captured from actual tests
5. This allows input of nonlinear material response
6. The use of such an approach must be justified

Loading Conditions
1. Recall that FEM converts all forces and constraints to nodal values
2. Special care is therefore required when specifying pressure loads and even
point loads

Mesh Design
1. A FEM practitioner must have a good understanding of the physics of the
problem to design a good mesh
2. The mesh distribution should reflect the expected changes in field variables e.g.
stress concentration areas should have higher mesh density
3. The sensitivity of the mesh can be improved by either increasing mesh density
of improving the interpolation order (may required transition elements)

Mesh Design
1. Significantly different size elements should be avoided as they lead to poor
conditioning of the stiffness matrix
2. This will lead to significant round off errors
3. As much as possible, use smooth element transitions
4. Similarly, large differences in material properties may also give problems

Mesh Refinement
1. Model accuracy can be improved by either using smaller elements (h-
refinement) or by increasing the accuracy of the elements (p-refinement)
2. P-refinement is limited as most packages only offer linear and quadratic
elements
3. H-refinement is the most common approach (its termed mesh sensitivity study)

Mesh Refinement
Mesh sensitivity study can be used to selected the most optimum element and element density

Abaqus
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira
Abaqus
 Abaqus is a suite of powerful simulation programs
 They are all based on the finite element method
 It allows general purpose simulation
 It covers both linear and nonlinear simulations
 The range of available elements allows modelling of very complex geometries
 A wide range of material models are available that can be used to simulate a
wide range of materials
 Common problems that can be simulated include structural, heat transfer, mass
diffusion, acoustics, solid mechanics, piezoelectric, electromagnetic and fluid
dynamics analyses

Abaqus
 Abaqus consists of three main products:
 Abaqus Standard
 Abaqus Explicit
 Abaqus CFD
 Other add-on products include Abaqus/Aqua, Abaqus/Design, Abaqus/Foundation
etc.
 Abaqus/CAE (Complete Abaqus Environment) allows the interacting preparation
of models, submitting and monitoring of Abaqus jobs
 Abaqus/Viewer is a subset of Abaqus/CAE allowing for post-processing
functionality

Abaqus

Abaqus
The key steps in Abaqus FE modelling are:
1. Create a part
2. Create material
3. Create section
4. Assign section to part
5. Create assembly
6. Create instance of a part
7. Mesh part/instance
8. Create step
9. Create loads and boundary condition

Closure
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira
Closure
 This course has presented the background, development and applications of
finite element analysis
 The Raleigh-Ritz method was used to demonstrate the complete finite
element analysis process
 Element stiffness matrices were developed starting with 1D, 2D and 3D
elements
 The use of the FEM was demonstrated using the Abaqus commercial FEA
software produced by Dassault Systems
 Course participants should have developed the knowledge to analyse basic
structural problems
Bibliography
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira
Bibliography
1. Zienkiewicz, O. C. and Taylor, R. L., “The Finite Element Method for Solid and Structural
Mechanics”, 7th Edition, Elsevier, London, 2014
2. Rieg, F., Hackenschmidt, R. and Alber-Laukant, B., “Finite Element Analysis for Engineers”,
Carl Hanser Verlag Munich, Munich, 2014
3. Kim, N.-H. and Sankar, B. V., “Introduction to Finite Element Analysis and Design”, John
Wiley & Sons, 2008
4. Fagan, M.J., “Finite Element Analysis: Theory and practice”, Longman Scientific and
Technical, Singapore, 1992
5. Clough, R. W., “The finite element method in plane stress analysis”, Proc. American
Society of Civil Engineers (2nd Conference on Electronic Computation, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania), Vol. 23, P. 345-378, 1960
6. Ellobody, E., Feng, R. and Young B., “Finite Element Analysis and Design of Metal
Structures”, Elsevier, London, 2014
Bibliography
1. Logan, D. L., “A first course in the Finite Element Method”, 3rd Edition, Brooks/Cole –
Thompson Learning, Pacific Grove, California, USA pp2-3, 2002
2. Moaveni, S., “Finite Element Analysis – Theory and applications with ANSYS”, 2nd Edition,
Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA, 2003
3. NAFEMS, “NAFEMS: A Finite Element Primer”, NAFEMS, Glasgow, UK, 1993

END
M6FEA_9 DM Madyira

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Finite Element Analysis (M6FEA29)

Dr D. M. Madyira, Pr. Eng. [ B4 Lab 218, 0115594030, dmadyira@uj.ac.za ]

 Basic undergraduate matrix algebra

1 14 June 2019 Lecture Venue

Examination Date Venue

• It included an approximation of the energy functional by

• Minimisation of the functional in relation to each

• One of the main restrictions in the Rayleigh-Ritz method

• As unknowns, the values of functions in the node points of

• The Ritz method together with the Courant modification is

• Its application extends to other field problems such as heat

• FEM also allows detailed visualization (simulation) of where

• It has become one of the most powerful structural analysis

The Finite Element Method can be applied to three broad

► Steady state problems

► Eigen value problems

Such problems can also be either linear or non-linear.

• When contract with NASA ended, MSC developed its own

• Now there are many general purpose commercial codes

• Abaqus, which is now owned by the French company

• Basic FEM functionality is also now integrated on most CAD

• Solutions using either Strength of Materials or Theory of Elasticity are

• Many applications involve cases with complex shape, material behaviour,

• This has led to the development of several numerical/computational schemes

• FEM has become more widespread than other techniques

• The finite element method is a computational scheme to solve field problems

• Particularassumptions are then made on the variation of the unknown

• This approximated variation is quantified in terms of solution values at special

• Through this discretization process, the method sets up an algebraic system

• Often a trade off has to be made between solution accuracy and

Advantages of FEM include:

• Models bodies of complex shape

• Time dependent and dynamic effects can be included

 What is Strength of Materials?

 What is Solid Mechanics?

 What is Theory of Elasticity?

What is Strength of Materials?

The terms "theory of elasticity" and "strength of materials" (the engineer’s

Theory of Elasticity attempts to address the problems in complete by

What is Theory of Elasticity?

Theory of elasticity aims for a solution very close to the actual.

Assumptions are minimized so that the obtained solution is as close as

This leads to more accurate design solutions.

However, the computation effort increases significantly!

For practical applications, this can be a challenge.

Solid Mechanics problems are typically boundary value problems. Regardless

 Decide upon the goal of the problem and desired information

 The deformed shape of a structure or component subjected to loading

Stress concentrations shown above are largely ignored in Strength of Materials

Saint Vernant’s Principle

“The stresses in a structure caused by a certain load distribution at a distance

What are the issues to consider in analyzing a loaded body?

F2 Governing equations of this body are

 Assume body is a continuum

independent of the forces

M6FEA_9 2018 DM Madyira 42

result of these forces

Absolute Relative Absolute Relative

Displs. Strains Stresses

Stress Equations of Equilibrium

In strength of materials stress analysis, we

shown in the Figure.

Stress Equations of Equilibrium

However, we know that in general Y