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WRITING LAB REPORTS – A FIRST

YEAR GUIDE
Three general objectives are to be accomplished in Physics labs. First, is to gain insights into a variety of
Physics principles. Second, is to learn something about the process of scientific investigation and verification.
Finally, we need to learn how to communicate what we know or have seen. Your lab report is the vehicle by
which we can find out how well these objectives have been accomplished. To meet these objectives the student
must know:
1. How to use various measuring instruments and to estimate their reading errors
2. How to reduce/eliminate errors
3. How to calculate errors
4. How to use various common instruments
5. Methods of analysis and how to draw and interpret linear and curved graphs
6. To discuss results and draw intelligent conclusions
7. Laboratory technique and laboratory safety

STRUCTURE OF A LAB REPORT

(The whole report should be at least 15 pages (excluding graphs and drawing) hand written with minimum
spacing between lines and words.
Title
The title of a lab should be related to what was done in the lab. Its primary purpose is to make sure one does not
lose track of what the report would be about.
Objectives
Why was the practical done? What was the student trying to achieve? The objectives should be listed and
numbered. This will help in keeping the student in line and also important when drawing the conclusion. A
report without objectives cannot be considered complete.
Theory /Literature review
This section sets the background that the reader will need to understand the rest of the lab report. Here you
should discuss the Physics that the reader will need to know including equations if any. Explain the specific
concepts, laws/formula, and theories that are relevant to the experiment. This means explaining the terms in the
formula and how they are present or experienced in the experiment. This section helps clarify the ideas that one
needs to apply to the specific experiment at hand. (Make this at least two(2) pages)
Experimental procedure/Method
A detailed but concise discussion of the experimental setup, how you calibrated your measuring tools and how
you took your data must be stated in this section. A list of apparatus and sometimes diagram of the apparatus
and experimental setup/design is often given here.
Important to note is that the procedure should be in reported speech. You are reporting what you did and not
giving instructions on what should be done. Never write in first person. The following are examples on how to
write the procedure:
a) “The ball was dropped from a known height and the time it took to travel to a designated distance was
then noted”
b) “We dropped the ball from a known height and noted the time it took to travel to a designated distance”

This is a very important part of any report and students should take it as such.
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Data Presentation and Discussion
In this section (the most important part of the lab/report), you present your data, usually in graphical or/and
tabular form, and present a discussion which interprets the results for the reader. Experimental values that are
not consistent should not be included. The narrative of this section must lead the reader to the same conclusion
as you reached rather than allow the reader to reach their own conclusions. When presenting data you must
remember to include the correct number of significant figures.
Calculations fall in this category for experiments that need calculations. These should be well detailed,
procedural and correct. Error calculation and discussion on how to correct them are also made here. The student
must explain and discuss anything that is in the experiment that they wish the reader to know.
If done well, this section will lead one to the obvious conclusion of the experiment.
Error analysis:
This is usually the uncertainty of the results. The analysis is usually derived from the reading error of the raw
data taken from the lab. There are many kinds of errors like random errors, systematic errors, absolute errors
and so on.
a) In most o the experiments, the initial readings are used to calculate out some quantity x. This will have
the same units the same as the quantity itself.
b) As the fractional error, dx/x.
c) As percentage error = ( dx/x)x100%. Detailed error analysis should be got from error analysis books ,
internet and also from class lecture notes.
Source of errors:

There is usually no ideal results. The reality is that some physical restraints that affect the actual performance of
the experiment. In this section please indicate these physical restraints.
Precautions:
These are measures that you should take to protect the safety of oneself and the equipments.
Recommendations:
The part should entail how best the experiment should be done in order to achieve the desired aim
Conclusions
Draw a logical conclusion based on your results. The conclusions should answer the questions posed in the
objectives. If one was to read your conclusions they must see that you have responded to the set objectives and
answered them.
References
State your sources of information that assisted you in compiling the lab. One must have referred somewhere.
In writing the references we ask that you use the APA STYLE OF REFERENCING. The order in which the
reference is written is very important. Read and understand on how to reference using the APA format.
GENERAL COMMENTS
1. Each lab report must be written in English, following the usual rules of grammar and spelling. Be
sure that you use the proper punctuation, so that the narrative will have some logical flow. Lab
write-ups should be done in persuasive manner. You want to tell the reader what to see in your data,
lead the reader to the conclusions. Do not just present a bunch of data and expect the reader to
understand what it is all about. The reader should finish reading the lab having the same
interpretation of data as you do.
2. The lab write-up is not a journal of what you did and your thoughts while doing this experiment.
You do not discuss your frustrations or wrong paths you followed while you were moving to an
understanding of the experimental results.
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3. Each figure or table needs to be numbered and have a caption with it. A figure or table that is not
discussed in the narrative section of the lab report is not needed and should be eliminated. Figures
and tables should be referred to by their number in the text e.g. Table 2 shows the data…etc.
4. Labs should be written in third person and in the past tense; “the index of refraction of glass was
found by measuring the angle of deflection of… OR “We found the index of refraction of glass by
measuring the angle of deflection of…” (Even if only one person did the lab!)
5. Formulae should be presented on separate lines and numbered sequentially through the report. You
should refer to a formula its number e.g. …substituting Equation 3 into Equation 4 yields…
6. Do not forget to write your name, class, date, registration number and any other pertinent
identifying information.
7. Grading: the lab reports will contribute 10 marks towards your final grade in the respective units,
and missing 2/3 of the lab work automatically disqualifies a student from proceeding with the
academic program in the University.
8. Basically your report should be divided into the following topics: Basically your report should be divided into the following
topics: Pearsonal details page, Title, Objectives, Literature Review, Apparatus/reagents/equipment, Method/procedure, table of Results, data
analysis and discussion, , error analysis, souce of errors, precautions,Conclusion, and Reference.
9. In writing the references we ask that you use the APA STYLE OF REFERENCING. The order in which the
reference is written is very important. Read and understand on how to reference using the APA format.

GENERAL COMMENTS
10. Each lab report must be written in English, following the usual rules of grammar and spelling. Be
sure that you use the proper punctuation, so that the narrative will have some logical flow. Lab
write-ups should be done in persuasive manner. You want to tell the reader what to see in your data,
lead the reader to the conclusions. Do not just present a bunch of data and expect the reader to
understand what it is all about. The reader should finish reading the lab having the same
interpretation of data as you do.
11. The lab write-up is not a journal of what you did and your thoughts while doing this experiment.
You do not discuss your frustrations or wrong paths you followed while you were moving to an
understanding of the experimental results.
12. Each figure or table needs to be numbered and have a caption with it. A figure or table that is not
discussed in the narrative section of the lab report is not needed and should be eliminated. Figures
and tables should be referred to by their number in the text e.g. Table 2 shows the data…etc.
13. Labs should be written in third person and in the past tense; “the index of refraction of glass was
found by measuring the angle of deflection of… OR “We found the index of refraction of glass by
measuring the angle of deflection of…” (Even if only one person did the lab!)
14. Formulae should be presented on separate lines and numbered sequentially through the report. You
should refer to a formula its number e.g. …substituting Equation 3 into Equation 4 yields…
15. Do not forget to write your name, class, date, registration number and any other pertinent
identifying information.

16. Grading: the lab reports will contribute 10 marks towards your final grade in the respective units,
and missing 2/3 of the lab work automatically disqualifies a student from proceeding with the
Academic program in the University.
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A PRECISION, ACCURACY AND ERROR MEASUREMENTS:
1
Objectives:
1. To study some of the instruments and methods used in precision measurements
2. To compute the volume and density of various items.
3. To compute for the voltages from the measured using appropriate instruments given.
4. To compute for errors in (volume and density of various items, voltages from the measured using.)

Apparatus: Metre rule, vernier callipers, micrometer screw gauge, electronic balance and traveling microscope, multimeter. Such
items as copper cylinder, aluminium wire, steel ball, resistor and glass capillary tube are also supplied.
METHOD: The experiment comprises measurement of the various objects supplied with the appropriate instruments. Where
feasible, at least two instruments should be used for each measurement and the precision obtained in each case compared. In this
way, the volume and density of at least two metal objects weightings should be done on the electronic balance.
In the second part of the experiment, some electrical circuits have been set up for you to measure the current and resistance of the
Resistor. Measure the current using an ammeter, a milli-Ammeter and a micro ammeter, and estimate the reading errors in each case.

N.B. in all cases an estimate of the precision obtained should be, i.e. note the reading errors on all measurements. Where appropriate
note the zero error.

Record the data in appropriate work sheets, working out any calculations asked for. Answer the questions posed WORK YOU
MUST DO section:

WORKSHEET 1:
N.B. You must include in the tables the units of any measurements you take
MEASURING ITEMS
ITEMS
Meter rule Vernier calipers Micrometer Screw Gauge Balance

Reading error

Zero error

Copper cylinder: Its mass:

Its height:

Its Diameter (external):

Its Diameter (internal):

Steel Ball:

Diameter:

Aluminium wire: Its length

Its Diameter:

glass rod: Its diameter

Its length

WORK-SHEET 2:
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Measuring instruments
Ammeter Milli-Ammeter Micro-Ammeter Multimmeter
Zero error
Reading error
Current Reading
Resistance measurement using multimeter

WORK-SHEET 3:
Measuring instruments
Multimmeter Scope
Zero error
Reading error
Peak height
Peak to peak height
Sensitivity

WORK-SHEET 4:
Measuring instruments
Travelling microscope
Scale X Y Z
Zero error
Reading error

PART 1: WORK YOU MUST DO (OR DATA ANALYSIS)

1. Now analyse the
a) Volume of
i. Copper cylinder (both internal and external)
ii. Steel ball
iii. Aluminium wire
iv. Glass rod
2. Now analyse the
b) Density of
i. Copper
ii. Steel
iii. Aluminium
iv. Glass
3. Now look for actual values of density of the materials given from a suitable table of physical and
chemical constants.
i. Copper
ii. Steel
iii. Aluminium
iv. Glass
4. Determine the value of voltage being measured using
i. Micro-ammeter
ii. Milli-Ammeter
iii. Ammeter

5. Determine the value of voltage being measured using the

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iv. Scope (pk and pk-pk)
v. Multimmeter (pk-pk)
6. Why is their difference between voltage measured by scope and the multimeter?
7. What is the accuracy and precision of the travelling microscope
8. Why is it appropriate to use the metre rule for measuring the length of the copper wire and the
micrometer screw gauge for its diameter?.
9. What is an error of error of a reading made by an instrument or calculated from a measurement?
10. Define repeatability and reproducibility?
11. What is the difference between accuracy and precision?
12. How do accuracy, precision and error relate to each other?

(ERROR ANALYSIS SECTION)

1. Now analyse the error in

c) Volume of
v. Copper cylinder (both internal and external)
vi. Steel ball
vii. Aluminium wire
viii. Glass rod
ix.
2. Now analyse the error in
d) Density of
v. Copper
vi. Steel
vii. Aluminium
viii. Glass
ix.
3. Determine the value of error in voltage being measured using
vi. Micro-ammeter
vii. Milli-Ammeter
viii. Ammeter

CONCLUSION: CONLUDE AS FOLOWS:

1. The volume of the copper cylinder was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units,and its density
was found to be......... (units)±....... (units .
2. The volume of the steel ball was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units,and its density was
found to be......... (units)±....... (units .
3. The volume of the glass rod was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units, and its density was
found to be......... (units)±....... (units .
4. The volume of the alluminium rod was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units,and its density
was found to be......... (units)±....... (units .
5. The voltage using the milli-Ammeter was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units)
6. The voltage using the Ammeter was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units)
7. The voltage using the micro-Ammeter was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units)
8. The peak voltage using the scope was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units)

9.The peak-peak voltage using the scope was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units)
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HARMONIC MOTION-A7
Aims:
1. To find springs constant (k)
2. To find the effective mass of the spring (meff)
3. To find acceleration due to gravity (g)
4. To find the damping constant of the spring (b)
Introduction:
If an object is strained and released (or if an impulse is delivered), it will oscillate periodically about its
equilibrium or rest position. Examples of such objects are a saw blade clamped at one end, a mass attached to a
spring, a mass attached to a rod (torsional oscillations), musical string instrument; drum head, spider’s web,
eardrum, and a car body (oscillates vertically on its springs).
If during the oscillation, the elastic restoring force has a magnitude, which is proportional to the
displacement from the equilibrium position and a direction such as to restore the object to that equilibrium
position, then the motion is simple harmonic.
In this exercise you are going to perform a set of experiments to illustrate simple harmonic motion using
a spiral spring.

Apparatus
Spiral spring to which a light pointer is attached by plasticine at its lower end, rigid stand and clamp, meter rule,
scale pan and weights, stop watch.

Part 1: To find springs constant (k)

If a spring is stretched a distance x which is not too large then the Hooke’s law states that the spring exerts a
force F which is proportional to x:

F = -kx………(1)
Where k is the force constant of the spring.

Method
The spring, with scale pan attached, is firmly clamped and the meter scale placed vertically so that the pointer
moves slightly over it (Fig 1). Place weights on the scale pan and measure the stretch produced in each case.
The scale readings are also taken when unloading the spring and the mean stretch thus obtained. Loads less than
1kg should be used as more may permanently deform the spring. Plot the magnitude of the spring force (load)
versus the stretch of the spring.
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Mass Load loading unloading Mean extension (e)

Plot a graph 1 of load against extension from the table .Is your graph describable by Hooke’s law? If so,
determine the spring constant k. Does your graph pass through the origin? If not, explain why.

Part b: To determine the acceleration of gravity (g) and the

effective mass (meff) of the spring
Theory:
If a mass m is attached to a spring and the spring is extended by a further distance x a restoring force kx
is called into play. The spring on being released executes vertical oscillations the motion of the mass being
Md2x/dt2 = -kx
i.e. d2x/dt2 + kx/M=0…………... (2)

The motion is thus simple harmonic with periodic time T given by

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T = 2π√ (M/k)…………...(3) where M= (m+meff)

T = 2π√ (m+me /k)…………...(4) where also (m+me)= (load +loade)/g

T = 2π√ (load +loadeff)/gk …….. (5)

From equation 3.
k=load/extension = mg/e which can be re-written as

T = 2π√ (M/ (mg/e))

T = 2π√ (e/g)………………...(6)

The above analysis assumes the spring to be weightless. In practice the spring has a mass and therefore a
correction has to be made to equation (3) to include the ‘effective’ mass of the spring.

Method:
A load is added to the pan, which is set in vertical vibration by giving it a small additional displacement. The
periodic time T is obtained by timing 20 oscillations (t) repeat this three times and get the mean of t. Repeat the
experiment with different loads.

Plot two graph of

1. T2 versus load and then find the values find acceleration due to gravity (g) and effective mass of the
spring (meff) from it.

2. T2 versus extension (e) and then find the values find acceleration due to gravity (g)
3. Get the average value of g gotten from these graphs.

Note that the mass of the scale-pan should be included in the load in this experiment. Experimental
errors must also be included.

Mass Load t in sec ( time for 20 oscillations) Mean for ( 1, 2, 3) t in s extension (e)
1 2 3

Weigh the spring using a balance. What would you expect the effective mass of the spring to be using this
measured value? Compare it with the one obtained from the graph.What is the percent discrepancy between
your value of g and the expected value?

Damped Simple harmonic motion:

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Theory:
For a real mechanical system the amplitude decreases with time and the motion is called damped simple
harmonic. The decrease in amplitude is due to friction and the energy of oscillations eventually dissipated as
thermal energy. The damping force is often proportional to the velocity of the mass but in the opposite
direction. Newton’s second law applied to the oscillator yields the equation of motion for the mass M:

F = -kx – bdx/dt = Md2x/dt2

So that, d2x/dt2 + b/M X dx/dt + kx/M = 0 …(5)
Where b is a positive constant, called the damping constant (Fig.2)
For a lightly damped harmonic oscillator the equation of motion is given by

X (t) = Ao e-bt/2M cos (ωt - Φ)…(6)

Where the periodic of oscillation is given by

T = 2π/W = 2π ……(7)
√ (k/m – (b/2M) 2)

Amplitude is A = Aoe-bt/2M…(8)

Fluid

Fs V
Fd
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under- damped

Over- damped

critically-damped
Method
Hang a medium size mass from the spring. Displace the mass from its equilibrium position by a
fairly large amount but do not exceed the linear portion of the spring. Release the mass and simultaneously start
the timer, then measure the amplitude and the time for after every 10 complete oscillations ( let one person
count the continous oscillations and let 3 persons take time after every 10th oscillations lapping each time.
(make sure to keep the timer running.) get the mean. Obtain 10 or more measurements and be sure to keep
the timer running; hence you will measure amplitude as a function of time. NB: The amplitude is taken best
by taking photograph shots of the assembly exactly on the 10th oscillation and taking the average.
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Mass Load Amplitude on the 10th oscillation (shots) Continous lapped time
1 2 3 mean

Using equation A = Aoe-bt/2M and by introducing Natural logs on both sides of the equations plot a
suitable graph connecting mean amplitude and mean continous time such that a straight line would be
expected. Calculate the damping constant b from your graph.
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REFRACTIVE INDEX- B9
Aim: . Determination of refractive index of glass and water

Use the diagram above as a guide to carry out the following experiment.

1. Trace the outline ABCD of the rectangular glass prism on the drawing paper provided.
2. Remove the prism. Select a point N on AB such that AN is about one quarter of AB.
3. Draw the normal LNM. Also draw a line RN to make an angle θ = 85o with AB at N
4. Fix two pins at P1 and P2 on line RN. Replace the prism on its outline.
5. Fix two other pins at P3 and P4 such that they appear to be in a straight line with the images of the pins
at P1and P2 when viewed through the prism from side DC.
6. Remove the prism and the pins at P3 and P4. Draw a line to join P3 and P4.
7. Produce line P4P3 to meet the line DC at O. Draw a line to join NO.
8. Measure and record the values of MO and NO.
9. Measure the angle MNO and evaluate ф from it.
10. Get Cos ф and then Cos θ.
11. Repeat the procedure for other values of θ – AS IN THE TABLE BELOW.. In each case, evaluate ф, Cos ф and Cos θ
12. Tabulate your reading
13. Plot a graph with Cos θ on the vertical axis and Cos ф on the horizontal axis.
14. Determine the slope, s, of the graph and determine the refractive index of glass material of the prism.
15. Sate two precautions taken to ensure accurate results.

θ Cos θ Angle MNO ф Cos ф

85o
80o
75 o
70 o
65 o
60o
55o
50o
45 o
40 o
3 5o
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B. APPARENT DEPTH METHOD

Apparatus
Glass or Perspex block B, traveling microscope M, lycopodium powder L and beaker.

r1 r3
r2

(fig (a)). fig (b)). (fig (c)).

Method

 Place the beaker B on a sheet of paper P and arrange the travelling microscope so that the microscope M and the scale s are vertical . Put a pin on the
bottom of the beaker. Focus the microscope M on the pin. Having achieved a sharp focus using the fine adjustment screw take the reading r (fig (c)).
3
of the vertical scale of the microscope.
 NOW almost fill the beaker B with water. Move the microscope down until the pin seen through the water is in sharp focus. Take the reading r fig
2
(b)). of the vertical scale of the microscope.
 Focus the microscope M on the upper surface of the water which is sprinkled using a little lycopodium powder L or chalk dust if necessary Having
achieved a sharp focus using the fine adjustment screw take the reading r (fig (a)). Of the vertical scale of the microscope.
1
 Repeat the procedure above for 5 more different depths of water and fill the table below.

Measurements
r (mm) r (mm) r (mm) (r -r ) (mm) (r -r ) (mm)
1 2 3 1 2 1 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

 Draw a graph of (r1-r3) (mm) versus (r1-r2) (mm) and find n for water graphically.
Conclusion:
 The refractive index of water is: Apparent method:…………+ ….%.
The refractive index of glass is: Plotting method:…………+ ….%.
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H18
DETERGENT BY MIXTURES
i.
HEAT CAPACITY OF METAL BLOCK & SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF

HEAT CAPACITY OF A METAL BLOCK

ii. SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF DETERGENT, BY MIXTURES

APPARATUS
Aim
To determine specific heat capacity of a given solid by method of mixtures.

Apparatus
A hypsometer, calorimeter, stirrer, a lid and outer jacket, given solid, balance, weight box, thermometer preferably digital, cold water, clamp stand.

Theory
In hypsometer, the solid is heated uniformly above room temperature up to a fixed temperature and then solid is added to cold water in calorimeter.
Heat lost by solid = Heat gain by the water and calorimeter.

Diagram

Procedure
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1. Put two thermometer A and B in a beaker containing water and note their reading. Take one of them, say A to be standard and find the
correction to be applied to the other, say B.
2. Put thermometer B in copper tube of hypsometer containing the given solid. Put sufficient water in hypsometer and place it on a burner.
3. Weigh the calorimeter with stirrer and lid over it by the physical balance. Record it.
4. Fill about three quarter of calorimeter with tap water at about temperature at room temperature. Now, weigh it again and record it.
5. Heat the hypsometer about 10 minutes till the temperature of solid remains steady.
6. Note the temperature of water in the calorimeter. Now, transfer the solid from hypsometer to the calorimeter quickly. Stir the contents and record
the final temperature of the mixture.
7. Remove the thermometer A from calorimeter and weigh the calorimeter with its contents and lid.

Observations

Calculations
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Result
Specific heat of given solid by method of mixture is…………cal g-1 °C-1 ( convert this in JKg-1K-1 1 Kilo Calorie is equivalent to 4184 Joules)

Precautions

1. Sufficient solid power should be taken to cover the tip of thermometer properly.
2. Sufficient water should be taken in hypsometer.
3. Solid should be dropped quickly and gently.
4. Calorimeter should be polished from outside to avoid excessive radiation losses.
5. Temperature of cold water should not be below the dew point.

Sources of error

1. Some heat is lost while transferring hot solid into calorimeter.

2. Some heat is lost in conduction, convection and radiation.
3. The bulbs of the thermometer may not be well inside the solid.Now repeat the procedure above . To determine the specific heat of the
given detergent by method of mixture, instead of cold water, take the liquid whose specific heat is to be determined and proceeded
as in the experiment done for determining the specific heat of solid. Use The solid whose specific heat capacity is already calculated
as above.
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W4 THE RIPPLE TANK

AIMS: The aims of this experiment are:

1. To observe the characteristics and behavior of water waves.

2. To show the analogy between water waves and light waves.

APPARATUS
Water ripple tank, Metal reflectors , Low voltage power unit (3.0 V D-C) ,Ammeter ,Variable resistor, Motor
Vibrator, Lamp, Level.
INTRODUCTION
The ripple tank is an apparatus for studying the phenomena of water waves. The wave generator is a vibrator set
into motion by a 3V.D.C Motor. A variable resistor in series with the motor varies its speed and therefore the
frequency of vibrations. A lamp illuminates (you are advised to use your electronic gadget e.g your phone –
torch) the wave pattern. The wave pattern is projected on the table through the transparent bottom of tank. If
one wishes to copy a wave pattern on paper the paper can be spread out on the table under the ripple tank. When
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measuring wavelengths or other distances remember to measure these lengths as they are in the ripple tank. For
calibration place an object of known length on the bottom of the ripple tank and measure the length of its image.
The ripple tank should be levelled using the spirit level. Use so much water that it stands midways on the
sloping walls. The wave generator with wooden plate and motor has to be raised or lowered so that the wave
source just touches the water surface. The wave pattern can be ‘stopped’ by viewing through stroboscope.
Single point source
1. Screw the bent metal rod onto the front of the place of the wave generator so that the rod points
forwards. Switch on the power and let the motor run slowly observe and draw a fig.1.
2. Place small pieces of paper on the water and see if they move. Are the pieces of paper displaced at the
wave speed? If not explain your observations.
3. Switch off the power and remove the bent metal rod. Lower the plane generator to touch just touch the
water surface.
4. Place the plane reflector at a small distance in front of the generator.
5. Observe the reflected pulse and draw a fig.2. Where is the centre from which the reflected pulse seems
to diverge? Compare your observations with the plane mirror image of a light source.
6. Repeat step (3) using the two reflectors with a gap of 1-2cm between them observe and draw a fig.3.
Where is the source from which the transmitted pulse seems to diverge? Compare your observation with
Huygens’s principle.
7. Place the metal parabolic reflector (convex side) so that the point source is at its focus. Give a single
push to the generator to produce a wave pulse. Observe (and draw a fig.4 ) the reflected pulse and
compare with the effect of a parabolic mirror when a light source is placed at its focus.
8. Repeat 7 metal parabolic reflector (concave side) observe and draw a fig.5

Two Synchronous point sources

Attach the two bent metal rods to the plate of the wave generator. Start the vibrator. Observe and observe and
draw a fig.6 the curves where the two waves interfere so that the water is at rest. Vary the frequency of the
waves by increasing the speed of the vibrator and observe observe and draw a fig.7 then explain the effect on
the interference pattern.

A Plane Wave
1. Use the plate of the wave generator itself as a source of waves. Produce waves with a wavelength about
2.5cm or to do this move the plate to and fro by hand.
2. Place the long reflector diagonally in the tank and observe reflected waves. Compare your observation
with the law of reflection for light observe and draw a fig.8.
3. Replace the long reflector by the two shorter reflectors parallel to the wave fronts 5-6cm away from the
wave generator and as far as possible from each other. Generate waves by hand or with the motor (about
2cm) observe observe and draw a fig.9. Decrease the distance between the two reflectors until about
1cm. Observe the wave fronts observe and draw a fig.10 then compare this with Huygen’s principle.
4. Place the very short reflector between the two reflectors so that two open spaces of 1cm or less are left
between the reflectors. Observe (and draw a fig.11) the interferences pattern and compare with the
results of experiment W4.2 and the experiment of Young.
5. Now remove the reflectors and put the rectangular transparent plane block in the ripple tank at about
5cm from the plane wave generator. The length of the block should parallel to the wave fronts observe
and observe and draw a fig.12.
6. Repeat 5 above with the block length about 450 to the wave front observe and draw a fig.13

The Report
The report should include the observations with carefully drawn neat figures and explanation where applicable
as well as answers to every question.
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SPH 2171 PHYSICS 11

C CHARGING CURVES OF A CAPACITOR AND OSCILLOSCOPE
18
AIM:

1. To learn how to use the oscilloscope

2. To find out the values of capacitors given.
3. To find out of the formulas for capacitors in 1. Series 2. Parallel are collect
4. Explain how the current of capacitor voltage in a series C-R circuit which is connected to a D.C source varies with time.
5. Draw graph for variation of voltage with time for each of the component in C-R circuit when the capacitor is
 Charging
 Discharging
6. Define the time constant of a C-R circuit
7. Determine the growth and decay of the component voltage on current in a series C-R circuit, seconds after the commencing of
 Charging
 Discharging

THEORY:

heated filament cathode

Focussing anode
electron beam

accelerating X-plates Y-plates

anode
NB. Disposition of control varies depending on the make of oscilloscope.

Operation of oscilloscope
The oscilloscope can be used to give an image of a repetitive signal as a function of time. The signal as a
voltage, is applied to the Y-plates (vertical movement) and internally generated wave sweeps the electron
beam (seen as a spot on the screen) horizontally at some pre-determined rate. This rate is set using the
“time/division” control.
The “time/division” control is calibrated such that when it is operating at 50 cps, 1 cycle occupies 20 ms.
All the other ranges on the switch are direct multiples of this. The time calibration is only valid at the
minimum setting of the “X-pos” control. The X-shift control moves the whole trace horizontally
The trace may also be controlled vertically using the “volt/div” control. This switch inserts a series of
resistances between the input socket and the vertical amplifier. It is used either to obtain a picture of
convenient height or to obtain direct readings of the input voltage (provided the “Y-pos” control is at its
minimum setting).
To take measurements, a steady trace is required, and the “trig-level” control may be adjusted. You will
be using the internal trigger where the applied, i.e. unknown, signal is used to start the time base. The
“trig-level” switch controls the signal level at which the time base is triggered.
The “d.c. /a.c.” switch is normally set to the a.c. position. This inserts a block capacitor in series with the input of the vertical amplifier to remove the d.c. Component of
the signal.

Method A
1. Connect the signal generator up to the oscilloscope. Set the generator to output sine waves at a
frequency of 500 Hz
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2. You should see a steady sine wave on the screen. If not, press in the trigger level button. Adjust the
intensity and focus controls to give a sharp, but not too bright image.
3. Now try the effect of the following controls: X pos Y pos time/div volts/div
4. Measure the wavelength of the wave seen on the screen and calculate the frequency of the wave.
5. The oscilloscope can also be used to measure voltage, the voltage output of generator to 2.
6. Measure the voltage from the oscilloscope screen.
7. Now set the generator to give out square waves at 500 Hz and voltage output setting 2.
8. Measure the frequency and voltage of the wave.
9. Record all data on the worksheet. Comment and compare your results from the sine and square
waves.

Method B:
1. When a capacitor is charging through a Resistor R1 ; The rate of charge of I or voltage VC at a
particular instant depends on the value of I or voltage VC at that instant. Follows an exponential curve
and the mathematical equation is
VC = E (1-e-t/CR1) and I = (E/R1)e-t/CR1
2. When the capacitor is discharging the current I flows opposite to the charging
Current I through R2. VC starts to decay. The curve is an exponential as above
VC = Ee-t/CR2
And I =-(E/R2) e-t/CR2

E/R
1
V
C

Charge

Discharge I

t
1 E/R
2

3. The rate of charging or discharge at any particular time is shown by gradient or Slope of VC /time
graph at that time. A tangent drawn on the graph at any
Point indicates the slope and thus the rate of charge or discharge. If the rate of
Charge /discharge were not to charge but remain constant then the capacitor
Were to charge/discharge in a time = CR in seconds. This is called time constant T.
T = CR
APPARATUS:
1. Power supply
2. High resistance values R1
3. 5 unknown capacitors C1, C2, C3, C4, and C5
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4. Discharging resistors RO
R1
1M

S2

+ E
10V
TP1 C1
10uF
R2
100

PROCEDURE I

 Using the lowest value of C1; connect the circuit as shown in the above figure
 Use the oscilloscope to determine the P.d across the capacitor as it charge through R1 with time.
 Table this in a suitable table C1.
 Make the capacitor to discharge through R2 and record the P.d across it with time.
 Table this in table C1.
 Repeat this for other values of capacitor C2, C3, and each time record P.d across the capacitor with time
in a suitable table.
 Draw on the same axis the graphs of P.d across capacitor against time (charging and discharging) for all
the capacitors.

Worksheets

Sine wave
Generator Length on Time / div Time (secs) Oscilloscope
Frequency (Hz) Screen (cm) (secs) Frequency (Hz)
500

Voltage setting Height on screen Volt / div (volts) Voltage (volts)

(cm)
2
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Table C1 E = ______________ R1 = ___________ R2 = _________________

Charging V (volts) Time in s

Voltage in v

Discharging V Time in s

(volts) Voltage in v

Table C2 E = ______________ R1 = ___________ R2 = _________________

Charging V (volts) Time in s

Voltage in v

Discharging V Time in s

(volts) Voltage in v

Table C3 E = ______________ R1 = ___________ R2 = _________________

Charging V (volts) Time in s

Voltage in v

Discharging V Time in s

(volts) Voltage in v

Table C1 ,C2 and C3 series E = ______________ R1 = ___________ R2 = _________________

Charging V (volts) Time in s
Voltage in v

Discharging V Time in s

(volts) Voltage in v

Table C1 ,C2 and C3 parallel E = ______________ R1 = ___________ R2 = _________________

Charging V (volts) Time in s
Voltage in v

Discharging V Time in s

(volts) Voltage in v

Work to do:
1. Determine the value of the capacitors from the graph
 C1 =
 C2 =
 C3 =
 C1 ,C2 and C3 series
 C1 ,C2 and C3 parallel
2. What can you deduce from the graphs?
Questions:
1. A 0.5µF capacitor is connected to a 200V supply via a supply a 150 capacitor. Ignoring lead
resistance, calculate the circuit time constant and the capacitor and the capacitor voltage after a time
equal to the time constant.
2. A 10µF capacitor is fully charged via a total resistance of 22KV to 250V.
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Calculate the capacitance voltage 10ms after charging commenced. How long did it take for the
capacitor to be fully charged.
3. Determine the value of time constant when charging for each capacitor.
4. A capacitor is fully charged to a p.d of 200V. when discharged through a 250 resistor the capacitor
voltage falls to 45V in 0.3s. calculate the
 Capacitance of a capacitor and the time constant.
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C11: OHM’S LAW

Objectives
To verify or prove experimentally that these statements are true
a) Ohm’s law for a metallic conductor
b) R = R1 + R2 + R3 for resistances in series

c) 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 for resistances in parallel

d) Ohm’s law is not obeyed by a semiconductor
Apparatus

Theory
Ohm’s law for a metal conductor states that potential difference, V, between two ends of the conductor is
directly proportional to the current, I, flowing through it, at a constant temperature. i.e. V = RI, where R is a
constant known as resistance (in ohms)
Method A
1. Determine the resistances R1, R2 and R3 separately as above.
2. Determine the resistances R1, R2 and R3 in series.
3. Determine the resistance of the three (R1, R2 and R3) resistors in parallel.
Record all values on the worksheet and test to see if the relationships for resistors in series and in parallel hold.
Use your experimental values of V and I to plot graphs of V versus I. A straight-line graph proves ohm/s law.
Find Rs from the slope of your graphs.
Method B
Repeat the first part of the experiment using a semiconductor and draw the graph of V against I. Set the
potentiometer R so that the voltage in V and the current in A are zero. Adjust R so that voltage V increases in
suitable small steps such as 0.2V from 0 to the maximum such as IV, and record the values of V and I from the
meters. Reverse the diode D in the circuit. Record the value of I at a reverse voltage of IV.
R1 R2 R3 Series Parallel
V (v) I (A) V (v) I (A) V (v) I (A) V (v) I (A) V (A) I (A)

From graphs From formula % Difference

R (series)
R (parallel)
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Compare your experimental results with those obtained using the formula. Discuss the sources of errors in these
measurements on resistance. Is this the most accurate way of measuring resistance? If not, what would you use
and why? Comment on your graph. Is ohm’s law verified?
What other methods can you use as trainee to verify the value of a resistor?
color 1st – significant 2nd – significant 3rd - multiplier 4th - tolerance
figure figure
Black 0 0 100 + 0%

Brown 1 1 101 + 1%

Red 2 2 102 + 2%

Orange 3 3 103 -

yellow 4 4 104 + 5%

Green 5 5 105 + 0.5%

Blue 6 6 106 + 0.25%

violet 7 7 107 + 0.1%

Grey 8 8 108 + 0.5%

(+10%)
white 9 9 109 -

Gold - - 10-1 + 5%

Silver - - 10-2 +10%

None - - - +20%

Use now the resistance meter to determine the actual values of the resistances.
Conclusion: For comparison plot your six graphs on the same axis. Discuss the resistance of the junction diode
in forward and reverse bias and whether the diode is an ‘ohmic’ or ‘non-ohmic’ component.
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C12- WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Aim: to find the values of resistances

 X , X and X
1 2 3

 To find out whether the formulas of 1. Resistances in series 2. And parallel are true.

 To find the resistivity of the material of the wire given

Theory
When resistances are connected as shown in Fig. 2 below, they constitute a wheatstone network. If P, Q and R are known resistances adjusted in such away that the
galvanometer G reads zero, the points B and D will be at the same potential and no current flows between them. The network is said to be balanced. Thus:If the current
through the meter is I = 0 , I =I and I =I .Or I /I =I /I also PI /RI =QI =XI . Hence X = QR/P. If the above condition is satisfied then it is possible to use the
g 1 3 2 4 2 1 4 3 1 2 3 4
network to determine the value of the unknown resistance X

Apparatus: Decade resistance box, wheat stone bridge, dry cell, three assorted resistors, galvanometer, resistivity wire, galvanometer and assorted wires.
Procedure/method: In Fig. below , P and Q are resistances of the portions AB and BC respectively, of a wire of uniform resistance. Commonly, this wire is 50 or 100
cm long. The point B on the wire is where the galvanometer G shows no deflection. P and Q will be proportional to the lengths AB and BC of the wire, respectively. R is a
standard resistance (decade resistance box). Set up the circuit as shown in Fig. 1 above. Find an approximate balance point with the protective resistor in the circuit (NB: this
resistor limits current flowing in the galvanometer). Now obtain the accurate balance point by shorting this protective resistor. Reverse the terminals of the accumulator E and
repeat the measurement. Interchange R and X, and repeat the procedure. How does the balance point change? Repeat the experiment for two other resistors X and tabulate
your results with errors.Measure the resistances of the unknown resistor X and compare the values with those from your experiment.
Use the chart below to determine the values of the resisances using the colour bands or codes.
Color 1st – significant figure 2nd – significant figure 3rd – multiplier 4th – tolerance

Black 0 0 100 + 0%
Brown 1 1 101 + 1%
Red 2 2 102 + 2%
Orange 3 3 103 -
yellow 4 4 104 + 5%
Green 5 5 105 + 0.5%
Blue 6 6 106 + 0.25%
violet 7 7 107 + 0.1%
Grey 8 8 108 + 0.5% (+10%)
white 9 9 109 -
Gold - - 10-1 + 5%
Silver - - 10-2 +10%
None - - - +20%

Part 2: Resistivity of the wire

Now use the bridge to measure the resistance of each of the wire given. Before connecting the battery to the
bridge, carefully check that all the connections are correct. Get the wire, attach it to the bridge, and set the
decade box resistance Rk to be as near to Rx as possible(you know Rx roughly from your DMM measurements).
Balance the bridge by moving the sliding contact along the wire while watching the galvanometer. With the
bridge balanced, measure L1 and L2, and compute
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(11) .

Repeat this procedure as the table below shows.

From the results from the table , compute the average resistivity, and the uncertainty of the average ( ).
Compare your average value with the known value.

I I
4 2

I I
1 3

ow use the resistance meter to determine the actual values of the resistances.

Test R and X not

resistors to interchanged R and X interchanged Average of Actual
give Value of Terminal Terminal Terminals Terminals lengths P Resistance
Length (P standard s s Un-reversed reversed and Q. value
and Q) resistor R Un- reversed
reversed
P Q P Q P Q P Q Paver Qavera
age ge
X1

X2

X3

X1 ,
X2and X3
series
X1 , X2
and X3
parallel

Measure its length: Measure its diameter:

The given
wire ____ cm = ______m ____ mm = ______m
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C20 ~ KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS C20

Objective:
To verify Kirchhoff’s Laws by comparing voltages and currents obtained from a real circuit to those
Predicted by Kirchhoff’s Laws.
Introduction:
A simple circuit is one that can be reduced to an equivalent circuit containing a single resistance and a single
voltage source. Many circuits are not simple and require the use of Kirchhoff’s Laws to determine voltage,
current, or resistance values. Kirchhoff’s Laws for current and voltage are given by equations 1 and 2. In this
experiment, we will construct two circuits with 4 resistors and a voltage source. These circuits will not be
simple, thus Kirchhoff’s Laws will be required to determine the current in each resistor. We will then use a
digital multi-meter to obtain an experimental value for the voltage across each resistor in the circuits.
Kirchhoff’s Laws will then be applied to the circuits
to obtain theoretical values for the current in each resistor. By applying Ohm’s Law, we can then obtain a
theoretical value for the voltage across each resistor. The experimental and theoretical voltages can then be
compared by means of % error.
Equation 1: Σ junction I=0 junction law
Equation 1: Σ loop I=0 loop law
Equipment:
Proto-board
4 resistors: (R1=68kΩ, R2=47kΩ, R3=15kΩ, R4=1000kΩ)
Digital multi-meter Variable power supply Wire leads and alligator clips
Experimental Procedure Part 1: figure 1
1. Using the proto-board, the 4 resistors, the variable power supply, and the wire leads and alligator clips;
construct the circuit shown in Figure 1. First ascertain the values of the resistance of the resistor.
2. Turn on the power supply. Connect the multi-meter across the power supply and adjust the voltage to suitable
D.C. voltages {Get guidance from the lab INSTRUCTOR}
3. Connect the multi-meter across each of the 4 resistors Put the multi-meter in series to each resistor and record
the current through each. Record these 4 values of voltage and current in the data table.
4. Turn the power supply off and disconnect the circuit.
Experimental Procedure Part 2: figure 2
1. Add a second power supply to the circuit as shown in Figure 2.
2. Turn on the power supplies. Adjust the voltages V1 and V2 to 4.0 volts.
3. Connect the multi-meter across each of the 4 resistors Put the multi-meter in series to each resistor and record
the current through each. Record these 4 values of voltage and current in the data table.
4. Turn the power supply off and disconnect the circuit.
Analysis:
1. For the first circuit, use equations 1 and 2 to write a system of linear equations that may be solved for the
current in each branch of the circuit. Then, solve the system to obtain a theoretical value for each current. Show
your work!
2. Using the currents obtained in step 1 of the analysis; apply Ohm’s Law to determine the theoretical voltage
across each resistor.
3. Compare the theoretical voltages obtained in step 2 of the analysis to those measured in the actual circuit in
Figures 2 and 1.
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for the second circuit.
5. Record the theoretical voltages, the experimental voltages, and the % errors in the results table.
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Challenge: figure 3 Repeat experimental steps 1-4 and the analysis for the circuit in Figure 3 with resistors and
a power supply:
(R1=68kΩ, R2=47kΩ, R3=22kΩ, R4=15kΩ, R5=1000kΩ)
A
I
3

I
1
I
2
R
1

V R
2

R R
3 H 4

Figure 1 B
I
6

I
4
I
5
R
1

V
y
V R
x 2

R R
3 4

G
Figure 2 C
I
9

I
7
I
8
R
1

I R
10 5
E
D
I I
11 12
V R
z 2

R R
3 4

Figure 3 F
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Table of results:
RESISTOR VALUES BY COLOR CODING:
1st band 2nd band 3rd band 4th band Resistor value
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
LOOP LAW FIGURE 1:
EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF P.D. ACROSS
R1= R2= R3= R4=
THEORETICAL VALUES OF P.D. ACROSS
R1= R2= R3= R4=
INPUT VOLTAGE V=

JUNCTION LAW – FIGURE 1:

EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF CURRENT:
Junction A I1 = I2 = I3 =
THEORETICAL VALUES OF CURRENT:
Junction A I1 = I2 = I3 =
LOOP LAW FIGURE 2:
EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF P.D. ACROSS
R1= R2= R3= R4=
THEORETICAL VALUES OF P.D. ACROSS
R1= R2= R3= R4=
INPUT VOLTAGE VX= INPUT VOLTAGE VV=
JUNCTION LAW – FIGURE 2:
EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF CURRENT:
Junction B I4 = I5 = I6 =
THEORETICAL VALUES OF CURRENT:
Junction B I4 = I5 = I6 =
LOOP LAW FIGURE 3:
EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF P.D. ACROSS
R1= R2= R3= R4= R5=
THEORETICAL VALUES OF P.D. ACROSS
R1= R2= R3= R4= R5=
INPUT VOLTAGE V=
JUNCTION LAW – FIGURE 3:
EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF CURRENT:
Junction C I7 = I8 = I9 =
Junction D I7 = I10 = I11=
Junction F I9 = I11 = I12 =
THEORETICAL VALUES OF CURRENT:
Junction C I7 = I8 = I9 =
Junction D I7 = I10 = I11=
Junction F I9 = I11 = I12 =
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WORK YOU MUST DO:
1. Now using figure 1. Find input voltage V, using 2 appropriates loops. Compare this with the actual
input voltage V measured and account for the difference. Draw diagrams to show the loops.
2. Now using figure 2. Find input voltage VX and VV, using 2 appropriates loops. Compare this with
the actual input voltage VX and VV measured and account for the difference. Draw diagrams to
show the loops.
3. Now using figure 2. Find input voltage VZ, using 3 appropriates loops. Compare this with the
actual input voltage VZ measured and account for the difference. Draw diagrams to show the
loops.
4. Now get the summation,Σ, of currents at the following junction:At junction A, At junction
B, At junctionC, At junctionD , At junction E, At junction F, At junction G, At junction H.
5. Comparing the above results is the kirchoffs law verified? State it, discuss, comment and
recommend.
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C14- HORIZONTAL COMPONENT OF THE

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
Objectives : 1. To determine the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field
2. Calculate the magnetic moment of the bar magnet
Apparatus: magnetometer and scale ruler
Theory
The horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field Bo can be found from the measurement of mass, length
and time. A small magnet pivoted at it’s center to rotate in a horizontal plane will be deflected through an angle
 when acted on by only one other field B at right angles to Bo. Thus from fig. 1 below
Bo

B=BOtanɵ
This is the principle behind the deflection magnetometer. For a magnet of moment M which is suspended at the
center in the earth’s horizontal field, it will experience a couple C if it is displaced by small angle  from the
equilibrium position.
Thus C=M Bo  (for small )
We can write the equation of motion as
I d2  / d t2 = - M B.  ……………………...................................................................................................(1)
Where I is the moment of inertia of the magnet about an axis through it’s center. Equation (1) describes a
simple harmonic motion with a period T given as
T = 2 [ I / MBo]
This is the principle of the vibration magnetometer.
ɵ
2a
m m

Calculation of the Horizontal component, Bo

The induction field B is calculated as follows
The bar magnet can be considered as a permanent dipole which can be replaced by two poles separated by a
distance 2a and having a pole strength m given by M= 2ma (where M is the magnetic moment of the dipole).
From the inverse square law and adopting sommerfield system, the induction field B at a point o distance d
from the magnet due to the bar magnet (dipole) is given by:
B={[ o/4] [m / (d-a)2 ] – [m / (d+a)2) ]}= {[o/4] [4mad /(d2-a2)2 ]}=[oMd / 2 (d2 –a2)2 ]
B= Bo tan  , so (d2-a2)2/d =[M / Bo][o/2] cot
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A graph of (d2-a2)2/d against cot  is a straight line with slope (M / Bo) (o/2) from which (M / Bo) can be
calculated.(Note that a is half the magnetic length of the bar magnet. Thus the length 2a is
Approximately 7/8 of the physical length).
1. Experimental procedure:
The field B due to a bar magnet at various points along its axis is first determined from the deflections produced
in the deflection magnetometer. Remove the bar magnet and any other magnetic materials from the vicinity of
the magnetometer and adjust it until its arms are in the east-west direction and the aluminium pointer reads zero.
Place the magnet on one arm of the magnetometer to give a deflection of about 70. Read the distance, d, of the
center of the magnet on the arm (which is calibrated with the center of the magnetometer magnet as the zero
point) and note the deflection of the two ends of the pointer.Reverse the bar magnet and note the deflections
again.Repeat with the magnet on the other arm at the same distance. Determine the mean of the eight readings
of the pointer which give the deflection  at the distance, d.
Repeat the experiment at least for 5 other different values of d so that  varies between 30 and 70.
2. The vibration magnetometer
Suspend the bar magnet on a stirrup so that it can oscillate freely in a horizontal plane. Displace it by a
small angle from its equilibrium position and determine the time taken by 10 oscillations.
Repeat thrice and calculate the period. The period is given by
(M Bo) = [(42 I) / T)]
Where I is the moment of inertia of a bar magnet of length l and breadth b and is given by
I = [m (l2 + b2) / 12] m’ is the mass of the magnet)
From the value of M/Bo (in experiment 2) , the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field Bo can be
calculated. Calculate the magnetic moment of the bar magnet also.
Table of results:
cotɵ
ɵ Eastern arm Western arm Mean
ɵ
d North pole facing east North pole facing west North pole facing east North pole facing
west
0
30

0
35

0
40

0
45

0
50

0
55

0
60

0
65

0
70