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the output power is proportional to the square of Thermal Transients - Class B
the current, these points also represent 6-1/4, If a sine wave having an amplitude equal to
25, 56-1/4, and 100 per cent of full power output. 2/3 Ic is imposed upon the circuit represented by
Fig.2(a), the instantaneous dissipation is within
12 per cent of maximum from 30 to 150 degrees
(one-third of the total sine-wave period). Ifthis
high-dissipation time is small in relation to the
thermal time constant of the transistor, the
IC' collector-junction temperature equals the product
of the thermal resistance and the average dissi-
pation. If the high-dissipation condition is main-
tained for a sufficient time, however, thermal
z integration will not result, and the junction
w
temperature will start to track the dissipation
cr
a:
tr.
cycle. Thiscondition starts at about 1/3 the time
0 constant, and it is complete at about twice the time
U
constant. If a typical thermal time constant of
J
2 milliseconds is assumed, low-frequency thermal
0 effects start to become apparent at about 500
cycles and are complete at about 80 cycles. For
frequencies of 80 cycles or less, therefore, the
maximum junction temperature is determined by 50
per cent of full power output rather than 15 to
20 per cent.
z
ON
Ln w 20
za -
<I- w 15
I II II
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
MAXIMUM POWER OUTPUT-PER CENT
Fig.3- Average power dissipation as a function of
sine-wave drive.
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Analytical treatment of the load-line locus is Fig.6 shows the effect of a partially reactive
complex for Class B transistor operation because load. As expected, the voltage lags the current,
the effects of output overload and input overload and the load line takes on the unfamiliar shape
are functions of the precise circuit chosen. How- shown. When overdrive is permitted, the results
ever, oscioscscope observations-convey the major shown in Fig.7 are obtained. Moresevere transient
significances of reactive loads. The circuit effects are shown in Figs.8 and 9.
shown in Fig.4 was used to obtain the oscilloscope Figs.6 and 7 represent conditions characteristic
traces that follow. of low frequencies, where the load line easily may
CLASS B LOAD LINE WITH NO PHASE SHIFT CLASS B LOAD LINE WITH ABOUT 600 PHASE SHIFT AND OVERDRIVE
ZL= 50 ptf + 10 ohms; f 1000 cycles; t=250 usec/cm ZL-5001Lf + 10 ohms; f = 20 cycl es; t = 12.5 msec/cm; i = O.8 A/cm
Fig.5 - Class B load line with resistive load and Fig. 7 - Class B load line with about 600phase shift
no overdrive. and overdrive.
CLASS B LOAD LINE WITH ABOUT 200 PHASE SHIFT EFFECTS OF TRANSIENTS
ZL=500 pf + 10 ohms; f = 50 cycles; t=5 msec/cm ZL= 15 mh INDUCTANCE BOX; f = 30-CYCLE SQUARE WAVE; t = 8 msec/cm
Fig.6-ClassB load line with apartially reactive load. Fig.8 - An example of the effect of transients.
Fig. 5 shows the collector current and collector stay in the active region for as long as 20
voltage as functions of time, and the collector milliseconds. Fig.10 shows the extreme condi-
current as a function of the collector voltage tion to be expected when a typical speaker is
(more commonly known as the load line). These driven from a square wave. Fortunately, this
curves represent an idealized Class B condition at condition is normally found only in the micro-
1000 cycles with aresistive load and no overdrive. second region.
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In Fig.ll, the curve of Fig.l is modified to Second-Order Effects
add the Class B load line for reactive loads. The All the previous discussion assumes that there
solid line is the ideal case, as previously stated. is no collector saturation voltage drop, no emitter
The dotted line is fairly representative of the resistor, perfect power-supply regulation with
most severe low-frequency reactive load line, and load, zero power-supply ripple, and power-supply
the dashed line represents the most severe high- regulation to line variations. Deviations from
frequency load line. It is obvious that the maximum theseidealconditions tend toincrease the problems
instantaneous dissipation per transistor for low in the circuit. In general, practical considerations
increase voltages and currents by 40 to 60 per cent,
and thus increase dissipation by a factor of 2 to
2.5. As a result of the accumulation of all these
"second-order effects," the original dissipation
assumption of 13.5 per cent may be in error by as
much as a factor of 70. The curves of Fig.11
indicate that the collector-to-emitter breakdown
voltage in the presence of emitter current must
exceed twice the highest supply-voltage anticipated,
or about three times the supply voltage predicted
by idealized theory.
EFFECTS OF TRANSIENTS
ZL= 17 mh + 33 ohms; f =50 cycles; t= 5 msec/cm
Fig.9 -An example of the effect of transients. COLLECTOR VOLTAGE
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current can never be less than IICO, even if the in performance should be possible, therefore, if
driver is completely cut off. This condition can these variables are eliminated by a well-regulated
result in thermal runaway of the transistor, as power supply. The cost of regulation must be
well as distortion and reduced power output. The weighed against the increased performance for each
modified arrangement** shown in Fig. 12(b) alleviates case. If it is desirable to include a power
this problem. regulator, the circuit must then be analyzed
for reliability.
Basically, three types of regulators are in
common use: the series regulator, the shunt regu-
lator, and the chopper-type or phase-control type
of regulator.
A shunt regulator is normally employed when
the unregulated supply approaches acurrent source,
or when other methods are impractical for various
other reasons. The shunt regulator may generally
be excluded from this type of discussion.
(a) (b) If silicon control rectifiers become available
Fig.12 -(a) Conventional direct-coupled driver stage. in quantity economically, theymight offer the most
(b) Driver stage modified to prevent thermal runaway. practical and economical solution to regulation.
The application would be similar to a phase-con-
trolled thyratron power supply, and reliability
Vertical Deflection problems should not be severe.
The requirements of vertical-deflection cir- If a series regulator is used, the transistor
cuits are similar to those of Class Aaudio stages, must continue to be in an active stage from the
although much less severe. Thepower-supply varia- highest instantaneous supply voltage to thelowest.
tions are the same and must be considered. The The highest instantaneous supply voltage occurs at
high-voltage transient is part of the circuit the peak of the ripple signal, with high line
timing, and breakdown must not be encountered. voltage, withminimum drain, andwith the deflection
There are some areas of difficulty that are not system supplying current back into the storage
immediately obvious. The vertical hold, vertical capacitor. Thelowest instantaneous supply voltage
linearity, and vertical size controls will alter occurs at the minimum of the ripple signal, at low
the operating conditions. Because the user will line voltage, and with maximum drain including
have the receiver operating at some time withevery both deflection systems. Thisarrangement requires
conceivable adjustment of these controls, the a series transistor capable ofhandling the current
increased voltage-current-power requirements must supplied to the storage capacitor at a voltage
be within the transistor capabilities. In addition, approaching 50 per cent of the regulated voltage
the average dissipation willincrease significantly excluding component tolerances.
if a loss of vertical drive is encountered.
Power-Supply Transients
Video Output When the power supply is turned on, thestorage
The problems of the video stage are fairly capacitor rapidly charges from zero volts to the
obvious and straight-forward. Theloadis resistive equilibrium value of the unregulated supply. Because
except at very high frequencies. Although the a transistor requires no warmup time, a load is
operating voltages and currents may change as a always present. Therefore, the voltage and current
result of overdrive or variations in video infor- of the series transistor may be quite high during
mation, the dc load resistor limits the maximum the turn-on transient. Thisseffect may beminimized
transistor dissipation. Basically, the video stage if the drive capabilities of the series transistor
is similar to asimple Class Aaudio stage requiring are adequate to hold it in, or near, saturation
an open-base breakdown voltage of about 120 volts until the storage capacitor attains the proper
and a dissipation of about 3/4 watt. The severe voltage.
dynamic requirements imposed upon the transistor
are not within the scope of this paper. Horizontal Deflection4
Power-Supply Regulation The operation of a typical horizontal-deflection
The variation in power-supply voltage from low output circuit isbriefly reviewed in Appendix III.
line to high line, from high current drain to low The actual circuit, however, is not quite so lossless
as implied by the idealized representation shown.
current drain (load regulation), and from the The operating parameters, including the power
minimum level of ripple to the maximum level of losses, are discussed in Appendix IV.
ripple accounts for a total supply-voltage excursion
of the order of 35 to 45 per cent, with resultant Because the deflection system is so efficient,
increases in instantaneous dissipation of the order and because such high energies are being switched,
of a factor of 1.7 to 2.1. An appreciable increase only minor deviations from ideal may be tolerated
in the switch. It need not have zero resistance
**If the collector is returned to a low voltage source, or when closed, nor infinite resistance when open,
to a voltage divider, the driver dissipation is greatly but it must approach these ideals to a prescribed
reduced. In addition, feedback from the output collector degree. Inability to open the switch instantly
through the driver collector capacitance is eliminated. also causes deviations from the ideal. When the
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power loss resulting from these imperfections Turn-On and Turn-Off Transients
becomes large, the switch (the transistor) heats Because transistors can be destroyed in a matter
up and is destroyed. Because of the rapidity of of tenths ofamillisecond, the turn-on and turn-off
heating, as described earlier, a transient state transients that occur prior to equilibrium must be
of excessive transistor dissipation can destroy carefully considered. In a conventional horizontal-
the transistor without even raising the case deflection circuit, the oscillator is decoupled
temperature. from the main power supply. As a result, the
Equation (1) of Appendix IV shows that the horizontal-output stage reaches equilibrium voltage
collector current increases linearly with supply almost immediately when the receiver is turned on.
voltage and with trace time. The circuit design The decoupled stages, however, may require a few
must be evaluated for the highest power-supply hundred milliseconds to approach equilibrium
voltage, for the lowest sweeping frequency (when voltages. When the blocking oscillator is at very
not synchronized), and for the minimum value of low voltages, the oscillator frequency may differ
anticipated yoke and flyback inductance. appreciably from the normal frequency, and the
output may be much less than normal. Consequently,
The peak inverse voltage varies inversely with there may not be sufficient drive to saturate the
the retrace time. Tolerances on components can output nor to turn the output current off rapidly
cause a short retrace time, a high inverse voltage, during retrace.
and a destroyed transistor. The charging current ofthe high-voltage supply
Third-harmonic tuning is often used to reduce presents no problem because the filament of the
the amplitude of the peak inverse voltage. As high-voltage rectifier requires time to reach oper-
ating temperature. In addition, the regulation
explained later, however, this method should not discussed previously protects the circuit in the
be used unless the transistor collector current is event of shorting of the high-voltage supply.
turned off in about one microsecond or less. As
the transistor is turned off, the collector voltage All forms of power circuits require careful
rises. This rate of rise is defined in equation consideration of the turn-on and turn-off conditions
(3), Appendix IV. Thevoltage function during this because field reliability is so necessary in the
collector turn-off time, multiplied by the collector- consumer product market. For example, a remote
current function and integrated, equalsthe retrace type of condition may happen only once in athousand
loss. Thispower lossis described in equation (8); times because it requires coincidence of the moment
equation (9) shows the peak instantaneous dissi- of turn on and several other times. In equipment
pation. which isused twice a day, however, such acondition
may produce a field rejection of the order of 60
In a practical deflection circuit, a turn-off per cent in one year.
time of one microsecond causes a retrace loss of
about 1.5 watts; a three-microsecond turn-off time
results in a loss of 15 watts. These figures would
be doubled for third-harmonic tuning. The turn-off Second Breakdown
time would last from the time the collector voltage There is a destructive mechanism in large-area
has risen to about two volts to the time the power transistors5 that is generally referred to
collector current decreases about 95 per cent. as "second breakdown." This condition is somewhat
The transistor storage time from the initial turn- similar to "hot spotting" in electron power tubes
off signal to the time the voltage has increased in that one large device does not act like many
to about two volts is generally not objectionable, small devices in parallel. Loosely speaking,
although it does make the drive condition more severe. "second breakdown" is an electrically and thermally
regenerative process in which current is focused
The high rate at which losses increase with in a very small area (of the order of the diameter
turn-off time illustrate the importance of drive ofahuman hair). This very high current, together
reliability. If the drive is ever below the value with the voltage across the transistor, causes
necessary to assure that the transistorissaturated a localized heating that may easily reach incan-
during turn-on time, thetransistor may be damaged. descence. This heat may melt a minute hole from
Likewise, anyinability to obtain the fast turn-off the collector to the emitter of the transistor,
(even for one or two cycles) will probably damage and thus cause a short circuit. This regenerative
the transistor. process is not initiated unless certain high
voltages and currents are coincident for certain
The dissipation produced by the saturation finite lengths of time.
current is shown in equation (7) in Appendix IV.
The Ico thermal-stability requirement is slightly Fig.13 shows the locus of "second breakdown"
less than that predicted for normal Class Acircuit as measured for an early experimental power trans-
stability. The value of Ico employed must be istor. If the operating condition is maintained
obtained at the highest instantaneous junction for the time specified on the curve or less, second
temperature, and at the peak inverse voltage. breakdown will not occur (provided any repetitive
waveform stays near zero dissipation long enough
High-voltage arcing and even shorting of the for thermal equilibrium to be restored in the
high-voltage ultor are fairly common. The high- transistor before a repeat of the high dissipation).
voltage supply must have a sufficient lack of When the load linespreviously discussed are super-
regulation to permit these abnormalities without imposed on Fig.13, the cause of many circuit
destroying the deflection transistor. failures can be understood.
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Appendix II
References
PC = 2
0n
(VCC)( -A sincot) cc(sint) d)t (4)
RL
as follows: (9)
PO =
Ic ECC/2 (3)
2PO P
(10)
where PO is the signal power from both trans- Cmax - 2 0 5
istors
When a quiescent current flows, it may be shown
Pdc = 2 Ecc Ic/T (4) that the maximum collector dissipation is given by
where Pdc the dc power supply to both trans- 2P
(11)
is
i stors Pcmax L
IT
2 + Vcc 10
Then
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The efficiency of the output pair may be determined which is often used to describe a system, iscloser
to equal to 2500 watts, as explained later.)
uA In addition, the operation of the switch would
X rA4 (12) be rather critical with regard to both its opening
and its closing.
A final limitation would be the fact that the
deflection field would be poled or phased in one
Appendix III direction only, so that the beam would have to be
Most discussions of conventional horizontal- centered at the extreme left of the screen for
deflection stages explain only the operation of zero yoke current.
the finalized circuit. Thematerial below presents
a step-by-step development of this final circuit.
A current varying linearly with time andhaving
a peak-to-peak amplitude equal to I must be passed s c
through the horizontal-deflection yoke so that it _FEcc
may develop a magnetic field adequate to deflect
the electron beam of the television picture tube. Fig.A-III(b) -Addition of a capacitor to permit
After the beam is deflected completely across the f lyback ringing.
face of the picture tube, it must then be returned
to its starting point. These two steps comprise If a capacitor is placed across the switch,
the fundamental function of the deflection system. the yoke current still increases linearly when the
switch is closed at time equals zero. When the
switch is opened, however, at time equals tl, a
tank circuit is formed by the parallel combination
s 11LEcc of L and C, as shown in Fig.A-III(b). The initial
conditions of this simple transient network are
as follows:
Fig.A-III(a) - The simplest form of Et
deflection circuit. y L
+
If the switch is opened at t = ti, the current w
instantly drops to zero from its initial value: ti t2
Et1 0 o
t1Ji
I = (3)
L w
!11
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zero, the capacitor current effortlessly transfers Appendix IV
to the switch and anew transient condition results, If losses are neglected, the peak collector
as described below. current is r ,
At the time of proposed switching, time equals I = 2L (1)
t2 and the yoke current equals -I. The yoke
current increases at the rate dictated by equa- where Ecc is the collector supply voltage, Tt is
tion (1), but starts from -I instead of from zero. the trace time, and L is the yoke inductance.
Fig.A-III(d) shows the yoke-current and capacitor- If third-harmonic tuning is not used, the peak
voltage waveforms. collector voltage is
+ E =- _ 7T EC
cc Tt
2 Tr
t (2)
I.-
z
w where Tr is the retrace time.
The rate of change of collector voltage with
respect to time is
d ec 7T2 Ecc Tt
o
0 I. (3)
,
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 dt 2 Tr2
4/ Although Ep is somewhat reduced by third-
harmonic tuning, it can be shown that d ec/dt
0
wO approximately doubles.
The power losses are as follows:
Fig.A-III(d)-Yoke current andyoke voltage waveforms. The yoke power is
12 By
If the switch is again opened at t4, closed at (4)
t5, and so on, the desired sweep will result, the y 3
peak switch voltage will be finite, and the average where Ry is the yoke resistance.
supply current is zero. The deflection system is The damper-diode loss is
then lossless and efficient. Because the average
yoke current is also zero, beam decentering is I Vf Tt
avoided. 4(Tt+Tr) (5)
where Vf is the diode forward voltage at approxi-
mately I amperes.
s D c The transistor loss due to saturation voltage is
c
<I4(TVsat+Tr)
Tt 6
(6)
Fig.A-III(e) - Incorporation of the damper diode.
where V is the collector-to-emitter voltage
The only fault in the final circuit is the at I amperes when the transistor base is forward-
critical timing of the switch, particularly at bi ased.
time equals t2. If the switch is shunted by a The transistor loss due to the I during retrace is
properly poled diode (the damper diode), as shown
in Fig.A-III(e), the diode acts as a closed switch ECC ICO Tt (7)
as soon as the capacitor voltage reverses slightly. ICO = (Tt +Td)
The switch may then be closed any time from time assuming that ICo is approximately.a constant current
equals t2 to time equals t3. independent of collector voltage.
The transistor loss during turn-off time is
Tt2
T_Tc
2p
ECC2 7f2 t12
= (8)
Ecc 2 4 L Tr2 (r + t
Fig.A-III(f) - Transistor functioning as the switch. where t1 is the total turn-off time (excluding
storage time).
In the actual circuits employed, the switch is P is approximately doubled for third-harmonic
a transistor, as shown in Fig.A-III(f). Although
the transistor is forward-biased prior to time tuning.
equals t3, it is not an effective switch for the The maximum instantaneous dissipation of the col-
reverse collector current. Therefore, the damper lector during collector turn-off is
diode carries most of this current.
pRinst - Ecc2 Tt2 7T2 t,
The circuits also have a high-voltage trans- (9)
former across the yoke. This transformer may be 1 6 L Tr2
used as a slight step-up or step-down transformer
for the yoke, or the damper diode, or the capacitor, and approximately twice this value for third-harmonic
or any combination of these elements. tuning.
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