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RELIABILITY CONSIDERATIONS IN THE APPLICATION OF POWER

TRANSISTORS TO CONSUMER PRODUCTS


by
C.F. Wheatley and J.W. Englund
Radio Corporation of America
Semiconductor and Materials Division
Somerville, N.J.
The reliability normally associated with transistors
results not only from the inherent characteristics of trans-
istors, but also from careful effort in their design and
application. To obtain the required degree of reliability
in consumer products, it is necessary to analyze many con-
siderations, both in the design of transistors and their
application to circuits. This paper describes these con-
siderations, and offers practical solutions to some of the
existing problems. The discussion is limited to power
stages such as audio output, vertical deflection, horizontal
deflection, video output, and power-supply regulation.
Dissipation - Class B voltage decreases until at the peak sine-wave
In most applications, the audio power stage condition, the collector current is equal to IC
need not create a serious reliability problem because and the collector voltage is zero; the current
of the limited frequency response, the low power then returns to zero and the voltage to Ecc at the
requirements, and the control of load impedance. 180-degree point of the sine wave. The current
However, the assumptions normally made in the design for the other half of the sine wave is supplied by
of Class B audio stages, together with the neglect the second Class B transistor. The second trans-
of "second-order effects," are so indicative of istor, however, also pulls the collector voltage
the problems of obtaining reliability with power of the first transistor up to 2 EcC even though
transistors that a discussion of the general case the first transistor is cut off. This effect
seems warranted, even though specific cases will produces the discontinuity in the load line.*
be less severe. In this type of service, therefore, the trans-
istor must be able to handle a current level as
high as I , a collector-to-emitter voltage of Ecc
while conAucting current, and a collector-to-emitter
voltage equal to 2 Ecc when cut off. The average
transistor dissipation is about 13.5 per cent of
full undistorted power output for sine-wave ampli-
I~- fication (see Appendix I). Because the dissipation
z is zero under no-signal conditions, it is often
a:I* erroneously assumed that maximum dissipation occurs
cr. at full power output. Then, because full power
0
output is seldom encountered, it is concluded that
C)
a large safety factor is built into Class Bcircuits.
-J
This point can be evaluated to agreater degree
0 both graphically and analytically. Fig.2(a) shows
the conductive portion of the load line (represented
Ecc 2ECC
by the solid line) and a constant-power hyperbola
COLLECTOR VOLTAGE
(represented by the dashed line). Points A, B, C,
and D on the load line correspond to the peak
Fig.1 -Load line of an ideaIized Class B transistor. current levels for current-signal swings of 25,
50, 75, and 100 per cent, respectively. Because
Fig.l shows the load line imposed upon one of * An exception to this effect is encountered when a center-
the two Class B transistors in the ideal case. In tapped speaker is used. The coupling between the two
the quiescent operating condition, the collector collectors is so loose that the collector voltage essentially
voltage is equal to the supply voltage ECC, and does not rise above Ecc for operation when the speaker is
the collector current is zero. As signal is applied, resistive. When the speaker becomes reactive, however,
the collector current increases and the collector the voltage exceeds Ecc. The effect of reactive loading
is discussed later.

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the output power is proportional to the square of Thermal Transients - Class B
the current, these points also represent 6-1/4, If a sine wave having an amplitude equal to
25, 56-1/4, and 100 per cent of full power output. 2/3 Ic is imposed upon the circuit represented by
Fig.2(a), the instantaneous dissipation is within
12 per cent of maximum from 30 to 150 degrees
(one-third of the total sine-wave period). Ifthis
high-dissipation time is small in relation to the
thermal time constant of the transistor, the
IC' collector-junction temperature equals the product
of the thermal resistance and the average dissi-
pation. If the high-dissipation condition is main-
tained for a sufficient time, however, thermal
z integration will not result, and the junction
w
temperature will start to track the dissipation
cr
a:
tr.
cycle. Thiscondition starts at about 1/3 the time
0 constant, and it is complete at about twice the time
U
constant. If a typical thermal time constant of
J
2 milliseconds is assumed, low-frequency thermal
0 effects start to become apparent at about 500
cycles and are complete at about 80 cycles. For
frequencies of 80 cycles or less, therefore, the
maximum junction temperature is determined by 50
per cent of full power output rather than 15 to
20 per cent.
z
ON

Fig. 2(a) - Load line and constant-power hyperbola. 0- 20

Ln w 20

za -
<I- w 15
I II II
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
MAXIMUM POWER OUTPUT-PER CENT
Fig.3- Average power dissipation as a function of
sine-wave drive.

Effects of Reactive Loading on Class B


It is generally known that a reactive load
Fig. 2(b) - Instantaneous power dissipation as a alters the phase of the voltage and current, and
function of sine-wave drive. thereby changes a straight resistive load line into
an ellipse.3 When this condition occurs (nearly
always), its effects upon the transistor require-
Fig.2(b) shows the instantaneous transistor ments must be considered.
dissipation as a function of timel for sine-wave
signals having peak amplitudes corresponding to
points A, B, C, and D in Fig.2(a). For full power
output, the dissipation starts at zero and rises
rapidly to the maximum value indicated by thepower 12
VOLTS
hyperbola. The dissipation then decreases to zero 6OHMS | -
at the peak sine-wave amplitude. This curve is
repeated as the sine-wave amplitude increases from MOHmS
90 to 180 degrees. Visual integration of Fig.2(b)
I
T VOLTS OHM
indicates that the maximum dissipation occurs at
a drive condition below full output.
The average dissipation as a function of drive
is derived in Appendix 11.2 Fig.3 shows that the
dissipation maximizes at approximately 40 per cent
of full power output, and that the dissipation at
the 10-per-cent power level (-10 db) is approxi-
mately equal to the dissipation at full power.
The figure of 13.5 per cent which was previously
assumed to be quite conservative, therefore, should Fig.4- Single-ended Class B circuit to display
more realistically be raised to 20 per cent. transistor load lines.

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Analytical treatment of the load-line locus is Fig.6 shows the effect of a partially reactive
complex for Class B transistor operation because load. As expected, the voltage lags the current,
the effects of output overload and input overload and the load line takes on the unfamiliar shape
are functions of the precise circuit chosen. How- shown. When overdrive is permitted, the results
ever, oscioscscope observations-convey the major shown in Fig.7 are obtained. Moresevere transient
significances of reactive loads. The circuit effects are shown in Figs.8 and 9.
shown in Fig.4 was used to obtain the oscilloscope Figs.6 and 7 represent conditions characteristic
traces that follow. of low frequencies, where the load line easily may

CLASS B LOAD LINE WITH NO PHASE SHIFT CLASS B LOAD LINE WITH ABOUT 600 PHASE SHIFT AND OVERDRIVE
ZL= 50 ptf + 10 ohms; f 1000 cycles; t=250 usec/cm ZL-5001Lf + 10 ohms; f = 20 cycl es; t = 12.5 msec/cm; i = O.8 A/cm
Fig.5 - Class B load line with resistive load and Fig. 7 - Class B load line with about 600phase shift
no overdrive. and overdrive.

CLASS B LOAD LINE WITH ABOUT 200 PHASE SHIFT EFFECTS OF TRANSIENTS
ZL=500 pf + 10 ohms; f = 50 cycles; t=5 msec/cm ZL= 15 mh INDUCTANCE BOX; f = 30-CYCLE SQUARE WAVE; t = 8 msec/cm
Fig.6-ClassB load line with apartially reactive load. Fig.8 - An example of the effect of transients.

Fig. 5 shows the collector current and collector stay in the active region for as long as 20
voltage as functions of time, and the collector milliseconds. Fig.10 shows the extreme condi-
current as a function of the collector voltage tion to be expected when a typical speaker is
(more commonly known as the load line). These driven from a square wave. Fortunately, this
curves represent an idealized Class B condition at condition is normally found only in the micro-
1000 cycles with aresistive load and no overdrive. second region.

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In Fig.ll, the curve of Fig.l is modified to Second-Order Effects
add the Class B load line for reactive loads. The All the previous discussion assumes that there
solid line is the ideal case, as previously stated. is no collector saturation voltage drop, no emitter
The dotted line is fairly representative of the resistor, perfect power-supply regulation with
most severe low-frequency reactive load line, and load, zero power-supply ripple, and power-supply
the dashed line represents the most severe high- regulation to line variations. Deviations from
frequency load line. It is obvious that the maximum theseidealconditions tend toincrease the problems
instantaneous dissipation per transistor for low in the circuit. In general, practical considerations
increase voltages and currents by 40 to 60 per cent,
and thus increase dissipation by a factor of 2 to
2.5. As a result of the accumulation of all these
"second-order effects," the original dissipation
assumption of 13.5 per cent may be in error by as
much as a factor of 70. The curves of Fig.11
indicate that the collector-to-emitter breakdown
voltage in the presence of emitter current must
exceed twice the highest supply-voltage anticipated,
or about three times the supply voltage predicted
by idealized theory.

EFFECTS OF TRANSIENTS
ZL= 17 mh + 33 ohms; f =50 cycles; t= 5 msec/cm
Fig.9 -An example of the effect of transients. COLLECTOR VOLTAGE

Fig. 11 - Probable extremes of load lines.

Audio Output - Class A


The considerations discussed for Class B cir-
cuits also apply to Class A audio power stages.
Low-frequency reactive effects, combined with such
other effects as high line voltage, may cause a
10- or20-millisecond dissipation as high as 5 or 6
times the anticipated average dissipationinClass A
circuits.
High-frequency transients which are often
encountered in Class A output stages may cause an
inductive flyback voltage as high as 30 times the
supply voltage. If this condition is coincident
with a low-frequency elliptical load line, the
instantaneous dissipation may be as high as 40 or
50 times the average dissipation. This severity
is fairly unlikely in practice, however, and the
time involvedis only of the order of amicrosecond.
This flyback-voltage transient normally drives
SPEAKER LOAD the transistor into collector breakdown. Unless
ZL =7mh + 15 ohms; f='4OO cycles; t= 600 ,Lsec/cm; i =O.1 A/cm the transistor can adequately handle the stored
Fig.10 - Very high voltages and currents achieved energy which produces the voltage, "second break-
with a speaker load. down" may result. This condition is discussed later.
The trend in Class A circuits is toward direct
coupling and away from transformer coupling. The
frequenciesisabout 100 per cent of the total full driver stage often uses a circuit such as that
power output; the short-term instantaneous dissi- shown in Fig.12(a). This arrangement, however, is
pation per transistor is about 400 per cent of the not able to provide for a reversal of base current.
full power output. At high temperatures, therefore, the output stage

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current can never be less than IICO, even if the in performance should be possible, therefore, if
driver is completely cut off. This condition can these variables are eliminated by a well-regulated
result in thermal runaway of the transistor, as power supply. The cost of regulation must be
well as distortion and reduced power output. The weighed against the increased performance for each
modified arrangement** shown in Fig. 12(b) alleviates case. If it is desirable to include a power
this problem. regulator, the circuit must then be analyzed
for reliability.
Basically, three types of regulators are in
common use: the series regulator, the shunt regu-
lator, and the chopper-type or phase-control type
of regulator.
A shunt regulator is normally employed when
the unregulated supply approaches acurrent source,
or when other methods are impractical for various
other reasons. The shunt regulator may generally
be excluded from this type of discussion.
(a) (b) If silicon control rectifiers become available
Fig.12 -(a) Conventional direct-coupled driver stage. in quantity economically, theymight offer the most
(b) Driver stage modified to prevent thermal runaway. practical and economical solution to regulation.
The application would be similar to a phase-con-
trolled thyratron power supply, and reliability
Vertical Deflection problems should not be severe.
The requirements of vertical-deflection cir- If a series regulator is used, the transistor
cuits are similar to those of Class Aaudio stages, must continue to be in an active stage from the
although much less severe. Thepower-supply varia- highest instantaneous supply voltage to thelowest.
tions are the same and must be considered. The The highest instantaneous supply voltage occurs at
high-voltage transient is part of the circuit the peak of the ripple signal, with high line
timing, and breakdown must not be encountered. voltage, withminimum drain, andwith the deflection
There are some areas of difficulty that are not system supplying current back into the storage
immediately obvious. The vertical hold, vertical capacitor. Thelowest instantaneous supply voltage
linearity, and vertical size controls will alter occurs at the minimum of the ripple signal, at low
the operating conditions. Because the user will line voltage, and with maximum drain including
have the receiver operating at some time withevery both deflection systems. Thisarrangement requires
conceivable adjustment of these controls, the a series transistor capable ofhandling the current
increased voltage-current-power requirements must supplied to the storage capacitor at a voltage
be within the transistor capabilities. In addition, approaching 50 per cent of the regulated voltage
the average dissipation willincrease significantly excluding component tolerances.
if a loss of vertical drive is encountered.
Power-Supply Transients
Video Output When the power supply is turned on, thestorage
The problems of the video stage are fairly capacitor rapidly charges from zero volts to the
obvious and straight-forward. Theloadis resistive equilibrium value of the unregulated supply. Because
except at very high frequencies. Although the a transistor requires no warmup time, a load is
operating voltages and currents may change as a always present. Therefore, the voltage and current
result of overdrive or variations in video infor- of the series transistor may be quite high during
mation, the dc load resistor limits the maximum the turn-on transient. Thisseffect may beminimized
transistor dissipation. Basically, the video stage if the drive capabilities of the series transistor
is similar to asimple Class Aaudio stage requiring are adequate to hold it in, or near, saturation
an open-base breakdown voltage of about 120 volts until the storage capacitor attains the proper
and a dissipation of about 3/4 watt. The severe voltage.
dynamic requirements imposed upon the transistor
are not within the scope of this paper. Horizontal Deflection4
Power-Supply Regulation The operation of a typical horizontal-deflection
The variation in power-supply voltage from low output circuit isbriefly reviewed in Appendix III.
line to high line, from high current drain to low The actual circuit, however, is not quite so lossless
as implied by the idealized representation shown.
current drain (load regulation), and from the The operating parameters, including the power
minimum level of ripple to the maximum level of losses, are discussed in Appendix IV.
ripple accounts for a total supply-voltage excursion
of the order of 35 to 45 per cent, with resultant Because the deflection system is so efficient,
increases in instantaneous dissipation of the order and because such high energies are being switched,
of a factor of 1.7 to 2.1. An appreciable increase only minor deviations from ideal may be tolerated
in the switch. It need not have zero resistance
**If the collector is returned to a low voltage source, or when closed, nor infinite resistance when open,
to a voltage divider, the driver dissipation is greatly but it must approach these ideals to a prescribed
reduced. In addition, feedback from the output collector degree. Inability to open the switch instantly
through the driver collector capacitance is eliminated. also causes deviations from the ideal. When the

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power loss resulting from these imperfections Turn-On and Turn-Off Transients
becomes large, the switch (the transistor) heats Because transistors can be destroyed in a matter
up and is destroyed. Because of the rapidity of of tenths ofamillisecond, the turn-on and turn-off
heating, as described earlier, a transient state transients that occur prior to equilibrium must be
of excessive transistor dissipation can destroy carefully considered. In a conventional horizontal-
the transistor without even raising the case deflection circuit, the oscillator is decoupled
temperature. from the main power supply. As a result, the
Equation (1) of Appendix IV shows that the horizontal-output stage reaches equilibrium voltage
collector current increases linearly with supply almost immediately when the receiver is turned on.
voltage and with trace time. The circuit design The decoupled stages, however, may require a few
must be evaluated for the highest power-supply hundred milliseconds to approach equilibrium
voltage, for the lowest sweeping frequency (when voltages. When the blocking oscillator is at very
not synchronized), and for the minimum value of low voltages, the oscillator frequency may differ
anticipated yoke and flyback inductance. appreciably from the normal frequency, and the
output may be much less than normal. Consequently,
The peak inverse voltage varies inversely with there may not be sufficient drive to saturate the
the retrace time. Tolerances on components can output nor to turn the output current off rapidly
cause a short retrace time, a high inverse voltage, during retrace.
and a destroyed transistor. The charging current ofthe high-voltage supply
Third-harmonic tuning is often used to reduce presents no problem because the filament of the
the amplitude of the peak inverse voltage. As high-voltage rectifier requires time to reach oper-
ating temperature. In addition, the regulation
explained later, however, this method should not discussed previously protects the circuit in the
be used unless the transistor collector current is event of shorting of the high-voltage supply.
turned off in about one microsecond or less. As
the transistor is turned off, the collector voltage All forms of power circuits require careful
rises. This rate of rise is defined in equation consideration of the turn-on and turn-off conditions
(3), Appendix IV. Thevoltage function during this because field reliability is so necessary in the
collector turn-off time, multiplied by the collector- consumer product market. For example, a remote
current function and integrated, equalsthe retrace type of condition may happen only once in athousand
loss. Thispower lossis described in equation (8); times because it requires coincidence of the moment
equation (9) shows the peak instantaneous dissi- of turn on and several other times. In equipment
pation. which isused twice a day, however, such acondition
may produce a field rejection of the order of 60
In a practical deflection circuit, a turn-off per cent in one year.
time of one microsecond causes a retrace loss of
about 1.5 watts; a three-microsecond turn-off time
results in a loss of 15 watts. These figures would
be doubled for third-harmonic tuning. The turn-off Second Breakdown
time would last from the time the collector voltage There is a destructive mechanism in large-area
has risen to about two volts to the time the power transistors5 that is generally referred to
collector current decreases about 95 per cent. as "second breakdown." This condition is somewhat
The transistor storage time from the initial turn- similar to "hot spotting" in electron power tubes
off signal to the time the voltage has increased in that one large device does not act like many
to about two volts is generally not objectionable, small devices in parallel. Loosely speaking,
although it does make the drive condition more severe. "second breakdown" is an electrically and thermally
regenerative process in which current is focused
The high rate at which losses increase with in a very small area (of the order of the diameter
turn-off time illustrate the importance of drive ofahuman hair). This very high current, together
reliability. If the drive is ever below the value with the voltage across the transistor, causes
necessary to assure that the transistorissaturated a localized heating that may easily reach incan-
during turn-on time, thetransistor may be damaged. descence. This heat may melt a minute hole from
Likewise, anyinability to obtain the fast turn-off the collector to the emitter of the transistor,
(even for one or two cycles) will probably damage and thus cause a short circuit. This regenerative
the transistor. process is not initiated unless certain high
voltages and currents are coincident for certain
The dissipation produced by the saturation finite lengths of time.
current is shown in equation (7) in Appendix IV.
The Ico thermal-stability requirement is slightly Fig.13 shows the locus of "second breakdown"
less than that predicted for normal Class Acircuit as measured for an early experimental power trans-
stability. The value of Ico employed must be istor. If the operating condition is maintained
obtained at the highest instantaneous junction for the time specified on the curve or less, second
temperature, and at the peak inverse voltage. breakdown will not occur (provided any repetitive
waveform stays near zero dissipation long enough
High-voltage arcing and even shorting of the for thermal equilibrium to be restored in the
high-voltage ultor are fairly common. The high- transistor before a repeat of the high dissipation).
voltage supply must have a sufficient lack of When the load linespreviously discussed are super-
regulation to permit these abnormalities without imposed on Fig.13, the cause of many circuit
destroying the deflection transistor. failures can be understood.

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Appendix II

In the circuit shown in Fig.A-II, itis assumed


U1) that the quiescent current of the transistors is
a. zero and that the saturation voltage of the trans-
istors is zero. Ideal transformers are also
bJ
assumed, as well as linear transistors.
0
The collector voltage on a given transistor is
C-)
w
given by
-J
0
2 2
vc = Vcc (1-A sin cot) (1)
The collector current is given by
0 50 20 30 40 50 60 V A
COLLECTOR-VOLTS ic = c
cc
sin
ct from 0 to77 (2)
RL
Fig. 13 Locus of "second breakdown" for
- an iC = ° from TT to 2-7- (3)
experimental power transistor.
Dissipation for each transistor, therefore, is

References
PC = 2
0n
(VCC)( -A sincot) cc(sint) d)t (4)

1. Shea, R.F., Transistor Audio Amplifiers, Wiley VcCC A A7T


and Sons, N.Y., 1955, p. 166. (5)

2. Wheatley, C. F., "Power Dissipation in Class B


-URL 4-
Circuitry," Electronic Design, Sept. 17, 1958. The maximum dissipation can be determined as a
3. Dow, W. G. Fundamentals of Engineeria ng Elec- function of A from the following relation:
tronics, Wiley and Sons, N.Y., 1937, p. 272. V 2
dP V_2A = 0
4. Schade, O.H., 'Characteristics of High-Efficiency
-dA '7TRL 2 BL
dPc cc
(6)
Deflection and High-Voltage Supply Systems for
Kinescopes " RCA Review, March 1950, Vol. XI,
pp. 5-37. Maximum dissipation occurs when
5. Thornton and Simmons, "A New High Current Mode 2
A -- = 0.636 (7)
of Transistor Operation, " IRE Transactions on ITT
Electron Devices, Jan. 1958, Vol. E.D. 5, p. 6.
The maximum dissipation, therefore, is given by
v 2
p
cmax -2
c
(8)
7T2BL
Appendix I
iC = IA sin cT (1) which may be normalized with respect to the
theoretical maximum-power output as follows:
ec = Ecc (1- A sin coT) (2)
V 2
When A = 1 0
° 2
cc

RL
as follows: (9)
PO =
Ic ECC/2 (3)
2PO P
(10)
where PO is the signal power from both trans- Cmax - 2 0 5

istors
When a quiescent current flows, it may be shown
Pdc = 2 Ecc Ic/T (4) that the maximum collector dissipation is given by
where Pdc the dc power supply to both trans- 2P
(11)
is
i stors Pcmax L
IT
2 + Vcc 10
Then

Pdiss = 1/2 (Pdc - p ) = Ecc c 4 (5)

where Pdiss is the average power dissipated by "IIIC RL


each transiLstor
Normali zing:
sS
Pd 2 1
Pdiss/po --- =0.136 (6)
Fig.A-II - Basic Class B circuit.

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The efficiency of the output pair may be determined which is often used to describe a system, iscloser
to equal to 2500 watts, as explained later.)
uA In addition, the operation of the switch would
X rA4 (12) be rather critical with regard to both its opening
and its closing.
A final limitation would be the fact that the
deflection field would be poled or phased in one
Appendix III direction only, so that the beam would have to be
Most discussions of conventional horizontal- centered at the extreme left of the screen for
deflection stages explain only the operation of zero yoke current.
the finalized circuit. Thematerial below presents
a step-by-step development of this final circuit.
A current varying linearly with time andhaving
a peak-to-peak amplitude equal to I must be passed s c
through the horizontal-deflection yoke so that it _FEcc
may develop a magnetic field adequate to deflect
the electron beam of the television picture tube. Fig.A-III(b) -Addition of a capacitor to permit
After the beam is deflected completely across the f lyback ringing.
face of the picture tube, it must then be returned
to its starting point. These two steps comprise If a capacitor is placed across the switch,
the fundamental function of the deflection system. the yoke current still increases linearly when the
switch is closed at time equals zero. When the
switch is opened, however, at time equals tl, a
tank circuit is formed by the parallel combination
s 11LEcc of L and C, as shown in Fig.A-III(b). The initial
conditions of this simple transient network are
as follows:
Fig.A-III(a) - The simplest form of Et
deflection circuit. y L

In the circuit shown in Fig.A-III(a), the yoke ec = 0


impedance L is assumed to be a perfect inductor.
If the switch S is closed, the yoke current starts where iy is the yoke current and ec is the capacitor
from zero and increases in a linear fashion as voltage. The resulting yoke currents and capacitor
follows: voltages are shown in Fig.A-III(c). The current
di E +
dt L
(1) 7
Integration of equation (1) yields the following 0
expression for 1: y
C)
Et
(2)
L __ IL I I I I I

+
If the switch is opened at t = ti, the current w
instantly drops to zero from its initial value: ti t2
Et1 0 o
t1Ji
I = (3)
L w
!11

Although this approach satisfies the requirement,


it presents some serious problems and limitations. Fig.A-III(c)-Yoke current and yoke voltage waveforms.
The voltage across the switch is given by
di is at a maximum when the voltage equals zero, and
e ~L-d (4) the voltage is at amaximum when the current equals
dt
zero. The ringing frequency (assuming no losses)
Because di/dt equals cn, the voltage across the is given by
switch also equals 0. 1
(5)
soc27Tv4iC
fosc =

In addition, if very little of the total time


were spent at zero current, the average supply
current would equal 1/2. This current would require If the switch is closed again at any time the
a tremendous amount of dc power because (E) (I) capacitor voltage is not equal to zero, an infinite
for standard deflection systems (18KV-1100-USA) is switch current flows as a result of the capacitive
of the order of 300 watts. (The product of the discharge. However, if the switch is closed at
peak inverse voltage and the peak-to-peak current, the precise moment that the capacitor voltage equals

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zero, the capacitor current effortlessly transfers Appendix IV
to the switch and anew transient condition results, If losses are neglected, the peak collector
as described below. current is r ,
At the time of proposed switching, time equals I = 2L (1)
t2 and the yoke current equals -I. The yoke
current increases at the rate dictated by equa- where Ecc is the collector supply voltage, Tt is
tion (1), but starts from -I instead of from zero. the trace time, and L is the yoke inductance.
Fig.A-III(d) shows the yoke-current and capacitor- If third-harmonic tuning is not used, the peak
voltage waveforms. collector voltage is
+ E =- _ 7T EC
cc Tt
2 Tr
t (2)
I.-
z
w where Tr is the retrace time.
The rate of change of collector voltage with
respect to time is
d ec 7T2 Ecc Tt
o
0 I. (3)
,
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 dt 2 Tr2
4/ Although Ep is somewhat reduced by third-
harmonic tuning, it can be shown that d ec/dt
0
wO approximately doubles.
The power losses are as follows:
Fig.A-III(d)-Yoke current andyoke voltage waveforms. The yoke power is
12 By
If the switch is again opened at t4, closed at (4)
t5, and so on, the desired sweep will result, the y 3
peak switch voltage will be finite, and the average where Ry is the yoke resistance.
supply current is zero. The deflection system is The damper-diode loss is
then lossless and efficient. Because the average
yoke current is also zero, beam decentering is I Vf Tt
avoided. 4(Tt+Tr) (5)
where Vf is the diode forward voltage at approxi-
mately I amperes.
s D c The transistor loss due to saturation voltage is

c
<I4(TVsat+Tr)
Tt 6
(6)
Fig.A-III(e) - Incorporation of the damper diode.
where V is the collector-to-emitter voltage
The only fault in the final circuit is the at I amperes when the transistor base is forward-
critical timing of the switch, particularly at bi ased.
time equals t2. If the switch is shunted by a The transistor loss due to the I during retrace is
properly poled diode (the damper diode), as shown
in Fig.A-III(e), the diode acts as a closed switch ECC ICO Tt (7)
as soon as the capacitor voltage reverses slightly. ICO = (Tt +Td)
The switch may then be closed any time from time assuming that ICo is approximately.a constant current
equals t2 to time equals t3. independent of collector voltage.
The transistor loss during turn-off time is
Tt2
T_Tc
2p
ECC2 7f2 t12
= (8)
Ecc 2 4 L Tr2 (r + t

Fig.A-III(f) - Transistor functioning as the switch. where t1 is the total turn-off time (excluding
storage time).
In the actual circuits employed, the switch is P is approximately doubled for third-harmonic
a transistor, as shown in Fig.A-III(f). Although
the transistor is forward-biased prior to time tuning.
equals t3, it is not an effective switch for the The maximum instantaneous dissipation of the col-
reverse collector current. Therefore, the damper lector during collector turn-off is
diode carries most of this current.
pRinst - Ecc2 Tt2 7T2 t,
The circuits also have a high-voltage trans- (9)
former across the yoke. This transformer may be 1 6 L Tr2
used as a slight step-up or step-down transformer
for the yoke, or the damper diode, or the capacitor, and approximately twice this value for third-harmonic
or any combination of these elements. tuning.

73

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