COM 101, STUDY SKILLS AND BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

LECTURE NOTES

A: STUDY SKILLS

NOTE TAKING AND NOTE MAKING

Before introducing ourselves to the skills of note taking and note making, let us first

quickly make a survey on some elements of listening, a skill which normally precedes or

accompanies note taking and note making.

What is Listening?

Is one of the communication skills which one should master, other skills are; speaking,

reading, and writing. Thus, listening is a receptive skill which refers to the art of

making one receive what another person is verbally conveying.

Further more, listening is considered to be one of the most important part of oral

communication. As a student, you will spend almost 80% of your study time listening to

your lecturers, colleagues and others. Therefore poor listening skill may affect the

individual very badly at the college or university as the maximum number of time is

devoted to listening only.

However listening is not an easy task. Most people do not know how to listen effectively.

Effective listening involves more than just hearing-which is a passive act, a mere

reception of sound. Effective listening requires the listener to be an active listener,

who should be able to understand, interpret, and evaluate what he/she hears in a

meaningful way.

Advantages of Effective Listening

i. Helps one to avoid misunderstanding.

ii. Helps one to save time.

iii. Enables one to be able to do things right the first time he/she hears

something.

iv. Problems are solved quicker by being an active listener.

v. Gives the listener the sense of self worth and interest to go on listening.

On-going Tasks

1 What is the difference between “hearing” and “listening”?

2 List down four advantages of being a good listener and four disadvantages

of being a poor listener?

To Become an Effective (active) Listener

To become an effective or an active listener takes hard work, one must actively do his/her

part to make sure one get the most out of ones’ listening experiences. The following are

things or techniques that can make one an active listener:

1. Set the Objective for Listening:

Before actual listening, one should ask him/herself the objective for listening. This has an

advantage of giving one with a required concentration to the speaker.

2. Prepare to Listen:

In order to hear and understand everything from the speaker, one must be ready to listen

from the beginning. This means arriving early, getting sufficient rest, or finding out as

much about the speaker’s topic before h/she arrives.

3. Develop the Listening Process:

Before actual listening act, one has to develop a process for gathering, managing and

storing the information to be acquired. This include the note taking and note making

techniques as shall be discussed in details in the next parts of this lecture series.

On-going Tasks

1 Briefly identify and discuss three things that can hinder ones listening

concentration?

2 Give vivid elaborations of how one can become an effective listener

Having made survey on listening skill and how to be become an effective listener, now let

us switch on Note taking and Note making. It should be kept in our mind that, Note

taking and Note making are important academic skills that need to be acquired by

students at the college or university.

Note Taking

Is the practice of writing pieces of information, often in an informal or unstructured

manner. One major specific type of Note-taking is the practice of writing in shorthand,

which can allow large amounts of information to be put on paper very quickly. Notes are

frequently written in notebooks, though any available piece of paper can suffice in many

circumstances. Many different forms are used to structure information and make it easier

to find later.

Like reading, note-taking is a skill which must be learned and refined. Almost

invariably, note taking, or the lack of it, is a constant deficiency in the study methods of

many high school and college students. Learning the ingredients of good note taking is

rather easy; applying them to your own situation depends on how serious you are in

becoming a successful student.

Thus note taking basically is a means of recording the main points of information

during reading or during lecture sessions in such a way that, it can be done quickly,

and the recorded notes are clear and easy to revise for later purposes, for instance

during examinations.

Effective note taking should have a purpose, should be well organised, and can be a time

saving skill.
Importance of Note Taking

Note taking is important in various ways as follows:

 It helps in recording information for future reference. No one can remember

every thing that he/she hears. People tend to forget what they heard after sometime.

Research shows that individuals can only recall 50% of what they hear and that 20-

30% is incorrect. So it is good to take notes.

 Taking notes enhances concentration on the topic or subject matter.

 It also enhances understanding of the subject matter. When you write the

information tend to be well comprehended unlike when you are just reading. This is

because writing involves extra thinking.

 Note taking helps in focusing on important points only when one is in the lecture

or reading a book etc.

 Note taking helps in refining some arguments when preparing an essay or writing

a report.

 It is essential for providing you with the necessary evidence to inform and

develop your argument.

 It promotes critical thinking.

 It improves writing skills.

 Notes taken provide the clearest and best indication of what the student should

encounter on the exam. It facilitates making revision when preparing for exams
 Taking notes develops a sense of listening, allowing the reader to recognize main

ideas.

 Taking notes in class makes the student an active participant in the learning

process rather than a passive listener or daydreamer.

 Taking notes helps the student sort out important information—by synthesizing

and beginning the actual learning process the student is actually making the material

his own.

In the nutshell, the notes taken will become a study aid, an external memory device,

and an instrument to aid in review and recitation. This process leads to long-term

learning.

Five R's of Note Taking

1. Record. During the lecture, record as many meaningful facts and ideas as you can.

Write legibly.

2. Reduce. As soon after class as possible, summarize these ideas and facts concisely.

Summarizing clarifies meanings and relationships, reinforces continuity, and

strengthens memory. Also, it is a way of preparing for examinations gradually and

well ahead of time.

3. Recite/Recall. Now cover the notes, say over facts and ideas of the lecture as fully as

you can, not mechanically, but in your own words and with as much appreciation of
 the meaning as you can. Then, uncovering your notes, verify what you have said. This

procedure helps to transfer the facts and ideas to your long term memory.

4. Reflect. Reflective students distill their opinions from their notes. They make such

opinions the starting point for their own musings upon the subjects they are studying.

Such musings aid them in making sense out of their courses and academic

experiences by finding relationships among them. Reflective students continually

label and index their experiences and ideas, put them into structures, outlines,

summaries, and frames of reference. They rearrange and file them. Best of all, they

have an eye for the vital-for the essential. Unless ideas are placed in categories, unless

they are taken up from time to time for re-examination, they will become inert and

soon forgotten.

5. Review. If you will spend 10 minutes every week or so in a quick review of these

notes, you will retain most of what you have learned, and you will be able to use your

current knowledge more effectively.

Note Taking From Lecture

Techniques for Note taking are skills which one must acquire so as to help one to

write brief but clear notes when listening to lecturers. There are various techniques

which can help in taking good notes from a lecture. They involve the following:

1. Reading in Advance on the Topic

Since lecturers tend to provide course outlines, students are supposed to read in advance

about the topic. They can use books or internet. Reading in advance can make a student

follow the lecture very well and even understand better.

2. Attending Classes Punctually

A student is supposed to attend lectures and arrive in the lecture room punctually.

Students who come late tend to miss some of the points during introduction.

3. Effective Listening

Listening is an important tool in the learning process. Hence, during note taking listening

helps much in discovering the points from a lecture. Without listening a students can not

write good notes.

Effective listening involves paying attention to what a lecturer says at the same time

jotting down some main points. Listening differs from hearing in that, hearing is a

spontaneous process of perceiving the sound without paying attention and even

without understanding the meaning of the sound. For example one can hear the

cock crowing or the bird singing without being able to understand what such sounds

mean. In listening a person pays attention deliberately in order to understand the

message.
4. Selection of Main Points

A student should also be able to discover or select points during lecture. The clues/hints

that can help a student in discovering points during the lecture include:

 Change of tone/voice. Some lecturers change voices when mentioning the points

in order to make students jot them down.

 Facial expressions/gestures help in discovering points. Other lecturers or speakers

tend to emphasize their points through body movements. Using their arms, legs or

faces.

 Writing on the board. Lecturers write points on the board in order to be jotted

down by students.

 Use of signal words such as: firstly, secondly, moreover, furthermore, additionally

etc. These give a clue that a lecture is going to give a point.

 Repetition of statements or sentences. Normally, sentences that are repeated are

points. They are repeated for emphasis in order students can write them.

5. Brevity

When taking notes a student is supposed to be brief. He/she should be in summary in

order to keep pace with the speed of the lecturer. Writing all details during lecture is not

possible since the lecturer speaks at a higher speed than that of writing. So, it is important

to be brief.

Brevity in note taking can be achieved through the following techniques:

  Ignore unnecessary words or sentences. For example greetings, personal stories

etc.

 Use abbreviations and acronyms: Abbreviations are like TCU, TTCL, LLB, MPA,

BBA, MU, KTM, PCB, CCM, N.B, CD, and so on. Acronyms are like:

CHADEMA, TANESCO, TANU, UNESCO, TADEA, TAMWA etc.

 Clipping of some words. Ind. for independence; Prep for preparation; Hist. for

history; Com. for communication etc.

 Use of alternative words/paraphrasing. E.g. A person who influences his power

over other people due to his position (This is replaced by the word a leader).

 Avoid repetitions

 Pick the main points only.

 Use of symbols and signs such as =, +, <, >, %, &, #, $ , ≠, , †, ‰, ↓, ↑, →, ↔,

, 

 Use of bullets, numbers or letters to outline points instead of words.

Good Organisation of Notes (Layout of Notes)

The notes taken should be clear and usable. They should be well organised for easy

understanding. A key success to note taking is ones ability to organise information into

sections and subsections which are easily recognised. Thus one should provide

headings and subheadings for any piece of information.

The notes can be organised in one of the following formats:

Outline format: Points are listed down with bullets, numbers or letters.
Branching format: Notes organised in hierarchical order in a tree like pattern.

Tabular format: Arranging notes in columns

 ………………………  …………………

 ………………………  …………………

 ………………………  ………………….

 ………………………  …………………

 ………………………  …………………

Example

A lecturer in law was giving a lecture to LLB students, where students were required to

take notes in brief. The lecture was as follows:

“Good morning Ladies and Gentlemen! Mhh, you seem to be very gloomy today, is it

because of the long hectic weekend?. Ok, forget about that. Let’s focus on our lecture

now. In this morning’s lecture I intend to look very briefly….just a quick overview

really…at the history of the courts system in Tanzania. A look back, then, at how the

courts system has developed in our country. We, let me begin, then, by taking a look

firstly ...to begin with…at the system that existed before Independence. The pre-

independence set-up first, therefore. At that time…that is to say in the colonial times…

there were two types of court in the then Tanganyika. These two courts were the following
– the Subordinate Court and the local courts. The first type, the Subordinate Court; the

second type, the Local court. Now then, let’s take a look at the two types one after

another, in case you do not have any question at this moment…”

Student’s brief notes from the lecture above using the outline format.

Hist. of Crts. Syst. in Tz

(1) Syst. Before. Ind.

- 2 types

(i) Sub. Crts

(ii) Loc. Crts

Note-Taking versus Note-Making

 Note-taking is when you are reading or hearing something for the first time and

you are trying to jot down the key information so you can use it later.

 Note-making is when you return to brief notes and make detailed notes on them.

This means you annotate them, put things into your own words or summarise them and

highlight key points.

Note-Taking from Written Materials

Hints for taking notes from written materials effectively include:

 Finding the relevant source of information which will answer the question at

hand.
 Surveying the source, skimming and scanning

1. Surveying – Looking at titles, introduction, chapters, and headings in the

contents

2. Skimming – Looking at headings, first paragraphs, and topic sentences.

3. Scanning – Looking at specific details like indexes etc.

 Reading intensively: Reading for the sake of getting detailed information so as to

have a comprehensive picture about the topic or subject matter.

 Selecting main points: In selecting the main points the following hints are

important:

1. Look at headings and subheadings

2. Look at font styles. Main points can be written in a different font style

such as italic.

3. Look at signal words like: first, secondly, additionally, furthermore,

conclusively etc.

4. Look at topic sentences. Topic sentences are sentences that contain main

ideas of the paragraphs. In deductive paragraphs a topic sentence

comes first while in inductive paragraphs a topic sentence comes last.

 Be brief: One has to summarise the information. Brevity can be achieved through

the following techniques:

1. Avoiding repetition of words or sentences.

2. Using alternative words to represent long sentences or

expressions/paraphrasing
 3. Clipping of words. E.g Hist. instead of History; ind, instead of

independence etc.

4. Using some contractions. E.g. Can’t instead of cannot; I’m instead of I am

etc.

5. Use of symbols/signs such as +, =, ≠, , , ,≤, ≥, €, £, etc

6. Use of abbreviations and acronyms: E.g, etc, NATO, TCU etc

7. Use of letters, bullets or numbers when listing or outlining

 Organise the notes properly/logically using outline format, branching format or

tabular format.

 Record: Author, title, edition number, place of publication, name of publisher,

volume number, issue number, page number etc. These details will help in writing a

list of references or citations.

Techniques for Organising the Notes

 Write in separate points

 Sequence the points logically. Start with main important points, ending with least

important ones.

 Start a new point on a new line

 Indent the points for clarity. Sub and sub-sub points should be indented. If you

don’t indent the points, it can be very difficult to distinguish main points from minor

points.

 Leave enough space between points. The space left between points helps in

adding more details or examples.

READING SKILLS

A college/university student must develop skills in reading. Without these skills a student

is likely to waste a lot of time reading things which mighty not be very useful to his/her

course or fail to keep abreast to the instructor’s pace while teaching.

For one to become an effective and efficient reader, he should first and foremost have a

clear mind of what and why he/she reads. It would be a bad thing for one to go to the

library, pick up any book, and start reading it from the introduction to the back cover.

Thus, when we read something we must have a purpose in mind. It’s this purpose that

will lead one to the meaningful reading process.

The (SQRRR or SQ3R) Reading/Study System

The SQRRR or SQ3R is one of highly accepted and recommended system for enhancing

meaningful reading process.

The system was developed in the 1940s, and has been proved successfully for many years

being effective in increasing retention of information. It is especially useful for textbooks

and other highly factual, well-organised materials.

Basically, SQRRR or SQ3R is a way of learning as you read. Its name is taken from the

first letter of each step. It consists of five stages; Survey, Question, Read, Recite and

Review.

1. Survey: To become familiar with the overall content and organization of the material.

Carefully pre-read, go quickly through the text or chapter in order to get the general idea.

It entails both skimming and scanning. Look at the titles, subtitles, boldface and italics,

graphs and diagrams, summary and/or conclusion, and questions at the end of the

chapter

2. Question: Reading is a thinking process; inquiry makes you an active reader.

Formulate questions about the material that you expect to be able to answer as you read.

As you read each successive heading, turn it into a question (which means one has to

convert titles, subtitles, etc. into questions.

This will arouse your curiosity and increase comprehension. It will help bring to mind

information already known and help you to understand the section more quickly. The

question will make important points stand out from the explanatory detail. Turning the
heading into a question can be done the instant you read it, but it demands a conscious

effort on the part of the reader.

3. Read: As you read each section, actively search for the answers to your guide

questions. When you find answers, underline or mark the portions of the text that

concisely state the information or write down any information you sense is important. If

you cannot answer the questions, one of the reasons can be that you are reading

something irrelevant or you have not understood whatever you are reading.

4. Recite/Recall: Talk to your self. Look away from the book and try to briefly recite the

answer to your question. Use your own words and cite an example. If you can do this,

you know what is in the book; if you can't, glance over the section again. An excellent

way to do this reciting is to jot down very brief cue phrases in outline form on a sheet of

paper.

Translate key ideas and new terms into your own words. Research any answers or

information that doesn’t seem to be clear enough.

5. Review:

When you have completed the assignment in the manner described above, look over your

notes to get a bird's-eye view of the points and their relationships. Then check your

memory for content by reciting the major sub points under each heading. An excellent

way to check your memory is to cover your notes and try to recall the main points. Then
uncover each major point and try to recall the sub points listed under it. Frequent review

enables you to better retain the material.

Reading Techniques/Strategies

Reading techniques/strategies involve the following:

Surveying

This involves going through the entire document with the purpose of getting some idea of

the theme and the main points. Look at book cover, table of contents, introduction or

preface; make any predictions about the story etc. Skimming is part of surveying.

Skimming

This is reading for the sake of getting the general picture or idea about the chapter,

passage or a book. In this kind of reading one is interested in gaining an overall idea. This

helps one to decide whether the chapter, passage or a book is worth studying in more

detail, depending on how relevant you find it for your purpose. In skimming a book, one
can look at titles, subtitles, headings, subheadings, topic sentences, conclusion,

figures and tables.

Scanning

Scanning is different from skimming in the sense that, one is not looking for general

information. But reading for specific information like names, figures, key words, etc.

Also, finding a source to answer the question at hand.

In looking for specific information, we do not read every word on the page. Instead, we

scan read the text with specific words in mind. It is not possible to scan read when you

have no idea of what you are looking for.

Scanning for specific information requires speed, but the success and speed with which

one locates this information will depend on ones ability to select and recognize

appropriate key words.

Intensive Reading

This is reading for detailed information. It involves a concentrated approach to details

and meaning, and it may involve note-making. You read every word and try to see how

words are related. That means it is important to understand the relationship between

points of information.
It is reading for high degree of comprehension and retention over a long period of

time. And it is a strategy commonly used by students when preparing themselves for

examinations. Skimming and scanning are not best techniques to be used when preparing

for examination.

In intensive reading, one has to consider the following Devices that writers use to

indicate the relationship between individual points (How to comprehend a text, especially

in intensive reading):

i. Reference

The way a writer can refer forward and backwards through the use of pronouns such as

‘they’, ‘those’, ‘others’, etc.

ii. Linking Words/Discourse Markers

A writer of text tries to use strategies to show the relationship of ideas. In reading

therefore, we make use of words that a writer has used to interpret the texts.

The way a writer can indicate the precise type of connection by using meaning signals

such as;

a. Addition (i.e. in addition, furthermore, moreover)

b. Contrast (i.e. however, in contrast, but, such as)

c. Result (i.e. consequently, as a result)

d. Elaboration (i.e. that is to say, in other words)

iii. Choice of Vocabulary

a. Repetition-Repeating the same word

b. Synonym-Using a different word with a similar meaning

c. Abstract word-Using one abstract word to refer to several words or phrases

previously mentioned.

 The use of these signals and the essay structure enables the reader to comprehend

the relationship between the ideas presented.

 Familiarity of the topic can also help you to predict what information is likely to

follow.

 Therefore, it is useful to gain a general idea of the text by skimming through it

quickly before reading it intensively.

 It needs to be realized that in order to make the task of reading meaningful, you

must define the purpose for reading the text before starting to read. Your purpose

will determine the reading technique to use to access information in a source text.

 When reading one text, we may use all the four techniques in combination. In the

same text, the reader can skim, or do something else. Most of the times we may

vary our reading techniques while reading the same text, because we may have

more than one purpose for reading the same text.

iv. Predicting Messages

From what we have already read, we can predict what follows next. This is to guess what

is going to happen or what is the writer going to say. We can predict if we are familiar,
through past experience, with the ideas being expressed. Or if the writer has used words

or phrases whose uses are familiar to us.

E.g. There have been arguments for and against the use of Swahili as a medium of

instruction…

-With this beginning, we can predict what the writer is going to talk about.

One way of predicting the message is to look at the topic sentence or the first paragraph.

v. Using Clues

This is trying to get meaning of unknown expressions using clues such as context and the

shape of words (prefixes and suffixes). Our efficiency in reading is partly determined by

our command or lexical (vocabulary) aspect of language. For example, we can guess the

meaning of a word by looking at the sentence in which it is used.

E.g. Let us see the meaning of a word ‘piece meal’. The fact is that social and technical

change is not brought about in piecemeal but occurs in packages.

From the way it is used, it follows that piecemeal is the opposite of packages, hence it

could mean pieces.

vi. Using Inferences

To infer is to reach an opinion from either fact or by reasoning. In reading you can guess

a meaning by inference. Here the message is not directly given. For instance, the use of

idioms or proverbs. These talk about ideas but in indirect way. For example, if you want

to get good results, Rome was not built in a single day. (a proverb). We can make an
inference that the proverb talks about taking a long time to accomplish something and

probably which is worthwhile.

vii. Distinguishing Main Points from Subsidiary Points

This is reached by looking at headings, subheadings, paragraphs and numbering that may

appear on the surface of a text. Sometimes this could be achieved by varying the type of

print or print size. The use of examples to support ideas can also achieve this. We also use

these features when we scan and skim read.

viii. Using Titles, Pictures, Illustrations and Numbers

Sometimes we use even the punctuation marks. For example after a colon we expect lists

of points. During listing, a comma shows points of the same status.

Using the above points and explanations, we can summarize and have/come up with the

following observation:

 Selection Skills-To see how the passage is organized e.g. where an introduction

is, examples, main points etc.

 Reasoning Skills-To understand extra-linguistic information i.e. explicit

information (information not directly stated). E.g.

i. The drums and dancing began again.

ii. Darkness was around the corner.

 These sentences need reasoning skill to understand.

 Evaluations Skills-The reader can give his/her own views on what s/he had read.

Comments from the reader depend on how s/he has understood the

message/information.

Extensive Reading

This refers to reading for general knowledge. It is done in order to gain general

understanding of what has been read. It is reading for longer texts for pleasure with

emphasis on overall meaning and not on detailed information. Reading a novel or a

newspaper are examples of extensive reading.

Contextual Guessing (Noscitur a socii)

Is the technique in intensive reading in which the reader predicts the meaning of the word

by looking at the context in which the word has been used. In most cases the

neighbouring words and sentences help in finding the meaning of the word which is

ambiguous or new to the reader. It is the ability to apply contextual guessing that a reader

can be able to know the meaning of the word without looking at the dictionary.

Critical Reading

Reading in order to get full understanding and analyzing the source. It also involves

examining or analyzing the information in the source that is looking at strengths and

weaknesses. Critical reading is common in book or paper review.

WRITING SKILLS

Writing is one of the four skills of communication which is not automatically acquired

but learnt. Unlike listening and speaking, writing and reading have to be learned seriously

and consciously.

Writing is hard to learn because written words have to express themselves in the absence

of the writer. Therefore great care is needed to make the reader make sense out of what

we write without our own presence.

Why Writing?

We write for many reasons;

  we can access accumulated and written knowledge from books, journals, articles,

dissertations, etc in order to communicate across time and space

 we preserve knowledge in books, reports, journals, articles, letters, memos, thesis,

etc, through writing

 the process of writing enhances understanding of lectures as it increases

concentration

 in academic life writing is the main form of communication between students and

lecturers

 writing is a means through which students’ assessment is done in tests and exams,

term papers, reports, take home essays, writing thesis and dissertations, etc.

Writing therefore is extremely important in schools and colleges. The purpose of this part

of lecture series is to propose the approaches leading to effective writing and in particular

effective essays.

Academic Writing

Academic writing consists of essay writing, report writing such as research proposals,

thesis and the like, bibliography writing, letter writing, writing of minutes etc.

Stylistic Features of Academic Writing

1. In academic writing we tend to use active voice unless it is an experimental

report. For example, instead of saying: “six bandits were arrested yesterday”, we

may say, “The policemen arrested six bandits yesterday”

 2. In academic writing we do not normally use “contracted forms”. For example

instead of writing “don’t” we write do not, instead of “can’t” we write “can not”

etc

3. In academic writing we normally avoid the use of personal forms. To do this, we

often use passive, e.g. “I examined three cases” becomes “Three cases were

examined”

4. In academic writing we rarely use abbreviations. Abbreviations are for use in

notes. The only abbreviations which are found fairly often are “e.g.” and “etc”

5. No repetition of ideas or words are entertained (circumlocution)

6. Sentences are arranged chronologically and logically using transitional (cohesive)

markers e.g. firstly, secondly etc

7. The statement is usually supported by examples (evidences) followed by

conclusion

Essay Writing

What is it?

Essay writing is one of writing we normally do in academic life. Essay writing is

important in academic life because it is one way of communicating ideas in various

subjects of specializations.

Thus an essay is a piece of writing on a particular subject or topic. It can be fictional or

non fictional.
Characteristics of a Good Essay

 Unity: Sentences should focus on one theme or topic with a definite purpose

 Order: Logical organisation of ideas or arguments (systematicity)

 Brevity: Essay should not be too long. At least 300 words.

 Style: Formal style: No slang, colloquial terms or contractions. Language should

be simple, direct and natural.

 Coherence: All sentences in should be related to one another logically. Coherence

helps the reader to follow the flow of writer’s ideas. Coherence in essays is

attained by using transitional markers (transitional words) which include: such

as, and, also, furthermore, likewise, for instance, on the other hand,

aforementioned, he, she, in contrast, conversely, similarly, again, additionally,

consequently, as follows, etc.

 Cohesion: This is a grammatical and /or lexical relationship between different

elements of a text. Relationship between sentences is achieved by using cohesion

or transition markers such as: moreover, besides, in addition, this, the former,

finally, etc.

 Completeness: This means that the subject of the essay should be adequately

developed by providing details, explanations, definitions, evidence, etc. This will

make the reader get satisfied and not left with vague expressions or unanswered

questions.

 Personal touch: An essay should reveal personal feelings or opinions of the

writer. One has to express his own views in an essay rather than just quoting other

people’s ideas. People have to know your stand.

  Use of citations and references: Proper citations and referencing

Approaches Towards Writing Good Essays

1. Build a Rhetorical Power

Rhetorical power is a power to persuade and to communicate. It is the power to express

what you feel, what you believe, what you know and what you have discovered about

yourself and about the world around you.

A rhetorical power is built from reading. Reading generates writing. From reading you

can be able to do the following:

 learn on a particular topic you want to write on

 you can learn the feelings of those you want to persuade or inform

 And you can learn good writing styles

2. Decide on the Purpose of your Essay

To write anything including essays one must decide on the purpose of writing. This

process entails, being clear on reasons of writing, one asks these questions

himself/herself:

 Do you want to report on something?

 Do you want to describe something?

 Do you want to discuss about something?

 Do you want to compare and contrast on certain issues?

 Do you want to outline on something?

  Are you intending to comment on something, etc

3. Decide on What Type of Essay you Want to Write

Is it narrative; expository; descriptive; argumentative; imaginative etc

 Narrative essay: Consists of a stories or narrations of events. Some of the events

may be historical, personal or fictional.

 Expository essay: It is also called explanatory essay. It explains some subject,

terms or ideas; compares things; or explains how to do something (gives

instructions). Examples: Cause and effect essays, compare and contrast essays,

those which define certain concepts and those which expose problems and

provide solutions. Expository essays are the essays that most of college and

university students write during their tests and examinations.

 Descriptive essay: Describes about places, things like animals or buildings,

actions, phenomena or events that happened in the past, manufactured articles

such as cars etc.

 Argumentative or persuasive essay: Essay with the aim of convincing or

persuading, motivating, or persuading readers to accept changes or take actions

and sometimes it can be written for the purpose of discouraging some bad

behaviour among intended readers.

It involves inductive or deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning proceeds from

specific aspects or details to the general aspects or idea. Deductive reasoning

proceeds from logically general facts to specific details or aspects.

  Imaginative essay: Essay which expresses ones feelings about certain situation or

experience. A writer places himself or herself in someone’s position and starts

writing about what he fells about that position or certain experience.

4. Think of your Audience

Who you are writing to (audience), are they lay people, technical, or non technical

people? Or is it simply your lecturer(s)

Consideration of your audience is necessary because it will affect the choice of

vocabulary, structure and approach (how you have to say it), what you have to write

(content) and style of writing and presentation.

This consideration again is necessary because by doing so you will be putting the reader

in first priority for the essay is aimed at him/her.

5. The Essay Question

Any writing and in particular essay writing starts with an essay question. For timed

essays there is usually a question set for you by your examiners/lecturers. For free written

essay, long report or term paper it should start by a question of your own making. That is,

make your own essay question.

6. Understand the Requirements of the Essay Question

After you have presented with an essay question or after you have made your own

question, then the next step is to understand the requirements of the essay question.

Understanding the demands of the question correctly is an important skill towards the

best approach to follow and producing an effective answer to the question.

There have been many cases where students produce stereo type answers particularly

copying from lecture notes as if all questions had the same demands.

It should be understood that instructions to essay questions enormously. Each essay

question has its own specific requirements. With the timed essays tutors and examiners

normally spell out these requirements in the essay questions themselves. Thus try to

develop the ability to recognise exactly what is required by the essay question.

There are three important things that you need to do in order to be able to understand the

requirements of the essay question and interpret it effectively:

I. Subject or Theme

Identify the subject or theme of the question. Actually this is the key word of the essay.

The key word is a broad area; it may be land surveying, economics, urban poverty,

education, trading systems, population etc.

This will help you remember things you know about the topic or subject.
II. Key Instructional Words

Identify the key instructional words of the question. These show exactly what to do in the

essay

These words are the words that instruct/direct the candidate what the question demands.

It is generalized that, in most cases the instructional words demand either FACTS or

OPINIONS, o r BOTH. Let us look at some of these words and what they demand:

KEY INSTRUCTIONAL DEMAND

FACTS OPINION
WORD
Discuss √ √
Define √
What is understood by…… √
Comment on √
Describe √
Explain √
Examine √ √
Compare and contrast √ √ (sometimes)
Outline √
Identify √
Review √ √
Evaluate √ √
Analyse √ √
The above generalization suggests that when a student is asked to “discuss” for example,

he/she should put what he/she knows about a given topic (facts) and give his/her own

experience (opinion).

In other words a discussion is a series of arguments and evidences presented by the writer

on paper.

III. Special Conditions

In addition to the key instructional words, you are also supposed to note any special

conditions for answering the question.

Special conditions are phrases or clauses which are in the question to limit the scope

of the essay by setting boundaries in terms of time, place, and amount of words/ pages,

extend etc. They give restrictions in order to get a topic which can be completely

developed in a single paper.

Examples:

(i) Explain in your own words the practical problem of aircraft technology in the third

world countries.

Theme/subject: aircraft technology

Key instructional word: explain

Special conditions: in your own words, and in the third world countries
(ii) With vivid examples compare and contrast formal and informal reports on their

format and use.

Theme/subject: formal and informal reports

Key instructional words: compare and contrast

Special conditions: with vivid examples; format and use

(iii) By citing concrete examples outline the key indicators of Tanzanian economy.

Theme/subject: Tanzanian economy

Key instructional words: outline

Special conditions: by citing concrete examples, and key indicators

7. Deciding on the Structure of your Essay

Planning an essay question involves an effort to try to organize the material and decide on

the most effective order of presentation.

Deciding on organization or structure of presentation of the required information is

dependent on correct and careful planning.

Planning helps to shape the development of your essay, the content to enter and how

much time to spend on each part of the essay and the entire writing process. Thus make a

plan.
A plan is essentially a sketch, an outline, a frame work or a skeleton of your essay

Steps in Planning

1. List the points you want to cover. List only those points which meet the needs of the

question, your reader and of your plan.

2. Select those items/points which you think are most relevant to the topic

3. Break the material into logical decisions thus creating a sense of unity. This can be

done by classifying and analyzing the points and deciding the order of presenting. For

example:

 General items to specific ones;

 Important items come first, before less important items

 Larger items come before smaller ones

8. The Order of the Essay

A systematic and good order of any essay is to present the information into three parts

which are logically connected to each other namely:

 The Introduction

 The Body/Discussion

 The Conclusion

Writing Introductions:
After a plan what follows is the introduction. This is an important area of the essay. The

introduction should supply an overall framework so that the reader can grasp the details

that later explain and develop the essay. In the introduction:

Orient the reader(s) by defining/ explaining key the terms or concepts and provide

necessary background information. Tell what causes you to write the essay. Explain

clearly the purpose of writing the essay; give the organization of the essay as well.

Define terms: include definitions or explanations of key terms and concepts, especially if

you are describing a process.

Provide the necessary background information. Although you know what you are

writing/speaking about, the reader/listeners often does.

State the purpose of writing the essay: orient the reader to your topic; mention the reason

for your writing. The reasons may be to educate; to describe; to explain; to inform etc.

State the organization/ scope of the essay: this refers to what the essay will accomplish

for the reader. In this area you should show the audience what the essay will do and how

it will do it step by step. For example:

This essay intends to highlight the use of teaching and learning

strategies and the effect on students learning in Tanzanian higher

learning institutions.
The introduction is generally short, usually a paragraph or two.

Development of the Main body:

The main body is the section where the writer provides all the required arguments,

details, reasons, and examples.

The arguments are organized in paragraphs. The paragraphs should have unity,

coherence, clear, and complete.

Each paragraph should have a topic sentence. Topic sentence refers to a sentence that

carries the main idea of a paragraph.

The development of the main body’s paragraphs can follow either of the following

patterns; inductive or deductive pattern:

 Inductive paragraph is the paragraph which is organized in such a way that

specific details came first ending with the general /main idea.

 Deductive paragraph is the one in which the general/main idea comes first

followed with the specific details.

Usually each paragraph carries one main point. And principles of paragraphing such as

unity, coherence, and order have to be considered. Also principles of sentence structure,

grammar, punctuations and the like have to be taken care of.

Writing a Concluding Paragraph:

Conclusion, just like introduction is the difficult part to most students. This is the last and

emphatic part of the essay.

The conclusion should be convincing. It involves the following activities: restating the

essay/thesis statement, summarizing main ideas, providing concluding remarks and then

giving the final statement.

It is in the conclusion one can show his/her own stand. This indicates the personal touch

of the essay.

Post Writing Stage:

 Proof reading the essay to identify areas of weaknesses.

 Edit the essay in order to have the correct version.

 Add more information if some sentences are not complete.

 Ensure that the bibliography is written in a correct format, showing names of

authors, years of publication, titles, edition numbers, places of publication, names

of publishers and/or volume numbers, issue numbers and pages where articles are

located in newspapers or journals.

 Make sure that necessary details like your name, programme of study and other

specifications are provided.

 Submit the essay on time.

INTEGRATING INFORMATION SOURCES IN ESSAYS/RESEARCH REPORT

Academic writing and; particularly essay/research report writing, is painstaking. It is

even more painstaking when it comes to recording complete and accurate information

about sources used in an essay/research report.

It is normal for academic essays/research reports to include ideas, definitions, themes,

examples, allusions and topics from other sources. These items from other sources are

included in the essay/report to show to the reader that the ideas contained therein have

backing from other giant professionals in the field under study.

While enjoying information from other sources, a writer must acknowledge those other

sources to show that they were not the writer’s original ideas. Part of being a good

writer and an academician is being able to attribute sources used in an academic writing.
Note: In academic arena, it is considered most improper, even a crime (an offence) to

make use of a source without acknowledging it, or to cite as a source a work which was

not consulted. This crime is called PLAGIARISM.

This kind of information whether given within the text (in-text citation) or given at the

end of essay/research report as reference or bibliography, provides readers with full

information on sources consulted in the essay/research report.

And in order for this information to be useful to readers, the documentation or citation

must be clear and consistent. Very specific rules of documentation have been devised

and must be applied when writing academic essays/research reports, as shall be detailed

in next parts of lectures:

Quotation in Academic Writing

Quotation is the repetition of one’s ideas, opinions, words or expressions.

Quotations are common in academic writing just as they are in speech works. They range

from definitions, explanations of certain aspects and examples.

Conditions that Lead to the Need to Quote

 When there is something interesting and need to be emphasized.

 When there are striking words in the original

 When there is the purpose of giving clarity

 When there is need to prove or provide evidence about certain phenomenon. This

means use quotations to support your argument, rather than relying upon someone

else's words.

 Use quotations when accuracy is essential -- to indicate the writer's exact position.

 When one wants to show recognition about someone else’s ideas or opinions.

 When there is need to encourage or discourage certain behaviour or deeds.

 When one person wants to amuse other people.

 When calling attention to a position that you wish to agree or disagree with

 Use quotations when the specific language of a quote is important.

 When you want to cue readers that the words are not your own to avoid

plagiarism.

 When you want to expand the breadth or depth of your writing

Rules for Quoting

 Avoid quoting for the sake of quoting; ensure that the quoted material does

actually add to, illuminate, explain or illustrate the point you are making, or that it

highlights a problem that you are going on to tackle

 Look for the "kernel" or the most important part of the quotation and extract it

 If you use a direct quotation, you must include enough contextual and

introductory material that your reader can make sense of the quotation. It is also

highly important that the sentence including the embedded quotation makes sense as a

whole. This can be a particular problem if the quoted material is from an ancient, old

English source.
 When applying indirect quotation do not use quotation marks. E.g. Martin Luther

King said that ‘I have seen the promised land’.

 Avoid quoting to selectively to the point of misinterpreting the original material.

 Quoted material should not be altered, even if it contains spelling or other errors.

Errors in the quoted material can be indicated by inserting the word [sic] italicised

and in square brackets after the error. You should, however, not use a quotation to

highlight the grammatical or other shortcomings of the writer. If possible, arrange

your own sentence so that the errors in the quoted material are not repeated.

 Keep quotes to a minimum. A short phrase or sentence is more easily understood

than a long quotation.

 Do not quote when a paraphrase will do.

 Always provide a context for your quotations -- explain to the reader why and

how the quote is relevant to the topic

 The language of the passage is particularly elegant or powerful or memorable.

 Acknowledge/indicate the source of information.

Types of Quotations

There are two types of quotations; direct quotation and indirect quotation:

Direct Quotation (Verbatim)

Direct quotation or verbatim involves repeating exact words of the author or another

writer. It means no alterations are made to the original materials. In this case, even the

mistakes of the author or another writer are maintained. To show that the error in the
quoted material is from the author one has to insert the word [sic] italicised and in square

brackets after the error.

Short quotation

If your quotations are less than four lines long (which is usually the case), place them in

your text and enclose them with quotation marks. For example:

Chris (2008) argues, “Tanzania is poor because most people do not work hard the way

people in Japan and China do”.

“Road construction in local communities should not wait for the funds from the central

government; people can contribute both financially and in kind” (Aston, 2007).

Long quotation

If a quotation is more than four lines long, set it off from your text by indenting on both

sides. Indented quotation is also known as block quotation. Quotation marks are not

enclosed in quotation marks. Introduce the quotation with a complete sentence and a

colon (:).

An example of indented/block quotation:

Representative bureaucracy, in which broad social groups are represented and thus

participate in the decision-making process, has been advanced by some critics as a means

promoting greater efficiency through social equity. The advantages of such a model are

cautiously described by Harry Krantz:

 In theory, at least, a bureaucracy that accurately mirrored the social,

economic and ethnic composition of the nation not only would be

descriptively representative, but could be symbolically more acceptable-

and might be accountable and responsive as well as functionally more

effective (1976:78).

Indirect Quotation (Paraphrasing)

A paraphrase is indirect quotation in which a writer puts someone’s ideas into his/her own

worlds. It involves writing the original text in a modified way either shorter or longer

than the original. There no new ideas added in the paraphrase, the original tone or idea

should be maintained. There is no use of quotation marks in paraphrasing.

Example:

Original text

In both Kenya and Zambia, opposition parties contesting for power had virtually no

programme or manifesto beyond the ousting of the incumbent head of state.

(Stephen, 1994:121)

Paraphrase

Opposition parties of Kenya and Zambia had no programme or manifesto. They

were simply bent to bent on removing from power the existing government.
Citation in Academic Writing

Definitions of Citation

 A citation is a reference to a work, such as a book or a journal article. It provides

the necessary information needed to locate the work. A book citation provides the

author, title, publisher, publication place, and year of a work. An article citation

provides author(s), article title, journal title, volume, pages, and date. Citations

usually follow a particular format called a style.

 A citation is the reference that tells readers the source for information you have

included in your writing.

 Reference made by an author to a source of information they have used, for

example, another author's ideas or words.

Importance of Citation or Referencing

 Acknowledging other people’s ideas or words. This gives credit to their contribution

in your academic work.

 Avoiding committing an academic crime called plagiarism. One can be sued because

of stealing other people’s ideas without acknowledging the source of that particular

information. Also, failure to cite means violating the rights of a person who originated

the idea.

 Citations give confidence to the readers. They support one’s arguments in academic

writing. It makes readers prove that the work is well-researched.

 In academic settings, citations make students get better marks from lecturers.

 It helps the readers in tracing the genealogy of certain ideas.

Primary and Secondary Citation/Reference

Primary Citation/Reference

This is a situation in the cited work containing ideas originating from the author of that

particular book/work. For example, if you quote a definition from a book written by Alex,

and Alex, the author of that book, is the one who developed that definition; then the

citation for this book becomes primary citation or reference.

In short: Alex wrote a book, in that book he created a definition on management, then

once I cite that book; the citation is primary. This is because Alex never quoted any other

author but he created the definition himself.

Secondary Citation/Reference

This is citation in which the writer quotes ideas of the author who also quoted another

author. For example: Emmanuel quotes a definition of management from the book

written by John. But John also quoted that definition from Miriam’s book when writing

his book on management in 1999. Citation for John’s book will be referred to as

secondary citation/reference. When presenting this citation you shall write:

Miriam as quoted by John (1999).

This is because although John is the one who wrote a book on management which you

are citing, it is Miriam who created the definition.

Citation Styles

As said in earlier parts of this lecture series, citation of sources can be within the text or

as Footnotes/Endnotes.

Citation Within the Text/In-Text Citation

This is the citation where the name of the author, year of publication and page numbers

appear within the text.

Principles of In-Text Citation.

 If the name starts at the beginning of the sentence, then enclose the year and page

within the brackets and not the name. E.g. Juma (1997:23) argues that women can

contribute to prevalence of sexual harassment by the way they comport themselves.

 When the author appears within the sentence, then enclose also the year of

publication and page number in the brackets. E.g.

According to Francis (2000:3), “a student who expects to pass in BPA

examinations should work hard. No lecturer, however good he is, can make a

student pass if that student does not study seriously”

 If the name of the author comes at the end of the quoted material, then enclose

everything, name of author, year of publication and page number in the brackets.

Then separate the name from the year and page numbers by comma. E.g.
 Corruption is a complex problem to be eradicated from society; this is because

even people who are supposed to condemn corruption are also corrupt (Luanda,

2003:45)

Foot-Noting/End-Noting

Foot-Noting

This involves writing reference information at the bottom of the page of the book, paper

or any other document. The footnote details express the raised number found in the text.

In foot noting, foot notes are numbered either continuously or start afresh on each page.

Footnotes can refer to the source, provide explanation or details etc.An example of

footnoting is as follow:

According to Martias1 it is not good for Tanzanians to keep on blaming up to this time the

colonialists. They have had enough time2 to settle and plan for their economic

development. What I think Tanzanians should look at, is their internal weaknesses3. There

are some countries which were colonized for a longer time than Tanzania but they are

more developed than Tanzania4.

1. Martias, S. (2004:89)

2. A period of forty seven years since independence.

3. Corruption, laziness, overpopulation, poor policies, low technology poor leadership

etc.

4. Msonde, L.(1999:67)
End- Noting

Providing reference information or details at the end of the whole work such as an essay,

article or book. End notes can also appear at the end of each chapter.

End notes are similar to footnotes in terms of functions or objectives but they differ in

terms of location.

Types of Foot-Notes/End-Notes

There are different types of foot notes. They include: source foot notes/end notes; cross-

reference foot notes/end notes; and explanatory foot notes/end notes.

 Source Foot notes/End notes: These are details that point to or indicate the

source of information that one used in writing his/her work.

 Cross-reference foot noting/End notes: This is information that directs the

reader to another section or part within the work; book, article, paper, etc.e.g (see

page 6; see figure 10; see section A, etc).

 Explanatory Foot notes/End notes: This is information used to explain, discuss,

give additional details, give examples etc.

NB:

 Foot notes/end notes are usually used in order to avoid interruption in information

flow in the text.

 The numbers in superscript within the text which are later referred to in the

footnotes or endnotes are called footnote numbers or endnote numbers.

 Footnotes/endnotes are not arranged alphabetically the way the bibliography

appears.

Reasons for Foot notes/End notes

Scholars use foot notes and/or end notes for a variety of reasons including:

 To make it clear to the reader which views are yours and which are the views of

other writers;

 To allow you to acknowledge your intellectual debts to others if you decide to

accept their views or information;

 To direct the reader by the most efficient signposts to the place where the

information you have provided can be checked and verified or where further

useful information is.

Correspondingly, there are a number of situations where you MUST cite your sources.

 Direct quotations

 Any material that has been paraphrased from an outside source

 Any reference to arguments or facts (i.e. budget figures, technical specifications)

that have been gained from an outside source

There are also circumstances in which you SHOULD foot note/End note
  To provide the reader with a guide to the sources used in the formation of the

author's original argument

 To provide the reader with a guide to sources that offer further information on

ideas or arguments summarized in the author's text

 To offer the reader further details or discussion beyond what could be reasonably

included in the main text.

 If information is not common knowledge to the average lay reader.

Latin Abbreviations used in Foot-Noting/End-Noting

Latin abbreviations are used in writing foot notes/end notes to avoid repetitions of

reference information. The following are the most commonly used Latin abbreviations:

Ibid (Short for ibidem " at the same place") is the term used to provide an endnote or

footnote citation or reference for a source that was cited in the preceding endnote or

footnote. It is similar in meaning to idem (meaning something that has been mentioned

previously; the same) abbreviated "Id.," which is commonly used in legal citation.

In short, ibid is used when references or citations in the foot notes/end notes or text are

repeated consecutively.

Op. cit. (Short for "opus citatum"/"opere citato", meaning "the work cited/from the cited

work") is the term used to provide an end note or foot note citation to refer the reader to
an earlier citation. To find the Op. cit. source, one has to look at the previous foot notes or

general references section to find the relevant author.

In other words, Op.cit is used when references or citations for sources do not occur

consecutively.

Loc. cit. (Short for loco citato, meaning "in the place cited") is a foot note or end note

term used to repeat the title and page number for a given author. Loc. cit. is used in place

of ibid. when the reference is not only to the work immediately preceding, but also refers

to the same page. Loc. cit. is also used instead of op. cit. when reference is made to a

work previously cited and to the same page in that work. As such, loc. cit. is never

followed by volume or page numbers.

Loc.cit is commonly used in legal citations. It is used when reference is made to the same

author and same page and/or section. Loc. cit is now rarely used in non legal citations.

Et al. ( et alia - and others ('et al.' is used as an abbreviation of `et alii' (masculine plural)

or `et aliae' (feminine plural) or `et alia' (neuter plural) when referring to a number of

people); e. g. "the data reported by Smith et al."

Examples:

Question Answer by a BPA student

Without Latin Abbreviations With Latin Abbreviations

1. Kambarage (1999:45) 1.Kambarage (1999:45

2. Felix (2003:23) 2.Felix (2003:23

3. Kambarage (1999:3) 3.Kambarage (op.cit)

4. Kambarage (1999:4) 4.Ibid

5. Kalim (2004:12) 5.Kalim (2004:12)

6. Nancy (2008:1) 6.Nancy (2008:1)

7. Nancy (2008:1) 7.Loc.cit or ibid

8. Nancy (2008:3) 8.ibid

9. Felix (2003:23) 9.Felix (loc.cit or Op.cit)

NB:

 Op.cit should be preceded by the surname when being used in citations.

 Ibid is not preceded by the name since it indicates the preceding name or source.

 Loc.cit: when used as ibid, no name is needed. But when used as op.cit, then it

should be preceded by the name.

Pinpoint Reference in Academic Writing

Pinpoint reference refers to reference to a specific location of information in the work.

These references include page numbers, sections or sections. It is commonly used in legal

writing. For example:

 Anneth (2004:3): This citation provides the number of the page which is 3. So

page 3 is a pinpoint reference.

 Banking Act 1959 (Cth) S 5: S5 means section 5. S5 therefore is a pinpoint

reference.
Bibliography Writing

Bibliography refers to a list of all works or sources of information; books, articles,

newspapers etc cited in your work which can be an essay, seminar paper, research report

and a book.

There are many styles or formats of writing bibliography. But it is not very important

which format you adopt. However, one has to be consistent with the format he/she has

chosen. Two formats are common; APA (American Psychological Association) and

MLA (Modern language Association).

Guidelines for Bibliography Writing in APA Style

1. Arrange all entries in alphabetical order. Use surnames, author’s first name or

initials.

2. If there are two authors, then provide both names.

3. Where there are more than two authors, write the first author, followed by the

word et al. Et al means “and others”.

4. Where no name of author exists, use the editor’s name and indicate in brackets

with (Ed or Eds)

5. Likewise, the name of the organisation or country can be used in place of the

name of the author, such as Mzumbe, UDSM, Tanzania, URT etc.

6. Entries in bibliography are not numbered.

7. Titles for books, journals or newspapers are underlined if you are writing using a

typewriter. But if you are using a computer, the titles are italicised.

8. Titles for articles and unpublished materials are enclosed in quotation marks

9. For books which have been re-edited, use abbreviation (ed), like 4th ed.

10. Place of publications come first followed by name of publisher, separated by

colon. Avoid using the names of countries as places of publication. Use towns or

other places, e.g London, Dar es Salaam, Mzumbe, Morogoro, Tokyo, New York,

etc. But not Tanzania, England, the USA etc.

11. Where there is no place of publication or publisher, use abbreviation (n.p)

12. Use (n.d) to indicate that there is no date of publication.

13. To indicate one page, use “p.”; and many pages use “pp.”

14. To indicate one section use “s” and for many sections use “ss”

Examples

Books:

 Author’s name (s)

 Year of publication

 Title of the book (underlined or italicised)

  Number of edition

 Place of publication

 Name of publisher.

Martin, J. (2004). Management Accounting (4th ed). New York: Prentice Hall.

Lugano, S and Chan, S. (1999). Effective Business Comunication. Dar es Salaam: Dar es

Salaam Printers.

Articles in Journals:

 Author’s name (s)

 Year of Publication

 Title of the article in quotation marks

 Title of journal underlined or italicised

 Number of volume, and issue

 Page number (s)

Salim, S. (2008). “Sexual Harassment in Higher Learning Institutions”. Uongozi Journal.

Vol.7, No.11. pp. 12-34.

Article From Newspapers:

 Author’s name (s)

 Year of Publication

 Title of the article in quotation marks

  Title of newspaper underlined or italicised

 Number of issue

 Page number (s)

Ihucha A. (Novermber10, 2008). “ Namanga to receive Power from Kenya”. The

Guardian, No.4359,. p.2.

Unpublished Papers:

 Author’s name (s)

 Year of presentation

 Title in quotation marks

 Where it was presented.

Mwambalaswa, J. (2006). “Pedagogy and Andragogy”. Paper presented at the Workshop

on teaching Under new Curricululm at Mzumbe University.

Unpublished Dissertation/Thesis:

 Author’s name (s)

 Year of report writing/submission

 Title in quotation marks

 Where it was submitted/presented

Yahaya, O. (2010). “The Use of English Language Teaching and Learning Strategies and

the Effect on Language Learning in Tanzanian Secondary School Classrooms:

The Case of Mbeya Region”. Unpublished M.A.Education Dissertation,

University of Dar es salaam.

Msami, T. (2007). “Assessment of PEDP Implementation in Tanzania: A Case Study of

Morogoro Municipality”. Unpublished M.A Dissertation/Thesis Submitted to

faculty of Education. University of Dar es Salaam.

Government Publications:

 Country’s name

 Year of publication

 Title of publication

 Place of publication

 Name of publisher

United Republic of Tanzania. (2003). Economic Revival Programme. Dar es salaam:

Government Printers.

Electronic Sources:

 Name of author/editor/organisation/institution/country

 Year of publication

 Title
  Location of server, if known

 Publisher/maintainer of site (if known)

 Website.

Sheri, B. and Alison, R. (2007). Active Teaching Strategies. Retrieved on August 12th ,

2010. From http://www.baker.edu/departments/etl/training resources.cfm.

Meaning of Initials:

http: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

www: World Wide Web

html or htm: Hyper Text Markup Language

URL: Uniform resource Locator

Sample of Bibliography in APA Style/Format

APA = American Psychological Association

Note that, in writing a bibliography in APA style, the details of the sources should be as

follows:

Books: Author’s name, year, title, edition number, place of publication and name of

publisher.
Articles from journal: Author’s name, year, title of article in quotation marks, title of

journal, volume number, issue number and page number (s).

Articles from a newspaper: Author’s name, year, title of article in quotation marks, title

of newspaper, issue number and page number(s).

Unpublished paper: Author’s name, year, title of article in quotation marks, place where

the paper was presented.

Unpublished Dissertation/Thesis: Author’s name, year, title in quotation marks, place

where it was submitted/presented.

Government Documents: Author’s name, year, title, place of publication, name of

publisher.

Examples

Abbardel, S. and Priscilla, P. (Eds)(2005). Organisational Behaviour. London: Prentice

Hall.

Felix, T. (Ed) (2003). Public Policy Formulation. New York: (n.pub)

Kamando, A. (2007). “Self Help Projects in Same District: A Case Study of Hedaru

Development Project”. Unpublished MA Dissertation, University of Dar es

Salaam.

Kinunda, J. (2007). English Language, 6th ed. (n.p): NNP Publishers Ltd.

Machemba, J. (2007). “Forces of Globalisation.” Brookville: New York.<http://www.

http:// web.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.

Machine, S. (October 30, 2008). “Children Learn Through Imitation”. The Guardian. No.

4344, p.9.

Mahimbo, N. (2008). “Constraints to Combating Poverty in Tanzania”. International

Quarterly Review, vol.3, no.6, pp.66-80.

Michael, K. (2002). Communication Skills: Theory and Practice. Dar es Salaam:

Ahmadiyya Printing Press.

Mrosso, T. and Massawe, M. (n.d). Fudamentals of Public Administration. Dodoma:

Jupiter Printers Ltd.

Shoo, K. (1999). “Quality Control in African Universities”. A Paper Presented During the

Quality Assurance Workshop on 3rd, November, 1999 at Mzumbe University.

Shullen (2001) as cited in Majani, E. (2008). Human Resources Management in

Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: Government Printers Ltd.

Shumbusho, G.N. (1997). Basic Academic Writing: A Reference Guide. Mzumbe:

Research and Publication Department.

United Republic of Tanzania (1967). English for Tanzanian Schools. Dar es Salaam:

Longman Tanzania.

Sample of Bibliogagraphy in MLA Style/Format

MLA = Modern Language Association

In writing a bibliography in MLA style, the details of the sources should be as follows:

Books: Author’s name, title, edition number, place of publication: name of publisher,

year.

Articles from journal: Author’s name, title of article in quotation marks, title of journal,

volume number, issue number, year in parentheses and page number (s).

Articles from a newspaper: Author’s name, title of article in quotation marks, title of

newspaper, issue number, year in parentheses and page number(s).

Unpublished paper: Author’s name, year, title of article in quotation marks, place where

the paper was presented.

Unpublished Dissertation/Thesis: Author’s name, title in quotation marks, place where

it was submitted/presented, and year.

Government Documents: Author’s name title, place of publication: name of publisher,

year.

Examples:

Abbardel, S. and Priscilla, P. (Eds) Organisational Behaviour. London: Prentice Hall,

(2005).

Felix, T.(Ed) Public Policy Formulation. New York: (n.pub), (2003).

Kamando, A. “Self Help Projects in Same District: A Case Study of Hedaru Development

Project”. Un Published MA Dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam,

(2007).

Kinunda, J. English Language, 6th ed. (n.p): NNP Publishers Ltd, ( 2007).

Machemba, T. “Forces of Globalisation.” Brookville: New York. ( 2007). <http://www.

http:// web.lexis-nexis.com/universe>, .
Machine, S. “Children Learn Through Imitation”. The Guardian. No. 4344, (October 30,

2008). p.9.

Mahimbo, N. “Constraints to Combating Poverty in Tanzania”. International Quarterly

Review, vol.3, no.6. (2008). pp.66-80.

Michael, K. Communication Skills: Theory and Practice. Dar es Salaam: Ahmadiyya

Printing Press, (2002).

Mrosso, T and Massawe, M. Fudamentals of Public Administration. Dodoma: Jupiter

Printers Ltd, (n.d).

Shoo, K. “Quality Control in African Universities”. A Paper Presented During the Quality

Assurance Workshop on 3rd, November, 1999 at Mzumbe University, (1999).

Shullen (2001) as cited in Majani, E. Human Resources Management in Tanzania. Dar es

Salaam: Government Printers Ltd, (2008).

Shumbusho, G.N). Basic Academic Writing: A Reference Guide.Mzumbe: Research and

Publication Department, (1997.

United Republic of Tanzania English for Tanzanian Schools. Dar es Salaam: Longman

Tanzania, (1967).

Differences Between References and Bibliography

References: List of specific works that you used in your work. References usually come

at the end of a text (essay or research report) and should contain only those works cited

within the text. So, use the term ‘References’ to cover works cited.

Bibliography: Lists of works for background or for further reading, these may be books

which you read as part of your research, but which were not actually cited in your work.

OR

A Bibliography is any list of references at the end of a text, whether cited or not. It

includes texts you made use of, not only texts you referred to in your paper, but your own

additional background reading, and any other articles you think the reader might need as

background reading.

Both References. & Bibliography must be in alphabetical order; and each entry must be

laid out in a strictly ordered sequence

PRESENTATION TECHNIQUES

Pre-delivery stage (Preparation)

Before you make a speech or presentation, consider the following guidelines:

 Set your goal in advance. You should be clear of what you are going to talk about.

 Develop positive attitude/positive thinking about your self and others.

 Take a deep breath and relax to avoid stage fright

 Assemble and arrange your ideas before hand

 Rehearse on how you are going to present.

 Prepare a summary of the presentation or an outline.

 Take time to imitate other good speakers.

 Identify your audience

Delivery stage (Actual Presentation)

 Break the ice. Great them and then ask the audience a simple question.

 Provide a short introduction

 Avoid funny stories about yourself.

 Speak and act with confidence

 Talk in an organized way.

 Your volume should be audible.

 Use relevant examples.

 Avoid talking from the notes. Don’t read everything. This can be boring.

 Show that you are interested in the subject and arouse the audience.

 Limit your subject.

 Use simple language to enhance understanding.

 Fill your talk with relevant illustrations and examples.

 Use suitable quotations, proverbs or anecdotes where possible.

 Talk without injuring the listeners’ personalities.

 Make the audience your partners. Involve them and make use of names from the

audience.

 Enumerate your pints as you make them

 Be your self. Imitating others can be boring. E.g speaking slang like an American

person while you don’t have good background in slang.

 Provide a summary of what you have said.