Social Science

CLASS - 7
Development by the State Council of Education of Education Research
and Training, Raipur on the basis of the publication of National Council
of Education Research and Training, New Delhi

State Council of Educational

Research & Training
Raipur (C.G.)

FOR THE SESSION 2005-2006

For Free Distribution.

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Originally Edition

By
National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi

Adapted
By
State Council of Educational Research & Training, Raipur (C.G.)

By

C National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi

& State Council of Educational Research & Training, Raipur (C.G.)

Published by : Chhattisgarh Text Book Corporation

Shyam Nagar, Raipur

Printed by : Orient Press Ltd., Tarapur for Chhattisgarh Text Book

Corporation, Shyam Nagar, Raipur

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 PREFACE

According to National Education Policy 1986, special emphasis has

been given to determine and achieve the Minimum Learning at different levels
of school education. In the new syllabus, skill based activities have been
included in the books to make learning, interesting and enjoyable. Contents
have been selected by keeping in mind the mental levels and interests of the
children.
Books on languages serve the purpose of developing linguistic
competence as well as national values. Contents of science and social science
are included in order to make the concepts clear. Authors have tried to develop
the contents of the mathematics books in such an interesting way that the
children can master the mathematical competencies in an easy manner.All
these books carry special focus on linking knowledge with the sorroundings.
Chhattisgarh State Council of Educational Research and Training has
revised the contents of the prevailing books by arranging workshops in order
to make necessary correction according to the historical, geographical and
cultural characteristics of the state.
To make the book more appealing, the illustration have been coloured.
I hope that this book will be valuable to the students and teachers. The
Council is obliged to the writers and editors of different books.
Suggestions are invited for the continuous process of improvement
and reforms in education.
Director
S.C.E.R.T.
Chhattisgarh, Raipur

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CONTENTS
Foreward :

HISTORY
Chapter 1 India and the World 1

Chapter 2 Kingdom of the South (A.D. 800-1200) 5

Chapter 3 Kingdom of the North (A.D. 800-1200) 15

Chapter 4 The Delhi Sultanate (A.D. 1206-1526) 27

Chapter 5 The Life of the People during the Sultanate 35

Chapter 6 The Coming of The Mughals

and the Europeans to India 43

Chapter 7 Akbar 54

Chapter 8 The Age of Splendor and Wealth 62

Chapter 9 The Fall of The Mughal Empire 73

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 CIVICS
Chapter 1 Our Constitution 78

Chapter 2 Main Characteristics the Indian Constitution 83

Chapter 3 The Fundamental Rights and Duties 87

Chapter 4 Center-State Relationship 90

Chapter 5 The Indian Parliament 93

Chapter 6 The President and the Council of Ministers 97

Chapter 7 The State Legislature 100

Chapter 8 The Governor and the Council of Ministers 102

Chapter 9 Our Judicial System 106

Chapter 10 Our National System 111

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GEOGRAPHY
Chapter 1 Atmosphere 115

Chapter 2 Air and its Temperature 117

Chapter 3 Atmospheric Pressure 119

Chapter 4 Wind Direction and Velocity 121

Chapter 5 Atmospheric Humidity 127

Chapter 6 Weather and Climate 130

Chapter 7 Hydrosphere 133

Chapter 8 Tides 139

Chapter 9 New Terms : Europe 142

Chapter 10 Natural Resources and the People 150

Chapter 11 Three Major countries of Western and Central Europe 161

Chapter 12 The Commonwealth of Independent State 175

Chapter 13 Africa- land, climate, resorces and their utilization 182

Chapter 14 Land of Forests - Zaire 194

Chapter 15 Land of Palm and Palm oil Nigeria 198

Chapter 16 The gift of the Nile - The Arab Republic of Egypt 202

Chapter 17 South Africa Land of Gold and Diamonds 207

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India and the world 1

HISTORY

CHAPTER - 1

INDIA AND THE WORLD

The history of the period falling between the eighth century to the eight-
eenth century is known as the history of the middle ages. Around the eighth
century many changes in the social, economic and political life in India began to
appear. These changes influenced all the aspects of life. Thus, began a new ages
in India which we recognize as the Medieval India. The period falling between
the eighth and the thirteenth century is known as the Early Medieval period and
the period between the thirteenth and eighteenth centuries is called the later
medieval period.
The new ideas and the changes that crept into the society of medieval
India were brought in from out-side India by the Turks, the Afghans and the
Mughal royal families. The Turks and the Mughals adopted India as their own
country and became a part of the Indian society. the new ideas and the new
culture brought into India by them, obviously, made the culture of India richer.
During the seventh century Hazrat Mohammad, the founder of Islam united
the Arab tribes. Islam very rapidly spread to many parts of the world. After the
death of Hazrat Mohammad, the highest preceptor of Islam, began to be called
the Caliph, i.e. the representative ruler.
The famous Caliph dynasties were the Umayyids and the Abbasis. Haroun-
al-Rashid was a famous Abbasi Calipha. A good portion of Europe and Africa
had come under his control. He also exercised control over the route connecting
Europe with India and China.
The Arabs were skilled tradesmen. They encouraged the growth of trade
and commerce through the sea route and other routes. Very soon they became
wealthy by establishing business contacts with east and west Africa, China and
India. They made use of their wealth in learning the different arts from China,
Greece, Persia and India and in developing a new civilization. Before long the
Arab Civilization became one of the progressive civilizations. The Arabs
contributed a lot to the advance of different branches of learning. The contribution
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Social Science-7
of the Arabs to Geometry, Algebra, Geography and Astronomy cannot be forgotten.
During the eighth century many changes took place in Asia and Europe.
The Roman Empire had flourished during the ancient period but by the fifth
century downfall came to the empire.
After the fall of the Roman Empire a new system of a administration,
known as the Feudal system, came into being. The feudal lords managed to secure
from the king the authority and control over large areas of land on the basis of
their military strength. In return for this they declared, loyalty to the monarch and
provided him with military assistance during the time of emergency.
In medieval India, this very system was in vogue. The condition of the
farmers deteriorated on account of this system. They had to work hard and the
lion’s share of their produce was taken away by the king and the feudal lords.
At the beginning of the middle ages the Europeans were quite backward as
a result of the snapping of trade ties with other countries. Later on when the
Arabs grew rich because of their trade with other countries, the Europeans also
got interested in trade, but they were worried over the spread of Islam. As a
result, most of the Kings and feudal lords of Europe fought long drawn out wars
with the Arabs. Those wars are called the Crusades. Although the Europeans
were not victorious in the wars, they nevertheless came in close contact with the
Arabs and began to take interest in Arab learning. In the development of learning
in Europe in the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries the knowledge of the Arabs
played an important part. It is on account of this growing interest that the Europeans
have been able to make such a progress in the field of science today.
In the ninth century the power of the Abbasi Caliphs weakened. As a result,
many a province including Ghazni and Ghor became independent. The rulers of
these provinces were Seluk Turks, who became powerful in western Asia by the
eleventh century. During the thirteenth century their power also declined when
they came under the attack of the Mongols led by Chenghez Khan. The Mongols
established their control over the whole area from Western Asia and Southern
Russia upto China.
The different countries of the world came in contact with one another
during the middle ages. Trade ties were established among them. The Mongols
gave encouragement to this trade. At that time the powerful Chola Kings ruled
over southern India. They had trade ties with South-East Asia and China. This
made them very rich. They spent a lot of money on building beautiful temples.
Art, craft and literature also progressed a lot. The thinkers and philosophers of
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India and the world 3

this period influence Indian thought deeply. During the regime of the Chola Kings
in the South, Indian culture was greatly enriched. The Mughals established their
empire in India in the Sixteenth century and it was not in anyway less glorious in
magnificence and power than the Gupta empire in ancient India.
The main sources of the knowledge of the history of the ancient times are
literature and archaeology. The same is true about the history of the medieval
India the literature of this period was written on palm-leaves and copper plates
at the beginning. But later on, during the thirteenth century it began to be written
on paper. foreign travellers continued to visit India from time to time. They have
given an account of the Sultans in their books. Some of the Mughal emperors
have written their autobiographies. Some historians have written about the
happenings during the rule of their contemporary sultans. Historical books are
the chief source of our knowledge about the medieval history. Besides these,
there are some religious and literary books which help us a good deal to gain
knowledge of history of that time. The temples, the mosques, the forts, the minarets,
the mausoleums and the majestic buildings built in the different parts of India
during that period also give us an insight into the arts and culture of the time.

EXERCISES

I. Match the contents of column A with those of column B :

A B
1. The medieval, period of Europe 1. The Pala, the Pratihara
2. The famous kingdoms of the 2. The Delhi Sultanate and
early medieval period. the Mughal
3. The famous ruler of the later 3. is called the Dark Ages.
medieval period.
4. The Seluk Turks 4. The Abbasi Caliph of
Baghdad.
5. Haroun-al-Rashid 5. The powerful ruler of East
Asia in the eleventh
century.

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Social Science-7
II. Fill in the banks with the appropriate word or words given in
brackets :-
1. The founder of Islam, Muhammad, Sahib Organised and educated the
............... (Afghans, Turks, Arabs, Mongols)
2. The feudal system began after the fall of the .........empire.
(Mughal, Turkish, Roman)
3. The Arab civilization was the most advanced civilization of the
............age. (ancient, medieval, modern)
4. The Crusades were fought between................
(The Turks & the Afghans, the Muslims and the Chiristians the
Iranians and the Mongols).

III. Write ‘Yes’ against the right statement and ‘No’ against the
wrong ones :-
1. Haroun Rashid was the Abbasi Caliph of Baghdad.
2. The Europeans achieved a great progress in trade and commerce during
the medieval period.
3. The Chola Kings of the Deccan had trade relations with China.
4. Chenghez Khan achieved control of West Asia and the areas of China in
the thirteenth century.

IV. Answer the following questions :-

1. Who was Chenghez Khan ? How far was his kingdom spread ?
2. What was the contribution of the Arabs in the sphere of knowledge and
science in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries?
3. What is meant by the feudal system ? What were the demerits of this
system ?
4. What was the contribution of the Chola Kings of the South to the Indian
civilization ?
5. What are the main sources of knowing medieval history ?

V. Interesting things to do :
1. Find out from the map of India, where the Arabs and Mongols had their
Kingdoms.
2. Show the kingdom of the Chola Kings in the map of India.

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Kingdoms of the South

CHAPTER - 2

KINGDOMS OF THE SOUTH

(A.D.800-1200)

The northern and southern parts of our country came into very close con-
tact in the medieval period. It had many reasons. Firstly, the kingdoms of the
northern Deccan tired to extend their control upto the Ganges valley. Secondly,
the religious movements of the South soon became popular in the north also.
Thirdly many brahmins from the north were invited to settle down in the south.
Thus, the kingdoms of the north and the south came closer to one another.
In the eighth century the chief kingdoms in the South were the Pallava, the
Chalukya, the Pandya, the Cher and the Rashtrakuta.
1. The Pallavas : After the fall of the Andhra Satvahana’s empire the Pallavas
established their control over the southern part of the Krishna river, Kanchipuram
was their capital. Their reign extended from the sixth century upto the ninth
century. Wars continued to be fought over al long period between the Pallava
King Mahendra Varman and the Chalukyas to gain control over the south.
Narasingha Varman, the successor to Mahendra Varman was the first powerful
king of the Pallava dynasty. He not only protected his kingdom from the Chalukyas
but also invaded Vatapi, their capital. Pulakesin, the Chalukya king was killed
in the battle. Narasingha Varman got for himself the title of ‘Vatapi Kond’ on this
victory. The succeeding Pallava kings continued to struggle against the Chalukyas,
the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas. In 899 A. D. Aprajita Varman, the last king of
this dynasty was defeated by the Cholas. With this came to an end the Pallava
rule.
The administration of the Pallavas was very systematic. During their rule,
Art and Literature flourished a great deal. The city of Kanchi was the seat of
education and learning. It was during this period that Bharati, the Sanskrit Scholar,
and the author of ‘Kiratarjuniam’ wrote ‘Mattavilas’ in Sanskrit. Literature in
the local Tamil language was also produced side by side with Sanskrit during
this period.
The period will be specially remembered for its architecture and sculpture.
Most of the Pallava Kings were shaivas. They had built many temples. The
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Social Science-7
Dharamaraja and the
Kailashnath temples stand
even to this day. The
Pallavas exercised good
deal of influence on the
culture of India. Five Rath
temple cut out of rocks
were built on the sea-shore
at Mahabalipuram. The ar-
chitecture rised in this
gradually spread all over
the Deccan. As the Pallavas
carried on trade across the
sea, their style of architec-
Fig. 2.1 Ratha Temple, Mahabalipuram ture and art-patterns influ-
enced those of the south-east Asia. At that large settlements of South Indian
traders flourished in countries which today are known as Indonesia and
Kumpuchea.
The Rashtrakutas : Kirti Durg a feudal lord under the Chalukya king Kirti
Varman laid the foundation of the Rashtrakuta dynasty after defeating his master
in 733 A.D. The Kingdom of the Rashtrakutas extended upto South Gujrat, Malwa
and Baghelkhand in the north and Tanjore in the south. While at the peak of their
progress, the Rashtrakutas led many attacks on north India. They had to face
opposition mainly from the rulers of Bengal and Bihar also from the Gurjar
Pratiharas, whose capital was Kannauj.
The fertile land in between the Ganga and the Yamuna was the main theatre
of conflict among the three kingdoms. The continuous wars against the Cholas
and the ceaseless at temples at Maintaining supremacy over north India weakend
the Rashtrakutas. In 973 A.D. the Chalukya ruler, Tailap (Taila) II, defeated the
last Rashtrakuta ruler, Kavark-II and established his control over the Rashtrakuta
Kingdom.
The Rashtrakuta rulers were patrons of art and education. Amogvarsha I
was himself a writer of high calibre. Krishna I got built the famous Kailash
temple at Ellora. This is a rock cut temple and stands as a monument of the
Rashtrakuta reign.
The later Chalukyas :- We have already read that the Chalukya ruler, Tailap
defeated the Rashtrakuta ruler, Kavarka II and brought the kingdom under his
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Kingdoms of the South

control. As Tailap belonged to the Chalukya dynasty, historians regard his dy-
nasty as later Chalukya dynasty. The capital of Tailap was at Kalyan (present
Kalyani in Andhra Pradesh). For this reasons they are also known as the Chalukyas
of Kalyani.
Later on, the rulers of the Yadava dynasty established their reign by de-
feating the rulers of the later Chalukya dynasty and continued to rule from Devagiri
(Present Daulatabad in Maharastra.)
On the decline of the Chalukyas at the beginning of the twelvth century, the
rule of the Kakatiya dynasty began in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh Warangal
(in present Andhra Pradesh) was their capital. At that time the authority of the
Hoisalas also began to emerge. The Hoisala dynasty founded its kingdom near
present Mysore.
The Chola empire :- The Cholas belonged to an ancient tribe of South
India. A small
kingdom of the Cholas SOUTH INDIA IN THE ELEVENTH CENTURY
had existed for R. Nanrmada
centuries on the R. Tapi
Coromandal coast. In VS Devangiri
R. Mahanadi
D A
the middle of the ninth YA
R. Godavari
century (846-871 LATER S
ARABIAN TIYA
A.D.) Vijayamala CHALUKYAS KAK
SEA Warangal
Chola extended the R. Krishna
BAY
LAS

authority and OF
CH

CHO

grandeur of the BANGAL

ER

LA
AS

dynasty. From his KS Kanchipuram

H
time upto the end of (IN YA R.C Mahablipuram
DI DE ouv
A) EP e r y Gangatikandacholapuram
the thirteenth century
the Cholas occupied Madurai
an important place in PANDYAS
the history of south
India. He conquered
Tanjore from the INDIAN OCEAN
Pandyas and made it
his capital. Aditya I Fig. 2.2
(Based upon Survey of India map with the Permission of the
(871-907 A.D.) the Surveyor General of India and Goverment of India Copyright 2001.
last Pallava King, The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of
Aparajita Varman had twelve nautial miles measured from the appropriate base line.)
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Social Science-7
made the foundation of the Chola Kingdom solid. More eminent than him was
Parantaka I (917-953 A.D.)who conquered the Pandya Kingdom and received
the title of ‘Madurai-Kinda’ which means ‘the conqueror of Madurai.’ But
Parantaka had to accept defeat at the hand of Krishan II, a Rashtrakuta King.
Parantaka was an able commander, administrator and patron of the learned. He
encouraged agriculture in his king-
dom. Large tanks were dug in which
rainwater could be stored. Canals
were constructed to carry water
from the tanks to the fields for irri-
gation.
Among the Chola kings there
was Rajaraja I (985-1016 A.D.)
who was very powerful and ambi-
tious. He invaded kingdoms located
in different directions and extended
Fig. 2.3 The Kailasha Temple, Ellora his empire. He defeated the Ganga
(Kalinga) and the Cher Kings
(Kerala) and took over the control of Madurai after taking the Pandya King
prisoner. Rajaraja understood the importance of exercising control over the sea.
He knew that if he could exercise control over the coast of south India, the Chola
kingdom would become much more powerful. He, therefore, built up a powerful
navy with a fleet of ships. He led an attack on Sri Lanka and brought under his
control its northern region. A part of the Sri Lankan’s population is of Tamil
origin even today. He invaded the Laccadives and the Maldives. There were
other reasons also for these invasions. The main centre for conducting trade with
the Maldive group of islands was the Chera kingdom and the centre for trading
with West Asia was Sri Lanka. Cloth, spices costly jewels and other articles
used to be exported from India to West Asia. Arab traders used to come to India
from West Asia to deal in these goods. Many of them settled down in the towns
situated on the Western coast of India. So, with the gaining of victories over
these areas, the profits from the trade started coming to the Chola Kingdom.
Thus king Rajaraja proved to be an efficient and successful ruler. He was by far
the greatest south Indian ruler and that is why he was honored with the title of
‘the great’. The walls and ramparts of the Rajarajeshwara temple bear the detailed
account of his victories.
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Rajaraja’s son, Rajendra Chola was more powerful and ambitions than his
father. He ruled for a long period from 1014 to 1044 A.D. He not only consolidated
his father’s empire but also added to its glory with fresh victories. He fought
many campaigns in the Southern peninsula. Two of these were really bold and
daring. One was when his armies advanced along the eastern coast of India, and
reached as far as the river Ganges through Orissa. Before returning to the south
he defeated Mahipala, the King of Bengal and annexed Bihar to his Kingdom
after conquering it. He received the title of Gangai Kond and established the
town, Gangai Kond Cholapuram by name. Here he built beautiful temples and
magnificent places.
The second victorious campaign of Rajendra Chola was that of East Asia.
For many centuries India traders had been trading with many parts of south-east
Asia. This trading extended upto southern China. Indian goods were sent to China
by ships and cargoes were brought from there. The Indian ships were obliged to
pass through the straits of Molucca. These were at the time under the control of
the Kingdom of Shrivijya. The merchants of Shrivijaya and the Pirates created
difficulties for the Indian ships. So, at the request of the Indian traders Rajendra
Chola sent out a powerful navy for their safety. Thus the Cholas fought against
the Kingdom of Shrivijaya which included Sumatra and Java and also some
parts of the straits of Molacca. The Cholas held under control some of the
provinces of the Kingdom of Shrivijaya in 1025 A.D. However, this control did
not last long.
The successors to Rajendra Chola were not so capable and powerful as he
was, secondly they had to enter into a prolonged fight with the Chalukyas of the
West. Internal revolts also weakened the authority of the Kingdom. Many of the
feudal lords set up their own Kingdoms. Thus, by the end of the twelfth century
only a small Kingdom in Tanjore was left in the control of the Chola Kings. The
Chola Kingdom was brought to an end by the attack of Malik Kafur in A.D.1310-
II on Rajendra III, the last ruler of this dynasty.
Administrative system of the Cholas :-
The king was the head of the administration and Government. He had a
council of ministers to advise and guide him. The different branches of Government
had each an officier at the top. The whole empire was divided into provinces
they were called ‘Mandalams.’ Each Mandalam was again divided into
‘Valanddus’(Districts). The lowest unit of administration was the village. Each
village had a village council known as ‘Ur’ The life and the work of the village
were discussed in these council. The councils, was often divided into a number
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Social Science-7
of small committees and each committee looked after one aspect of administra-
tion. The members of these committees were elected annually on the basis of
their qualifications. The management of villages was thus done in a democratic
way.
The Economic system :-
The main source of income of the Kingdom was taxes on land. One sixth of
the land produce was realized as land tax. In addition to this taxes were realized
from the weavers, oil producers, goldsmiths, traders etc. Octroi duty was also
levied in the markets. Out of total revenue thus collected, a portion was kept
apart for the king and remaining used to be spent on the works of public utility
like digging of tanks, construction of roads and also on the salary of the state
employees, maintenance of the army and on temple buildings.
The social condition :-
Besides the king and the courtiers, the brahmins and the tradesmen occupied
a place of pride in society during the Chola rule. Brahmins were respected on
account of their learning and knowledge of the Religious scriptures. Great learned
brahmins were gifted land and villages by the king. In this way some of the
brahmins became so rich that even a few generations of them could lead a
comfortable life.
Trade in the Chola Kingdom reached a new height. But the conditions of
the labourers in town and the farmers in villages was far from satisfactory. They
had to work very hard. The shudras were treated as untouchables and were not
allowed to enter temples. These two classes of people remained engaged in the
service of the higher classes. The condition of women in South India was better
than that of the women in the north. Women belonging to the upper classes owned
property also.
Religion, art and literature :-
Most of the Chola kings followed the Shaiva doctrine but were quite liberal
in their religious outlook. they treated all religions Vaishnawism, and Buddhism
Jainism with equal respect. King Rajaraja, although a Shaiva, built temples of
Vishnu and gave Charities to Buddhist monasteries. The Vaishnavas were called
‘Alwars’ whereas the Shaivas were known as ‘Nayannars.’ They were free to
explain and propagate their own religions. During this period some new sects
introduced new ideas into system of worship and devotion and began to propagate
them among the people.
During this period many of the great religious teachers came to the north
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Kingdoms of the South

from the south although, later on, north India also did produce some great teachers
of religion. The best known of the south Indian religious teachers were
Shankaracharya and Ramanuja-charya. Shankaracharaya belonged to Kerala and
lived in the eighth century. His philosophy is known as the Advaita system which
means that there is only one unique and supreme power in the whole of the
universe. He believed in the acquisition of knowledge and held that it was through
knowledge that one could worship God. Shankaracharya, travelled all over India
and preached his philosophy. He held religious discussions with many a learned
men.
Ramanuja-charya was another great religious teacher of south India who
lived in the eleventh century. He preached that one should worship God with
total devotion. His idea was that in, comparison to knowledge devotion and
love are of greater importance in worshipping God. He tried to remove the
distinction on the basis of castes and to bridge the gulf between the high and the
low which prevailed in the society at that
time.
The Cholas made an advance in the
system and tradition of building construc-
tion of the Pallavas. They build many mag-
nificent temples in Tanjore and Gangai-
Kond Cholapuram. The Rajrajeshwara
temple in Tanjore is an unparalleled
specimen of architecture of the time. The
king and the wealthy persons used to do-
nate land and money very liberally for
building temples and for their security. The
royal temples built by the Cholas were
grand and magnificent like the
Brihadeshwara temple of Tanjore. Fig. 2.4 The Brihadeshwar Temple Tanjore

In the Central Shrine room the image of the God goddess was installed.
These images were made of bronze or stone. The bronze images are famous all
over the world for their art and beauty.
The temples were the centres of social activity and religious functions. the
walls of the temples were beautified with images and variety of scenes, the
court scenes the battle scenes, the scenes of worship and also the scenes of
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Both Sanskrit and Tamil prospered during the time of the chola kings. The
temples were the centres of education both in towns and villages. Temple priests
worked as teachers also. Schools used to meet in the country yard or in a part of
the temples. Donations were given to these institutions by the kingdom. Gener-
ally education was imparted through Sanskrit and the pupils were brahmins. It
was essential to acquire the knowledge of the Vedas and other scriptures. Many
of the inscriptions of the Chola kings are in both Sanskrit and Tamil. Kamban
wrote his famous work, the Ramayana, in Tamil, Besides this a lot of works in
poetry and drama were composed in Tamil by scholars.
Telugu being the language of the common man, the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata were written in that language Scholars like Nannaya, Tikkanna and
Yaramma produced literary works of high quality on the basis of Mahabharat in
Telugu during this period. Kannada being the languages in the areas around Mysore,
learned men Pampa, Paunna and Ratna produced good-quality literature in
Kannada. Saints also preached in language of the people.
The period between the eighth and the twelfth century, was a period of
development not only from the political point of view, but also from the point of
view of trade and commerce, building construction, religious reformation, arts,
literature and cultural upliftment.
The Pandya Kingdom
The Pandyas were Dravidians and had been ruling in the areas around the
districts of Madurai, Ramnad and Tinneveli of South India. Madurai was their
capital. In the seventh century Pandya King Arikesri Marvarman defeated the
Cheras of Kerala siding with the Chalukyas he defeated the Pallavas and extended
his Kingdom over a small area. For about 150 years thereafter, the Pandya Kings
continued to fight against the Pallava, the Ganga, the Chola and the Chalukya
kings for the security of their kingdom. During the ninth century the Pandyas rose
again. Their king Shrimakhallabha defeated a combined army of the Gangos, the
Cholas, the Kalingas, the Pallavas and the Magadhas. In 920 A.D. the Cholas
disintegrated this kingdom. Thereafter, the Pandya kings continued to try to get
back their kingdom by revolt. About three hundred year later, during the time of
Jatavarman Sunder I (1251-1258 A.D.) The Pandya authority again reached its
peak. He defeated the Cher, the Cholas, the Hoyasal and the Kakatiya kings. He
secured control over Kanchi also. The Pandya kings also built a number of temples
among which the temples of Sri Rangam and Chindambaram are famous. The
Venetian traveler, Marco Polo, visited South India during the reign of Marvarman
Kulashestra Pandya. He has given an account of the political, social and religious
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Kingdoms of the South

conditions of the Pandya Kingdom, struggle continued among the successors and
by the end of the thirteenth century this kingdom lost its existence.
The Chera Kingdom :
Like the Cholas and the Pandyas the Cheras were also Dravidians. In their
kingdom were included the modern Malabar, Travancore and Cochin. Chera and
Kerala are synonymous words. IN the first century A.D. There was a king Perunar
by name who was killed in a battle with the Cholas. After some time matrimonial
relations were established between the Cherasand the Cholas. A king named
Senguttavan extended his Kingdom by removing the neighbouring Pandyas and
Cholas. But in the eighth century the Pallavas obtained control over the Chera
Kingdom. In the tenth century the Cholas brought under their occupation the Chera
Kingdom and this went on upto the twelfth century. The thirteenth century saw
the spread of the influence of the Pandyas. By and by the authority of the Cheras
ended completely.

EXERCIES
I. Short-answer Questions:
1. Write down the names of the main royal dynasties.
2. Who were the Rashtrakutas ? How did they establish their Kingdom?
3. Who re-established the Chalukyas ?
4. Who were the chief rulers of the Pallava dynasty ?
5. How far was the Kingdom of Rajaraja I spread ? Why is he called
‘great’?
6. Mention the public welfare items of work of the Chola Kings.

II. Answer the following question in about 200 words each :-

1. Describe the adventure of victorious advance of Rajendra Chola.
2. Given an account of the administration of the Chola Kingdom.
3. Describe the religious condition of the Chola reign.
4. What improvements in literature were made during the Chola reign?
5. Give an account of the society during the Chola reign.
6. Why did Rajendra Chola make an attack on the south eastern Kingdom ?
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III. Fill in the blanks with the word/words given in the brackets:-
1. ..................had a powerful kingdom in the Deccan which tried to
conquer a part of the plains of Ganga.
(The Cholas, The Chalukyas, The Rashtrakuta)
2. The Rastrakutas had to fight many wars with the Powerful kings of
the .............dynasty.
(Kakatiya, Hoyasala, Chola)
3. The Rashrakuta dynasty was established by ..............(Kirti Durg,
Krishna I, Narasingha Varman).
4. The Chola ruler..............received the title of Madurai Konda.
(Aditya I, Parantaka I, Rajraja I)
5. The Kailash temple at Ellora was made by Krishna I who belongs to
the dynasty...............
(Pallava, Rashtrakuta, Chola)

IV. Write ‘YES’ against the statements that are true and ‘NO’ against
the ones that are false :-
1. The Rastrakutas ruled over Dwar Samudra situated near Mysore.
2. Tarantaka defeated Krishna II, a Rashtrakuta king.
3. The Ratha temples in Mahabalipuram were built during the Pallava
period.
4. Warangal was the capital of the rulers of Yadava dynastry.
5. The Chola rulers fought battles again and again against the powerful
Partiharas and the Palas.

V. Things to do :-
Collect the pictures of the ancient temples of India and distinguish between
the different styles of architecture in the construction of temples north and south
India.

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Kingdoms of the North

CHAPTER-3

KINGDOMS OF THE NORTH

(A.D. 800-1200)

The period of about 400 years (AD. 800 to 1200) of the history of India is
known as the Rajput period. The political unity of India had received a setback
after the death of Harsha. Both in the South and the North many a dynasty came
into existence and declined during this period. But none of them was able to
conquer most of the territories of India and unite them into one integrated unit.
Kannauj was the capital of Harsha. From the time of Harsha, Kannauj
acquired as much importance as did Pataliputra during the Mauryas and the
Guptas or as Delhi has at present. Kannauj had become not only the political
capital of India but also her cultural capital Every ambitious ruler desired to
make it his capital It was their conviction that one who ruled over Kannauj
would-be accepted as the emperor of the whole of north India. A hard struggle
took place among the ruling dynasties of the time to gain control over Kannauj.
They were the Rashtra Kutas the Palas and the Pratiharas. The Rashtrakutas
were ruling in the region around Nasik in northern Deccan. Govinda III, Krishan
III and Indra III were the Powerful and influential monarchs in this dynasty. It.
was they who brought fame to the Rashtrakutas. The kingdom of the Palas spread
all over Bengal and a large part of Bihar: The first king of this dynasty was
Gopal. After his death his son, Dharmapala, came to the throne. He was the most
famous king of this dynasty. The word ‘Pala’ occurs at the end of the names of
the kings of this dynasty. So, they are known as the Palas.

The Pratiharas set up an independent kingdom over Southern Rajasthan and

some parts of Malwa. Vatsaraja was the most famous among the Pratiharas and
the second famous king was Nagabhatta II. By the end of the eighth century the
Pratiharas had established their rule over Kannauj. Later on, king Dharmapala
of the Pala dynasty reorganised his army and brought Kannauj under his control
But the Palas could not hold Kannauj for a long time. During the reign of King
Mihir Bhoja the Pratiharas regained their strength and captured Kannauj. At the
beginning of the tenth century, by reorganizing themselves and consolidating their
power the Rashtrakutas brought Kannauj under their control once again. Thus all
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the three dynasties of north India spent their time in fightings and trying to gain
control over Kannauj.

This resulted in the decrease in their military strength and soon all the three
lost their powers. Several small. kingdoms came into being in north India which
had relation with the Rajput dynasties which appeared on the scene later on. The
rule of the Sens was established over the Pala Kingdom. The reins of the
Rashtrakuta.
Kingdom came into
the hands of the INDIA IN THE PERIOD
A.D.800-1200
Chalukya Kings. Kashmir

The Origin of
us
nd

the Rajputs : TOMARAS R.Taongpo

R.I

Delhi
CHAUHANAS
The name of PRATHARAS
KAMARUPA
the Rajasthan, the PAWARS R. Ganga
CHANDELS
SOLANKIS
present state of the PALAS
Indore UTKALA
Indian. Republic, R. Mahanadi
Nasik Bhubanesware
was Rajputana. On ARABIAN R. Godavari Puri
this part of the SEA RASTRAKUTA BAY
Malkhand
country lived a R.Krishna OF
LA BANGAL
majority of the KS
CHOLAS
H
Rajputs and their (IN YA R.C Present ANDAMAN
DI DE ouv
e
Kings. A) EP ry international & NIKOBAR
boundries... ISLAND
The Rajputs (INDIA)
claim to be the INDIAN OCEAN
descendants of the Fig-3.1 The Map of India: India from 800 A.D.to 1200 A.D.
ancient sun-family
(Suryavanshi) or the moon family (Chandra-Vanshi). Another belief is that they
have descended from the fire-family (agni-kula) the Fire-pit (Yagna-Kunda) were
born the Pratiharas, the Pawaras, the Solankis and the Chauhans.

These families set up their kingdoms in the Western India Rajputana and
central India and continued to make efforts to increase the sphere of their influence.
It is undoubtedly true that the Rajputs tried to unite the whole country by
establishing vast empire.
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They also faced very bravely the raids of foreigners of them the Pratiharas
ruled over Kannauj region about which we have already read. In the central
region of Rajputana was the Kingdom of the Chauhan (Chahamanas). Chahaman,
was the founder of that family. Previously, these kings were the tax-paying lords
under the GurjarPratiharas. Later on, Vigraharaja added to the strength and glory
of the Chauhan family by defeating the Tomars and he laid the foundation of an
independent rule. His son, Sinharaja bore the title of ’Maharajadhiraja’ In the
twelfth century Ajayraja Chauhan founded the city of Ajayameru (Ajmer) and got
palaces and temples built in it. A great and powerful ruler of this dynasty was
king Prithviraja. A description of his deeds of bravery has been given by his
court poet, Chandvardai, in his book entitled ‘Prithviraj-Raso’, He fought against
the Solankis of Gujarat, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand and Jaichand. King
prithviraja III was the most honoured among the Kings of his time. Prithviraja III
had to face the attacks of Sahabuddin Muhammad Ghori. In the end he, was
defeated and Delhi and Ajmer came under the Muslim authority.
The founder of the Solankis (Chalukyas) in Gujarat was Maharaja. This
family had perhaps no connection with the Chalukyas of the South. Mularaja had
to confront the attacks from the Chauhans from the north, Tailap II from the
South, the Parmaras of Malwa and also, the Kalchuri Kings. He, however, managed
to keep up his kingdom. During the reign of Bhima I of this dynasty, Mahamud
Ghaznavi’s’ raids took place. On seeing the might of Mahamud he got so frightened
that without giving any fight he ran away leaving his capital behind The Hindus
fought bravely, but were defeated. Mahamud Gaznavi ransacked temples; broke
the idol of the temple of Somnath, killed thousands of Hindus and returned to
Gazni with immense wealth. The succeeding kings of this family were not so
worthy and therefore its decline began.
The Parmara (Pawar) family which claimed to have come out of the Fire-
Pit (agnikunda) was founded by Upendra (Krishnaraja) who had been a subedar
of Malwa and had owed allegiance to the Rashtrakutas. A ruler of this family,
Harsha, was very powerful and established an independent kingdom in Malwa
by defeating the Rashtrakutas. He made Dhar, which is near Indore, his capital.
His successor was Munja, who was the greatest army commander of his
age and was a powerful king. Munja expanded his kingdom by defeating almost
all the Kings around him. He was a lover of art and literature and was himself a
poet. Magnificient temples were got built by him in the main towns of his kingdom.
The Munja-Sagar lake near Dhar, which exists even to day, was built by him.
King Bhoja was another great king of the Paramara family. He was extremely
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ambitious and powerful. During his reign the city of Dhar reached the peak of its
glory. King Bhoja was a highly learned man and connoisseur of art. He founded
a university at Dhar. He was a devotee of Lord Shiva he built a lot of temples in
his kingdom. He set up a town named Bhojpur, a place to the south of present
Bhopal. After King Bhoj a rulers of the Paramar family continued to rule for
about two hundred years. At last, in 1305 AD Alauddin Khilji conquered Malwa
and brought it under the control of the Delhi Sultanate.
In addition to these prominent Rajput kings there were many small royal
families all over India who had begun their rule under the protection of the
Pratihara and Rashtrakuta kings but later on who became independent ruler after
revolting against, their protectors. These kings may be grouped under two catego-
ries. (I) Those kingdoms which had connections with the history of the Rajputs.
They were the rulers of central India and Rajasthan e.g. the Chandelas of
Bundelkhand and the Guhelots of Mewar who ruled over the region to the south
of the Chauhan Kingdoms. The Tomars ruled over the region north-east of the
Chauhan kingdom, which is Present Haryana, and around the areas of Delhi. It
was these Tomars who founded the city of Delhi in A.D. 736 Later on the Chauhans
defeated the Tomars and annexed their Kingdoms within their territory (2) Some
other kingdoms were either in the hilly areas or had no connection with the
Rajputs. Among these were Nepal, Kamraup of Assam, Kashmir’ and Utkal in
Orissa. Among the hilly Kingdoms in the Punjab, Chambal Jammu and Kulu
were” notable. These kingdoms used to fight against one another to show their
might or to expand their territories. Those battles reduced their strength gradually.
The whole country was divided into, small and big kingdoms. They could never
unite together to face any external aggression on account of their disunity. Thus
they could not protect themselves when there was an invasion of the Turks from
the North-Western of India. The first attack of the Arabs had taken place on
Sindh in 643 A.D. For about three hundred years, thereafter several attacks of
the Arabs and Turks continued to take place. Of these the raid of Mahmud of
Ghazni caused a severe loss to India.
Mahmud of Ghazni:
Subugtagin was the ruler of Ghazni, a very small princely state in central
Asia. After his death, his son Mahmud (AD.998) came to the throne. He was the
worthy son of a worthy father. He was very brave, ambitious, daring and religious.
He had all the qualities of a brave soldier and an able commander. After his
accession to the throne he chalked out a plan for a vast empire and was successful
also in translating it into reality. He was extremely greedy and idiot. To plunder
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wealth and to spread. Islam in non-islamic areas of the world with the power of
the sword, were the aims of his life.
He drew up a plan to secure unlimited wealth and to spread Islam in India.
He raided the land between A.D. 1000 and AD. 1026. Every year he would raid
India, ransack the cities and the palaces and go back honoured with the titles of
“idol breaker” and “conqueror’.
The first raid of Mahmud was made in 1000 A.D. He got control over some
of the border forts. Next year he attacked the old king Jaipal of Peshawar. The
king was defeated. The army of the sultan looted as much wealth as would be
hard to count. He carried out raids on Multan three times, conquered it, imprisoned
the king and made the conquered territory apart of his empire. King Jayapala’s
son Anandpala requested the rulers of Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kannauj, Ajmer and
Ujjain to unite and give a fight to Mahmud. Many kings joined this fight. But due
to lack of expertise in military science and army movement of the Indian side,
Mahmud was victorious Mahmud’s last raid was on Somnath temple situated on
the coast of Kathiawar. It was the most magnificent of the temples in medieval
India. The vast wealth of the temple was looted by Mahmud.
Although Mahmud’s attacks were like raids, his chief objective was not to
set up a kingdom but to plunder wealth. Although he went back after plundering
his raids. But left the Indian kings weaker in their military power. Foreigners
came to know about the political and ‘military weaknesses of India the destruc-
tion of the ancient temples gave a severe jolt to the architecture and a vast quantity
of wealth went out of the country.
Muhammad Ghori :
Indian king took no lessons even from the destructive raids of Mahmud.
They continued to fight among themselves as before and the country grew weaker
and weaker. At the end of the twelfth century Muhammad Ghori’s invasion took
place. Muhammad was the son of the ruler of Ghor, a small kingdom in
Afghanistan.’ Gradually the power or the ruler of Ghor increased so much that
he captured Ghazni permanently. Muhammad was appointed ruler of Ghazni.
The objective of Muhammad Ghori’s invasion was not merely to plunder,
but he also desired to add to his kingdom the northern part of India by conquering
it. His first attack was on Multan. Here he defeated the ruler of the Karmayee
community. Then he captured Sindh, In 1178 A.D. he tried to penetrate into India
through Gujarat, hut the Solanki king Mularaj II defeated him. So he concentrated
his attention on the northern kingdoms. By 1186 AD. he brought under his control
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the forts of Peshwar, Lahore and Sialkot. Thus he became the master of the
whole of the border areas and the Punjab.
After the victory of the Punjab, the border of Muhammad’s Kingdom began
to touch those of Ajmer and Delhi which were ruled by Prithviraja Chauhan
Muhammad attacked the fort of Bhatinda in 1191 A.D. Having come to know this
Prithviraja advanced with a large army. Fierce fighting took place at Tarain
between the two armies. Muhammad was defeated and he managed to escape in
a badly wounded condition. Returning to Ghazni he collected a large army
consisting of daring and ferocious men belonging to the hilly kingdoms of Central
Asia and the very next year came down to attack India again. This time he had
brought with him about one lac twenty thousand soldiers. King Prithviraja
appealed to the other, kings for help. It is said that about a hundred and fifty big
and small kings rallied under Prithviraja’s flag. Only the Gaharwar king Jaichand
of Kannauj, did not side with the Chauhans in this battle. Both the armies came
face to face on the plains of Tarain again in A.D.1192. Although the Rajputs
fought with exemplary courage and bravery, they were defeated on account of
the absence of able leadership and fighting skill. Prithviraja was taken prisoner
and later on put to death. By this victory the Turks came to control Ajmer, Delhi
and Hansi (a town situated to the north-west of Delhi). Prithviraja was the most
powerful king in north India. With his defeat easier for Muhammad Ghori to win
over India.
Muhammad Ghori had generally to face difficulties in Afganistan. He,
therefore went back to Ghazni leaving his slave and able general Qutb-ud-din to
rule over the conquered territory as his representative. In A.D. 1205 a fighting
race, the Khokhars, revolted. Muhammad Ghori came to suppress them. The
revolt was put down but while he was returning to Ghaini, a young Khokhar
murdered him.
Social life :
Although the political and economic authority of kings during this period,
weakened, they did live in pomp and show. Much of their income was spent in
building palaces and temples and also to maintain the pomps and show of their
courts. The courts were attended not only by feudatories but also by the wealthy
brahmins and traders. The status of Brahmins and Kshatriyas in society was
high. Brahmins conducted religious ceremonies and rituals of worship. Some of
them wrote biographies of the king and histories of the kingdom and verses in
praise of the king. Some of them were also appointed to high posts. Kshatriyas
were also learned and good warriors. Brahmins and Kshatriyas got subdivided
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into many sub-castes and sects, among whom the feelings of high and low began
to deepen. The Rajputs acquired a separate entity on account of the their bravery
and courage.
Among the other classes in society were farmers, craftsmen, businessmen
and labourers. Of all ‘the classes in society the life of the Shudras’ was the most
difficult. They had no rights and they were looked down upon. Most of them
were cultivators and labourers. Those who did the lowly work were treated as
untouchables.
Many far-reaching changes in the condition of wormen took place in this
age. Among the Rajputs the system of Swayamvara was prevalent. Marriages
took place at an early age among the ordinary classes. Polygamy was in vogue
among the higher classes. The custom of Sati began to grow widerspread. The
life of the Rajput women was also full of bravery and courage like that of their
men-folks. On the death of their husbands in battles or in foreign attacks, women
would take to “Jauhar” i.e. they would burn themselves to death rather than fall
into the hands of the enemies.
Economic life :
In this age village-folks remained engaged in rearing animals and doing
agriculture. The important change that took place in agriculture, was with regard
to land measurement and realization of land tax. Previously, there was no system
of payment of salary in cash. Instead of the payment of salary the authority was
given to realize the land revenue in a particular village or a piece of land. This
revenue used to be equal to the amount of money he would normally receive as
salary. In such a case the authorized person did not have any rights of ownership
over the land. But with the coming of the medieval period many such persons
began to claim the ownership of the land. Persons authorized to collect land
revenue came to be called ‘rai’ or ‘thakur’. They kept a large portion of the land
revenue for their own use and credited the rest into the treasury of the king. They
were also required to maintain troops which the king could demand whenever
he wanted. Thus they remained under the control of the king. Besides these, the
Brahmins and learned men were also granted lands as gifts. The land revenue
pertaining to the gifted land was fully utilised by those who were granted the
lands.
As the number of such persons increased, the amount of revenue which
came to the king decreased. Many of the officers who had many villages and
large areas of land, in turn would grant the right to their subordinates for the sake

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of convenience. Thus a number of intermediaries came into existence between

the king and the peasant. This led to the fast growth of feudalism one result of
this was that those who had large grant of land often behaved like independent
rulers. The peasants who cultivated such lands started paying more attention to
the feudatories. So the king gradually began to be quite away from the peasants.
On account of the decrease in the king’s revenue, the expenses on security also
decreased and it became hard to maintain a large and powerful army. This was
one of the primary reasons why the kingdoms of north India could not protect
themselves from the attacks of the Turks. There was rivalry and jealousy among
the feudatories. ‘Even small disputes were settled through a fight. Most of their
time and money were spent on such, futile wars. If any feudatory felt that he had
become sufficiently strong, he would proclaim himself, independent and set up
an independent kingdom. Often the king was too weak to restrain the feudatories
from taking such steps. Thus the Rastrakutas who had been feudatories of the
Chalukyas became the independent rulers. The Chandelas ruling under the
Pratiharas also became independent. The Cholas of the South had also began as
feudatories.
The peasants had to suffer most in these circumstances. They not only paid
the revenue to the lord but had to do free labour also for him. Often the feudal
lord would realize from them extra taxes on roads, mills, water for irrigation
etc. They were fated to toil hard and remain poor.
The inhabitants of towns and cities remained engaged in different trades
and industries. Like those in the South the different traders had organized
themselves into various groups. Cotton, Woollen and silk cloth, ivory goods,
ornaments and utensils of gold and silver, statues and idols of cast bronze, play-
things and earthen pots were produced in large quantities in the country.
Goods within the country were transported by roads and rivers. Patliputra,
Ayodhya, Ujjain, Kannauj, Mathura and Kashi were big business centers. Because
of the settlement of the Arab traders on the west coast of India, trade with the
Mediterranean countries and western Asia flourished. Cotton and Woollen clothes,
precious stones, sandalwood, Coconut, cloves, nuts ivory goods and Keshar
were exported outside and horses, dates and wine were imported in large
quantities from outside.
Religious life :
On account of the patronage of the Rajput Kings, Hindu religion became
very popular. Buddhism which had started declining during the reign of Harsha
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now remained confirm to east India. Jainism had its influence on Rajasthan,
Gujarat and among some royal families of the south. At the beginning of this age
a number of such learned men and philosophers were born who had deep faith
in the Vedic rituals. As such the realization of self-attainment through rituals
became a part of Hindu religion. Hindu religion included the Vaishnawa, the
Shiva and the Shakta sects. Gradually tantra-mantra and inhuman ritual practices
got into these sects.
When the religious thought began to get distorted in north India, then saints,
like Shankaracharya and Ramanuja in the south brought a sense of reawakening
in it. Both of them belonged to the south and you have already read about them.
Vishnu was worshipped in his two incarnations-as Rama and as Krishna. Temples
of a number of Gods and Goddesses were built in this age. The legends about the
lives of Ram a and Krishna were depicted on the: walls of the temples with the
help of images and pictures. Festivals were celebrated with fun fare. It was
during this age that Opposition to the complicated rituals began and stress began
to be given on simple Bhakti (devotion). This very feeling gradually developed
into the “Bhakti movement” later on.
Education and Literature :
Education spread well during this age. The temples were the main centres
of education where children of the higher castes were taught. Buddhism played a
notable part in the field of education. The famous monastery at Nalanda was still
in existence. Kashi, Kannauj etc. were principal centres of learning. King Bhoja
had a university built at Dhar.
The interest in science and astronomy that was taken in the Gupta period
started decreasing now, For example, the discoveries of Aryabhatta instead of
being used to make further discoveries about the sun, the Earth and the Universe,
were mixed up with astrology on account of ignorance and superstition. Indian
medical system of Ayurveda was famous the world over but now further progress
in’ this area too stopped.
This period has its importance in the field of literature also. Even now the
language of literature was Sanskrit. Among the famous poetic works were Magha’s
Shishupal Vadh; Bhavabhuti’s ‘Uttar Ram Charit’ and Bharavi’s ‘Kiratarjuniyam.’
The most popular literary work of the period was ‘Katha Sarit Sagar’ a collection
of stories. Biographies of kings were also written. Of them Vilhan’s Vikramank-
Dev-Charit’ and Kalhan’s “Raj Tarangini” and famous history books. In northern
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Social Science-7
India Krishan Worship spread and many poetic works based on the love-legends
between Radha and Krishan were produced. Jaideva’s ‘Geet-Govinda’ is one of
them.
Architecture and Painting :
The famous kings and the powerful feudatories built temples in this age
which are living examples of architecture. There are hundreds of temples which
were built in this period. The temples at Puri and Bhuvaneshwar and the Sun
temple at Konark in Orissa are the most famous among these.
The Chandella kings built the Khajuraho temples in Bundelkhand. These
temples have style different from the style of the Orissa temples. The group of
Jain temples on Mount Abu in Rajasthan with white marble is a creation of this
period. The art of building forts also developed in this period. The forts at
Chittor, Ranthambhor, Gwalior etc. were also built in this period.
Alongwith architecture, sculpture and painting also made much progress
during this period. Under the patronage of the Pala Kings many idols of Gods
and Goddesses were made of bronze, black stone. Moral paintings continued to

Fig. 3.3 The Shiv Temple of Khajuraho

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be used to decorate the walls of temples and palaces. Another type of painting
which became-very popular during the Mughal period later on, began in this
period. It was the art of miniature painting. Artists began to draw pictures to
illustrate books. These pictures drawn on the books made of palm-leaves are the
ideal specimens of art. Afterwards more, Subtitles and colours came to be used
in them.
EXERCISES

I. Fill in the blanks with a word from those given in the brackets:
1. Many battles were fought in north India to gain control over the city
of:............(Kannauj, Delhi, Agra)
2. King Bhoj was a powerful king belonging to the............. dynasty.
(Chandela, Pratihara, Parmara)
3. Delhi was founded by the rulers of the............... family.
(Chauhan, Tomar, Gaherwar)
4. The famous temples at Khajuraho were built by the.............rulers.
(Chandela, Pala, Gurjara)
5. Mahmud of Gazni attacked India...........times.
(Fifteen, Seventeen, Three)
II. Match the contents of column A with those of column B.
A. B
1. The Rashtrakuta kings. 1. Ruled over Avanti and some
parts of southern Rajasthan
was
2. The Pratihara Kings 2. Raj Tarangini.
3. The aim of the invasions of 3. Ruled over the northern area
Mahmud of Gazni. around Nasik in the Deccan.
4. Kalhan’s famous historical 4. were in a large number in north
book. India.
5. The followers of the Shiva 5. was to obtain money and
and the Vaishnawa’ sects wealth by plunder.

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III. Answer the following questions :-
1. Which powers struggled among themselves to obtain control over
Kannauj?
2. How did the Gurjar Pratiharas expand their Kingdom?
3. What Were the main causes of Mahmud of Ghazni’s attacks on India?
4. What are the beliefs prevalent today about the origin of the Rajputs?
5. What is the importance of the battle of Tarain in Indian history?
6. What changes in the economic system were made during the Rajput
period?
7. What was the condition of women during the Rajput period?
8. Give an account of the social life in the reign of the Rajputs?
9. What progress was made in architecture and painting during the
Rajput period?

IV. Something to do:-

1. Show the areas in the map of Asia which were attacked by Mahmud
of Gazni and-Muhammad Ghori.
2. Show the areas of rule of the major north Indian dynasties in map of
India.

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The Delhi Sultanate

CHAPTER 4

THE DELHI SULTANATE

(A. D. 1206 TO 1526)

The period of Indian history from AD. 1206 to AD. 1526 is known as the
period of Delhi Sultanate. Five different dynasties ruled over Delhi during this
period.
The Slave dynasty (A/D. 1206-1290) :
All the rulers of this dynasty were either themselves slaves or the sons of
slaves. That is why this dynasty is called the Slave Dynasty. The first ruler of
this dynasty was Qutub-ud-din Aibak, the general of Muhammad Ghori. After the
death of Muhammad Ghori, he became the Sultan of Delhi. He was a Turk ruler.
The second big ruler of this dynasty was Iltutmish. The credit far establishing the
turks in India goes to him. He put down the revolt of the Turkish noblemen and
Tatars and also defeated those Rajputs who
were trying to regain their lost freedom. It
was during his reign that the Mongols, under
the leadership of Chenghez Khan, established
their control over the area along the Indus.
Thus he had to spend his time in facing all
sorts of troubles Iltutmish got the unfinished
Qutub Minar completed which had been
started during the time of Qutab-ud-din. The
son of Iltutmish proved to be of no worth.
So the reigns were taken over by his
daughter, Raziya. But the Turkish Generals
of the time look it to be a matter of dishonor
to work under Raziya a woman. They,
therefore, revolted. But Raziya did not lose
her courage even in these circumstances.
She herself led the army in the fight and
tried to suppress the revolt. In the meantime
the conspirating generals got her murdered. Fig. 4.1 The Qutub Minar

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Social Science-7

Raziya was an able, intelligent and brave ruler.

The last ruler of the slave dynasty was Balban. He stationed an army on the
border in order to put in check the Mongols. Very hard punishment was given to
the disloyal ones and at last he was able to enforce his unfettered authority.
The successors to Balban were incapable. The slave dynasty, therefore,
came to an end. Kekubad was the last ruler of this dynasty.
The Khilji Sultan (A.D.1290-1320) :
Jalaluddin Khilji occupied the throne of Delhi after putting to death the last
ruler of the slave dynasty. He laid the foundation of the Khilji family. The attack
on devagiri in the South by his nephew, Alauddin was a notable incident during
his time. Alauddin murdered his uncle, Jalaluddin and then occupied the throne
of Delhi himself. He reorganized the army and conquered Gujarat, Ranthambhor,
Chittore, Ujjain, Mandav and Chanderi. He sent out his reliable general, Malik
Kafur, to conquer the South. Thus, he succeeded in spreading his empire from
the North to the South.
A vast sum of money was needed to maintain a large army. Alauddin raised
the land taxes on the fertile land between the
Ganga and the Yamuna (theDoab). During his
time farmers had to pay half of their produce as
taxes. He fixed the prices of articles and
appointed officers to keep a watch on the
markets so that the soldiers were not required
to spend a large amount on buying essential
commodities and they could maintain
themselves with their low salary. During his
reign articles of daily use were very cheap.
Those traders who did not sell goods at
the prices fixed or who played false in weight,
were given hard punishment.
The succeeding rulers of the Khilji family
were also weak and incapable. As a result, soon
the rule of this family also come to an end. Fig 4.2 Raziya Begum

The Tughluq family (A.D. 1320-1413) :

The first ruler of the Tughluq family was Gayasuddin Tughluq, but the
famous sultan of this family was Muhammad-bin-Tughluq. He ruled for about 26
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The Delhi Sultanate

years. During his reign an Arab traveller, Ibn-
Batutah came to India. He has written highly about
Tughluq. He had noted that among all the Sultans
of Delhi, he was the most intelligent and able ruler.
His ideas were very noble but he committed many
errors in implementing them. As a result, all his
plans failed.
First of all Muhammad Tughluq drew up a
plan for extending the boundaries of his empire by
organising a large army. He required a vast amount
of money for this. He therefore, raised, the taxes
on the farmers of the Doab area. But unfortunately
a famine broke out at the time. The farmers not
only refused to pay the taxes, but also revolted
against him. At last the order to raise the taxes had Fig 4.3 Alauddin Khilji
to be withdrawn by the people at the Sultan.
The second plan of Muhammad Tughluq was to transfer his capital from
Delhi to Devagiri. After making Devagiri his capital he named it Daulatabad.
Daulatabad being situated, in the South, it was easier to exercise control over
the South. He ordered all the officers of Delhi and the subjects to shift to
Daulatabad. Proper care about the conveniences on way to Dautalabad was
taken. But it proved to be really matter of great misery for the people to leave
their native places and move to a place about 1100 Kilometers away. They
became annoyed with the Sultan. For the Sultan also it was very difficult to
control the North while remaining in Daulatabad. He again issued orders to shift
the capital back to Delhi from Daulatabad. These movements caused him heavy
losses, with the terms of money and manpower. This plan also failed.
In order to make good the wastage of money and wealth caused by the
shifting of the capital and the famine, Muhammad Tugluq drew up a plan to issue
token coins of copper. The face value of these value of token coins was equal to
the value of the real gold coins.
Gold or silver could be obtained in exchange for the coins from the royal
treasury. This scheme of Muhammad Tughluq also proved unsuccessful because
he could not exercise proper control on their minting. As a result, token coins of
copper began to be minted in many a household. Tughluq was, thus, obliged to
discontinue the scheme of token coins. As gold and silver had to be given in
exchange for the token coins already issued the royal treasury became almost
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Social Science-7

empty. As a matter
Present external Boundary of India of fact people at the
EMPIRE OF ALLAUDDIN
KHILJI 1320 A.D.
time did not have
Kashmir any faith in the main
Lahore currency these days.
Delhi Firoz Tughluq,
the nephew of
Ajmer
Ranthombor Kada Muhammad Tughluq,
Ghodi
Banaras ascended the throne
Chittor after him. He did
many acts of general
Deogiri
ARABIAN welfare for the
SEA Yarangal BAY benefit of the
Gulbarg OF oppressed people.
LA Dwar B A N G A L
KS Samudra Arrangements for
HY
(IN A Andaman & irrigation were
DI DE
A) EP Madurai Nikobar made to increase
Island agricultural Prod-
(India)
uce . Many tanks
INDIAN OCEAN
were dug and canals
Fig 4.4 The Kingdom of Alauddin Khilji constructed during
these very days. He
founded new townships like Firozabad, Hissar and Jaunpur. Many works in
Sanskrit were translated into Arabic and Persian during his time.
After the death of Firoz Tughluq there was no powerful ruler in this family.
In 1398 TaimurLung invaded India. He plundered Delhi to his hearts content and
returned to his native place, Samarkand. Before returning, he appointed Khizr-
Khan as the Governor of the Punjab.
The Syed family (A.D. 1414-1451) :
Khizr-Khan laid the foundation of the Syed family. There were in all four
Sultans in this family. The last Sultan occupied the throne of Delhi by the name
of Alauddin Alamshah. He was also an incapable ruler. He was, therefore, re-
moved by Bahlol Lodi, who captured the throne of Delhi.
The Lodi Dynasty (A.D. 1451-1526) :
Lodi Sultans were Afghans. All the previous Sultans of Delhi were Turks.

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The Delhi Sultanate

The main Sultan of the Lodi dy-
nasty were Sikandar Lodi and
Ibrahim Lodi.
Ibrahim Lodi was very
proud, hot-tempered and head-
strong. His behaviour with his
officers and the subject was not
good. That brought about dissat-
isfaction and revolt all over the
kingdom. Oppressed by the tyr-
Fig 4.5 The Tomb of Firoz Tughluq at Hauskhas Delhi anny of Ibrahim Lodhi, Daulat
Khan, the governor of Punjab, in-
vited the ruler of Kabul, Babur, to attack India. A fierce battle took place at
Panipat in 1526 between Babar and Ibrahim Lodi. Lodi was defeated in the
battle and thus came to an end the Lodi dynasty.
The Administration of Sultanate :-
The Sultan was supreme in the administration of the sultanate. In military
and judicial affairs also, the Sultan had the final say. The Turk Sardars of the
time were very powerfu1. They used to conspire against the Sultan and, at times,
they were successful even in occupying the throne of Delhi with their conspiracy.
There was no definite system of succession during this time. Some of the
sultans inherited the throne where as some occupied it with their intelligence,
skill and bravery.
The main source of income for the kingdom was land revenue. About one
third of the land-produce was realized as revenue. During the rule of some of the
Sultans, this proportion reached up to a half of the produce. The officers ap-
pointed in villages and districts used to realize the revenue. The post of Mukaddam
(head of the village) continues to exist even today. The major portion of the
income was spent on the army, the personal expenses of the Sultan and on building
magnificent buildings and forts.
For the convenience of administration the Sultans of Delhi divided the
Kingdom into a number of provinces. There, used to be a subedar in every suba
(Province). He would be either a relative or a favourite of the Sultan.
The Rise of the New Kingdoms :
As a result of the decline of the Sultanate a number of new Kingdoms
came into existence in different parts of the country. Many of these kingdoms had
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been the provinces

of the sultanate and
INDIA IN THE LATE
now become inde- 14th & 15th CENTURIES
pendent Kingdom. Kashmir
The Chief among
Lahore
these were the Delhi
kingdoms of Agra
Bengal, Gujarat, Sindh Ajmer R.Ganga
Malwa, Mewar, Ranthombor Kada Ghodi
Banaras
Marwar, Jaunpur, Chittor
Ahmedabad Bengal
Vijayanagar and
Khandesh
Bahamani. Deogiri R. Mahanadi
ARABIAN
The kingdom SEA Yarangal BAY
of Gujarat was R. Krishna Gulbarg OF
LA Dwar B A N GAL
founded by Ahmed KS
H Samudra
Shah. He also (IN YA Andaman &
DI DE
founded the city of A) EP Madurai Nikobar
Ahmedabad. The Island
ruler of Malwa (India)
was Husangshah. INDIAN OCEAN
He founded Fig 4.6 India In The Late 14th & 15th Centuries
Mandavgarh By
this time two of the Kingdoms of the Rajputs-Mewar and Marwar-had become
quite powerful, although there existed some sort of rivalry between them. Rana
Kumbha of Mewar was a man of Versatile genius. Besides being a ruler he was
a good poet and musician, Jodhpur and Bikaner kingdoms also came into exist-
ence around this time.
The Kingdom of Kashmir had also become important during this period.
Zainat Abedin was the popular ruler of it. He encouraged the study of Sanskrit
and Persian and also did many, acts of general welfare. In the eastern India the
two important Kingdoms were those of Jaunpur and Bengal. Jaunpur was later to
become a centre of Hindi literature and learning.
In the Deccan the Bahamani Kingdom and the Kingdom of Vijayanagara
were important. The Bahamani Kingdom was founded by Hasan Gangu, an officer
of Muhammad Tughluq. He belonged to Bahamanshah family of lran. So the
Kingdom founded by him came to be known as Bahamani Kingdom. Firoz Shah
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The Delhi Sultanate

was the most powerful ruler of this dynasty. Vijayanagara Kingdom-Two broth-
ers named, Harihar and Bukkas founded this kingdom which was situated to the
south of the Bahamani Kingdom. The rulers of the Bahamani and the Vijayanagara
Kingdoms were very ambitious and wanted to bring under their control the whole
of the peninsula. They, therefore were always at war. As a result of their mutual
jealousy and warfare they could not make their position strong. But even then
they continued to hold their sway for two hundred years. As they remained unaf-
fected by the turmoils in the north India, they made useful contribution to the
development of the Indian culture and civilization. Notable progress was made
in art, architecture and the regional languages during their time.

EXERCISES
I. Match the contents in column A with those in column B.
A B
1. Qutub-ud-din Aibak 1. Battle with Babar in Panipat.
2. Iltutmish 2. Founder of the slave dynasty.
3. Alauddin Khilji 3. Attack of Chenghez Khan.
4. Mohammad-bin-Tughluq 4. Control on market price.
5. Ibrahim Lodi 5. Use of token currency.

II. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words given in the brackets :-
1. Most of the ruler the, Delhi, Sultanate were................. (Afghanis,
Turks, Mongols, Mughals)
2. ...................stationed his army on the borders to stop attacks by
Mongols.(Balban, Raziya, Iltutmish, Alauddin)
3. Arab traveller, Ibn-battutah has given a description of the reign of
.................. (Firoz, Tughluq, Mohammad-bin-Tughluq, Alauddin
Khilji, Ibrahim Lodi).
4. Bahmani and Vijayanagar were the two main kingdoms in .............
...........India. (South, east, north, central)
5. .........................sent an army towards the deccan under the command
of Malik Kafur. (Balban, Raziya, Alauddin, Iltutmish)
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Social Science-7
III. Short answer questions :
l. Why did the Turk nobles oppose Raziya?
2. Mention about the land tax and the price control policies of Alauddin
Khilji.
3. Mention three of the important events of Mohammad Turghluq’s time.
4. Describe the system of administration of the Delhi Sultanate.
5. How did Alauddin Khilji expand his kingdom?

IV. Essay-type questions:

1. Muhammad Tughluq’s policies failed although they were well thought
why ?
2. Which kingdoms rose in India after the fall of the Sultanate?
3. Give a description of the Bahamani and the Vijayanagara Kingdoms.

V. Things to do :
1. Make a list of the Sultans of the Delhi Sultanate according to the
families and write against each the duration of their rule in the
Christian years.
2. Draw the outlines of the Chief Kingdoms during the Sultanate in the
map of India.

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The Life of The People During The Sultanate

CHAPTER-5

THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLE DURING THE

SULTANATE

We have already read that India had become a house divided against itself.
As a result of the prevailing disunity and want of the spirit of nationalism,
conspiracies and revolts began to take place. In such a situation some powerful.
foreign ruler attacked our country captured and then began to rule over it. Thus,
from the very ancient times there came to live in Indian people belonging to
different culture patterns and religious beliefs.
During the early medieval period the Arabs came to Sind and the South as
traders. The Turks and Afghans came to the north from the central Asia as invad-
ers. Some of them founded their Kingdoms in India, expanded them into empires
and gradually settled down here. Whenever a foreign people conquer a country
and settle down in it, they bring with them new ideals of life as also new patterns
of living. Not only is the conquered country influenced by these new patterns,
but the life of the conquerors also gets influenced by the culture of the conquered
people.
The Turks and the Arabs, who came to India, brought with them the ideas,
the cultures and the patterns of living of Iran and central Asia. Indian society got
influenced by them. And with their settling down in India, the Indian culture and
patterns of living also influenced them. Thus, Indian gradually developed as
new type of culture which was a fusion of a variety of living pattern and thoughts.
Social life:
Indian society was divided into four major groups during the period of the
Sultanate. The aristocracy and the priesthood held the highest position. The general
townmen and the peasants belonged to the other groups. The aristocracy was the
ruling class which consisted of the Sultan, the nobles, the Hindu princes and the
Landholders. The Sultan lived a life of Splendour in Delhi. Whenever a new
Sultan was enthroned the Khutba or sermon was read in his name and new coins
bearing his name were minted and issued. Following the footsteps of sultan, the
nobles and the wealthy lived a life of pomp and show, full of luxury. The Brahmins
and the Ulemas were an important part of society as teachers of religion. Those
among them who acted as advisers to the Sultan exercised a tremendous influence.
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Social Science-7

Some of them were exceptionally wealthy and had received grants of land. The
people living in towns were generally the merchants traders and artisans, and
some nobles and officers. Most of the towns were trading centres. Some of the
towns were administrative and military centres and some towns were places of
religious pilgrimage. The artisans lived in a special locality of the city according
to their crafts. Even today we find that some localities and areas of cities are
called after the type of artisans and merchants who lived there at one time. The
life of the peasants continued much as before. The changes brought about by the
coming of the Turks and Afghans remained limited to the upper levels of society.
The caste system was an important feature of society during the time. The status
of women declined gradually. Among the royal families and the wealthy families
polygamy was practised. The Purdah system and the custom of child marriage
got wider acceptance. These customs resulted into a decline in the status of
women.
Religious life :
Islam came to India with the turks and the Afghans. This resulted in many
things. Although there was some bitterness at the outset, both Hindus and Muslims
were influenced by each other and each borrowed some religious ideas-from the
other. This gave rise to two religious trends-the Sufi movement and the Bhakii
movement.
The Sufis :
Along with the Turks, a number of saints and religious preachers came to
India. Among them were some Sufi saints. They settled down in different parts
of India. They preached love and devotion and Bhakti as the means of coming
nearer to God. They believed that man could gain access to God if he bore real
love for him in his heart. These Sufi saints did not give much importance to
prayer, fasting rituals of worship etc. They had a broad outlook and were-tolerant
of other communities and their religions. Many Hindus became the followers of
these Sufi saints.
Moin-ud-din Chisti was a great sufi saint of his time. He lived at Ajmer for
a long time and also died there. He was convinced that bhakti (devotional) music
was also a path leading to God-Urs is held every year on his mansoleum even
today. Another famous saint of this very community was saint Nizamuddin Auliya
who lived near Delhi. He was honoured by both the sultan and the common man.
Love and war were include into Islam on account of the Sufi Saints.
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The Life of The People During The Sultanate

The Bhakti Movement :
Many saints who tried for the Hindu muslim unity were born in the four-
teenth and the fifteenth centuries. All such saints laid greater emphasis on love
as the means of coming closer to God, rather than on ritual. That is why it is
called the Bhakti Movement.
Mahaprabhu Chaitanaya preached religion in Bengal. He was a devotee of
Lord Krishna. He composed many couplets on Krishna-Lila and sang them in
chorus. Sant Gyaneshwara in Maharashtra preached Bhakti. He wrote the Gita
in Marathi and brought it within the reach of the common man. Sant Namdeo and
Sant Tukaram also were born in Maharashtra. Both of them preached that love
was the means of developing devotion to God. In Banaras Kabir spread Bhakti
through the language of the people. He tried to remove the discrimination between
the Hindus and the Muslims. He held that god is one and is called by different
names. He rebuked both the Hindus and the Muslims for the unnecessary ritual
the show and the bigotism. The disciples or Kabir set up different community by
the name. Kabir-followers (Kabir-Panth.). Kabir was a social reformer and
symbol of communal unity. His teachings areas valuable and relevant today as
they were during his time. Vallabhacharya was a Telgu brahmin of the South. He
travelled on places of Pilgrimage like Mathura, Vrindaban and Varanasi etc. In
the north and preached devotion to the service of Krishan. The group of the eight
Chief disciples of his is called
“Ashta-Chhap”. Suradasa was
the main poet belonging to this
group.
Nanak was another
important preacher of religion.
He founded the Sikh religion.
Later on his followers became
very powerful in north-India. His
teachings have been compiled in
a book called “Granth Sahab.”
Nanak said emphatically that all
men are equal and therefore there
should be no differences based
on castes. He laid emphasis on
Fig. 5.1 Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chistie’s
Mausoleum at Ajmer
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Social Science-7
the purity of mind and character. He held that the
restrictions with regard to eating based on caste
differences were of no avail and insisted that
everyone of his followers should eat in a common
kitchen (Langar). The Chief canons of his
teaching were one God, one Guru, and one name
to worship.
Influence on the people :
The Bhakti Movement widely influenced the
society of the time. All the saints had laid
emphasis on devotion to God and purity of
character in their teachings. They preached that
for the devotion to God one need not give up this
world, and that rituals are not necessary. One Fig 5.2 Kabir
can realise God through love. This led
to the strengthening of the sense of
devotion to God among the common
man as also among the people of the
low classes. The preachers preached in
the language of the people. Avery
important advantage that occurred from
it Was the development of literature in
Hindi and the regional languages the
most important aspect of the Bhakti
Movement was that it tried to bring
closer the followers of Hinduism and
Islam by removing their differences and
bridging the gulf between them.
The Economic life :
The raiders that had come to India Fig 5.3 Guru Nanak
before the Turks and the Afghans e.g. Mahmud of Ghazni and Taimur Lung,
plundered the country and took away with them unlimited wealth and money. But
when the Sultans of Delhi established their Kingdom in India, the wealth and
property of the country were put to use within the country itself. The Sultans of
Delhi tried their utmost to improve the economic condition of the country.
The Sultans and the noblemen gave encouragement to business and industry
in order to meet their needs. Many cooperative factories were also opened.
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Trade reached a new height during this period. Every town had a market place.
Big fairs were also held in which traders would assemble to buy and sell goods.
Indian traders carried on their trade with Malaya, China, Central Asia, Iran,
Afghanistan and many European countries. Foreign traders brought gold to India
and in exchange took away with them cotton and silk cloth, herbs, utensils of
metal ivory goods etc. to their countries.
An African traveller, Ibn-Batutah came to India during Muhammad Tughluq’s
reign. Giving the account of his travels he has recorded that the magnificent city
he ever visited was Delhi. The main cities and ports were Broach, Khamobat,
Multan, Lakhnoti, Sortargaon (Bengal) etc. On Account of the extensive rise of
money in trade and business, coins in a large quantity were minted and circu-
lated. The silver coins were called tank and these were started by Sultan Iltutmish.
It was on the lines of the tankah that the silver rupees were issued later on. It was
during this time that the system of weights by tolas was started which continued
till the modern adoption of the metric system.
The main occupation of the common people was agriculture. The village
folks earned their living by agriculture and small scale crafts. The common man’s
life was full of wants and poverty. Although the Sultans in Delhi drew up, many
a plan for the improvement of agriculture, that did not bring about any change in
the traditional agricultural work. The life of the peasants in villages remained as
it had, been before. Food stuff was in abundance and its price was also low.
The source of income of the state was the land tax. It was something between
a half to one third of the land produce and was realized in cash coins or in kind.
Jajia tax used to be realized from the Hindus. It was a tax imposed on the non
muslim citizens. Zakat (a religious Tax) was collected from the Muslims and the
whole income from this was utilised for helping the poor. In addition to this
octroi on commodities of trade, irrigation tax, tax on the mineral wealth, house
tax, pilgrimage tax etc. were the other sources of income of the state.
Language and Literature :
Regional languages developed in this age and literature was produced in
them. The two forms of Hindi-Braj and Avadhi were used. Persian was the court
language in several parts of the country. Persian, therefore exercised its influence
on many languages in the country and many Persian words found their way into
the different Indian languages. A new language, Urdu, came into existence as a
result of the mixture of Persian with Hindi. The grammar of Urdu was the same
as that of Hindi but its vocabulary was drawn from Persian, Turkish as well as
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Social Science-7
Hindi. Gradually Urdu began to be used mainly in the towns. In the same way,
Punjabi in the north, Gujarati in the west, Bengali in the east, Marathi in the
South. Many of the popular literary works in Sanskrit viz. the Puranas, the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata were translated not only in the regional languages,
but also in Arabic and Persian. Over and above the works of translation, there
were many poets and writers who produced original works in various languages
in the forms of epic poems, lyric poems, plays etc. Famous among such poets
and writers were the Telegu poet, Srinadha, Malik Muhammad Jayasi, Maithil
poet, Vidyapati etc. Amir Khushrau was famous poet and learned man of this
age. He wrote in the language of the common people in addition to creating
works in Arabic and Persian. Khusrau’s puzzles are still prevalent among the
community.
Education and Literature Loving Sultans open many maktabs and Madarassas
for muslim students. The maktabs and schools attached to mosques and temples
were the centres of learning.
Architecture:
The Turks and Afghans brought with them new styles and techniques of
architecture. These got merged with the ancient Indian styles and new type of
architecture developed. Two of the very important architectural forms of this
period were the arch and the dome. Both of these forms were based on advanced
mathematics and engineering skill.
After the coming of these new styles, both the arch and the dome were
widely use in mosques, tombs and a little later, in private residences as well.
The construction of the tall, slender tower was another style of this period.
The coming together of the two styles of architecture resulted into the
construction of some very beautiful buildings. The Qutub Minar built during the
reign of the Mamluk sultans and the nearby mosque were the earliest of these
constructions.
Painting and Music :
The artists of the time were engaged in decorating books -belonging to the
rulers and the courtiers. So they lived under the royal patronage. Sometimes they
painted the portraits of their patron kings and sometimes they illustrated the
events described in the books with their paintings.
The inclusion of new forms enriched the art of music also. The musical
instruments like the Sitar, the Sarangi and the Tabla became very popular during
this time.
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The coming of the Afghans and the Turks resulted into many experiments
with new patterns of living. As a result there took place the development of
religious movements, languages, painting, architecture and new and beautiful
styles of music.
EXERCISES
I. Match the names in column A with contents in column B.
A B
1. Nanak 1. Preached Bhakti in Maharashtra
2. Chaitanya 2. Preached Bhakti in the peoples
languages in Banaras.
3. Kabir 3. Founded the Sikh-religion.
4. Gyaneshwara 4. Preached Krishan-Bhakti in Bengal.

II. Fill in the blanks with the correct word/words given in the brackets:
1. ..............was the court language in a large area of the country during
the Sultanate Period. (Urdu, Hindi, Persian, Sanskrit.)
2. A new language born out of mixture of Hindi and Persian was.........
............. (Braj, Awadhi, Urdu, Bengali)
3. A famous poet...............wrote puzzles in the people’s language during
the Sultanate rule. (Kabir, Sur, Amirkhusrau)

III. Write ‘YES’ against the statements that are true and ‘NO’ against
the ones that are false:
1. In the Sultanate period Indian traders travelled within local and
foreign countries.
2. The Chief source of income for the state was trade.
3. The life of common people was full of wants and poverty.
4. During this period the main occupation of the people was agriculture.
5. The rulers of Ahmednagar built beautiful buildings on the hills of
Mandu.

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IV. Short answer questions :-
1. Describe the condition of the peasantry during the Sultanate period.
2. Throw light on the condition of women during the Sultanate period.
3. What were the contributions of the Sufi saints to Indian society?
4. Describe the main characteristic of the society during the Sultanate
period.
5. Give an account of the development in language and literature during
the Sultanate period.
6. What were the influences of the Sufi saints and the Saints of the
Bhakti movement on the society at that time?
7. How did the Turks and the Afghans influence the architecture &
music in India?
8. Give an account of the following in 3 sentences each -
Nanak, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Kabir, Vallabhacharya

V. Things to do:
Collect interesting details about Nanak, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Kabir and
Vallabhacharya.

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CHAPTER 6

THE COMING OF THE MUGHALS AND THE

EUROPEANS TO INDIA

The political situation in India was in disarray before the attack of the
Mughals. The whole country was divided into small kingdoms. Sultan Ibrahim
Lodi was the last emperor of the Sultanate in north India. Lodi, Sultans depended
more on the patriotism and loyalty of the Afghan Chiefs. Ibrahim Lodi could not
keep them under his control on account of his incapability. So, many of the Afghan
chiefs revolted against the Sultan and declared themselves independent rulers of
so many kingdoms
In such a situation many of the Afghan Turkish chiefs took to conspiracy. In
order to capture the throne of Delhi, They plotted with Babur, the ruler of Kabul,
to get rid of the Delhi Sultanate. Rana Sanga of Mewar also wanted to exercise
his control over Delhi.
The Lodi also agreed to
INDIA ON THE EVE
help Babur against OF MUGHAL
Ibrahim Lodhi, the Sultan Kashmir CONQUEST
of Delhi. Babur had
Punjab
Previously raided as far Delhi
as the border of India. He
Sind
knew that India was a Mewar Agra
rich country and hence Bundel Bihar
when he was asked for Khand
Gujrat
military aid by the chiefs Berar Orissa
of lndia, he agreed in no Khandesh
ARABIAN
time and reached Punjab SEA Golcomba BAY
Bijnor
with his army. OF
LA
Babur (1526 to 1530 KS Vijaynagar BANGAL
H
A.D.) (IN YA Andaman &
DI DE
A) EP Nikobar
Daulat Khan, the Island
Madurai
Afghan Chief of Delhi, (India)
surrendered to Babur INDIAN OCEAN
without giving him a Map 6.1 India at the time of the Mughal Victory.

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Social Science-7
fight. With the desire of becoming the Sultan of Delhi, he also helped Babur
against Ibrahim Lodi by providing him with military aid. Babur had brought his
artillery with him which was a novel thing for the Indian army. He had also a
small but well trained expert cavalry. Babur himself was a brave and expert
general. He knew how to plan an effective strategy and use his army to the best
advantage.
In 1526 A.D. Babur attacked Ibrahim Lodi, the Sultan of Delhi. A fierce
battle took place on the famous plain of Panipat. This was the first battle of
Panipat. The battle was won by Babur.
Babur died in 1530 A.D.
Babur was not only brave warrior and able general but also a superb literary
figure. He was well versed in the Turkish language and a poet and writer too.
Humayun (1530 to 1540 A.D.)
After Babur’s death his son, Humayun, ascended the throne of Delhi. Babur
founded the Mughal rule in India, but he could not live long to make it secure
against the enemies,
Therefore Humayun had to
face a lot of difficulties
immediately after coming
to the throne. The Afghan
chiefs were determined to
turn the Mughals out of the
country. Sultan Bahadur
Shah of Gujrat was
planning to capture the
throne of Delhi. Humanyun
succeeded in conquering
Gujrat and Malwa, but he
Fig. 6.2 Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi could not establish his
authority over Western
India. Being preoccupied with all these revolts and having had to face the enemies,
Humayun could not find time to look after the administration. On the other hand,
Sher Shah was making efforts to re-establish the influence of the Afghans.
Sher Shah (1540 to 1545 A.D.) :
Sher Shah was the son of a Chief who was the owner of a small estate in
Bihar. In his childhood he was called ‘Farid’ but after having killed a lion, he

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The Coming Of The Mughals and The Europeans to India

was recheristened Sher Khan’. Sher Shah organized a powerful army with the
help of which he became an independent ruler. He was very much influenced by
the policies of Alauddin. By defeating Humayun he became the ruler of India.
Administrative reforms of Sher Shah:
First of all, Sher Shah organized his army. He began the system of paying
salaries to the officers in cash the administrative officers and the workers could
make a complaint directly to the emperor. He began to tour the Kingdom in order
to inspect the work of the officers. On account of all these things he became very
popular among his subjects. Like Sultan Alauddin, he fixed up the land revenue
after measuring the land. He took care to collect the revenue but he also took
pain to see that no injustice was done to the peasants. The peasants were not
required to pay taxes for nothing.
Emperor Akbar, later on, adopted the land reforms of Sher Shah as they were.
Sher Shah got many roads constructed in his kingdom in order to facilitate
transportation. On both the sides of the roads shady trees were planted; wells
were dug and at short districts rest houses were built for the comfort of the
travellers. He repaired the road stretching from north India to Bengal, Which
was built during the Maurya period. The same road from Peshawar to Calcutta
is now known as the ‘Grand Trunk
Road’, He built roads in the south
upto Burhanpur and to Jaunpur in
the east to link the borders of his
kingdom with Delhi. With the
construction of these roads it
became easy for the officers, the
workers and the traders to move
from one place to another. It was
Sher Shah who first started the use
of the one-rupee coin.
Sher Shah could rule only for
five years. Unfortunately, he was Fig. 6.3 Sher Shah’s Tomb at Sasaram
killed in an explosion in the
explosive store during the raid of Kalinjar in 1545 A.D. Sher Shah’s death proved
to be boon to Humayun because Sher-Shah’s successors were weak and incapable.
On account of this the position of north India weakened. Humayun desired to be
the ruler of Delhi once again. He, with the help of the Shah of Persia, conquered
Kandhar and Kabul. After conquering Punjab in 1555 he took possession of
Delhi and Agra. In this way, the Mughal rule was established in India once
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Social Science-7
again. Humayun, like his father, Babur, could not enjoy the fruits of his victory
for long. After only one year, while coming down from the stair-case of the
library he fell down and died. His son, Akbar, who is counted among the great
kings of India, succeeded him.
The Bahmani Kingdom :
The political situation of south India was also affected when the mughals
came to power. Hasan Gangu, one of the officers of Muhammad-bin- Tughluq,
founded the Bahmani Kingdom in the fourteenth century. As he received the title
of ‘Alauddin Bahman Shah’, this kingdom came to be known as the ‘Bahamani’
kingdom. In south India, this kingdom extended upto the river Krishna. The most
powerful ruler of the Bahmani dynasty was Firoz Shah Bahmani He was a good
poet and had special interest in Science, Mathematics and logic. The Bahmani
Kingdom progressed a great deal in the fifteenth century. The credit for this
goes to its able and wise minister named Mahamud Gavan. He was a Persian
businessman. After coming to India, he took up employment under the Sultan.
Making progress gradually he became the Chief Minister of the Bahmani
Kingdom. With his skill and prudence
Mahamud Gavan advised the Bahmani
Sultan rule justly for nearly twenty five
years. In matters of collecting taxes, he
committed no atrocities on the subjects.
He conquered Goa from Vijayanagar so
that the profit on trade therefore began to
be received by the Bahmani Kingdom. Fig. 6.4 Coins of Krishna Deva Rao

All this increased the popularity of Mahamud Gavan among the subjects
but, on the other hand, some other people began to be jealous of him. They began
to conspire against him. In 1481 A.D. these people with the consent of the Sultan
got Mahamud Gavan murdered.
The succeeding rulers could not exercise control over their chiefs. Besides
this, the frequency of attacks from the neighbouring Kingdom of Vijayanagar was
increasing. Therefore the Bahmani Kingdom got divided into five independent
Kingdoms.
The Vijayanagar Kingdom :
By the end of the fifteenth century when the Bahmani Kingdom started
declining after the death of Mahamud Gavan the Vijayanagar Kingdom rose to
power again. At that time Krishna Deva Rao, the greatest ruler of the Vijayanagar
Kingdom, ruled it. His reign continued for about twenty-one years. He defeated
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The Coming Of The Mughals and The Europeans to India

the rulers of Orissa and Bijapur on the battlefield. He took possession of the
Doab of Raichur from the Bahmani Kingdom. On the Western coast he established
friendly relations with all the local kings. The boundaries of his kingdom extended
upto south Konkan in the west, Vishakhapattanam in the east and upto the end of
peninsula in the south.
Krisnha Deva Rao made friendly relations with Portuguese also. He gave
them lots of facilities. He permitted the Portuguese Governor, Albubuerque to
construct a fort. Another Portuguese, Payes by name, lived in his court for many
years. He has given a description of the administrative system prevailing during
the reign of Krishna Deva Rao. Krishna Deva Rao introduced a large irrigation
scheme for the agricultural development in his kingdom. He issued orders to his
officers with regard to the welfare of his subjects. Krishna Deva Rao constructed
many temples and palaces. He was interested in literature and was proficient in
Telegu and Sanskrit languages. He wrote ‘Amukta Malyada’, a long poetic com-
position in Telegu. Krishna Deva Rao died in 1530 A.D.
The Three kingdoms of South:
The decline of the Vijayanagar Kingdom began just after the death of Krishna
Deva Rao, in 1565 A.D. Vijayanagar came under the combined attack of the
forces of the neighbouring states-Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmednagar, and was
defeated on the battlefield of Taliketa. In this way Vijayanagar lost it glory.
India and Europe:
At the end of the fifteenth century the Portuguese were the first to come to the
Western sea coast of India. In 1408, the first ship of Vasco-de-gama reached India
to trade. They were so much benefited by their trade that they felt encouraged to
settle in India. By and by they commanded over small Indian territories and
established their factories there. By the side of the factories the Portuguese built
their settlements. In these settlements lived their missionaries whose main objective
was to propagate Christianity. Goa had already become a colony of the Portuguese.
Before the coming of the Portuguese traders some Europeans had also come
to India who travelled various parts of the country e.g. Marco Polo from Venice
and Nikitan from Russia visited South India. But both of them had come along.
In the sixteenth century traders came to India from Some other parts of
Europe, Such as England, France, Denmark, Holland and Spain, to trade and
established their settlements. These European countries wanted to establish trade
relations not only with India but with other Asian countries also.

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The Renaissance .:
After the long spell of the Dark Ages, a new movement took place in Europe
which gave rise to such tendencies as have direct bearing on our modern thinking
and living. This movement is called the Renaissance. First of all, it began in
Italy in the fifteenth century and in the next two centuries it spread to the whole
of Europe. This movement revived interest among the people in the ancient culture
and civilization of Europe. People’s attention was drawn to the Greek and Roman
cultures and civilizations that were in existence before the beginning of
Christianity. Learned men studied seriously about the artistic achievements, the
literature, the philosophy and the history of those ancient cultures. Consequently,
new ways of thinking developed. The whole atmosphere began to be pervaded
with a spirit of enquiry. Many rules of small kingdoms and wealthy merchants
began to take an interest in this. Due to long standing trade contacts with the
Arabs, their learning reached Italy and Spain. This added to the curiosity of the
Europeans. By and by, the influence of the church began to wane on the learned
persons. People were not inclined to accept whatsoever was told by the Church
about the universe, God and human life. People were not inclined to accept
everything blindly. Now the basis of thinking was what man could perceive and
feel. Science was born through this process. People did not believe that knowl-
edge was given by God. They came to believe that one could gain knowledge by
wisely observing the world around him. The Renaissance thinkers emphasized
that knowledge should be used for human welfare. Man should do good, not
because it is God’s command but because all men are human beings.
In the fifteenth century, a Polish philosopher, Copernicus, tried to prove that
the sun is the centre of the universe and the earth and other planets move around
it. This idea of Copernicus prevented a revolutionary thought before the scholars
of the world because upto that time it was taught by the church that the earth was
created by the God and thus it was the centre of the universe. Centuries before,
the theory of Copernicus was attempted to be proved by Aryabhatta in India. In
the beginning of the Seventeenth century Galileo, an astronomer and scientist of
Italy, proved this by his observation and experiment. He invented the telescope
and through it studied the sun and other planets. To prove his theory he used his
scientific methods. The knowledge gained by his experiments began to spread to
other European countries and thus new scientific discoveries began to be made.
The new thoughts of the Renaissance were enthusiastically accepted by the
merchants and the middle class people in the cities because they were against
the church and feudalism. Leonardo-da-Vinci was another scientist and artist of

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The Coming Of The Mughals and The Europeans to India

Italy. In his paintings, he beautifully depicted the feelings of an average human
being. The Monalisa portrait made by him was an incomparable piece of paint-
ing. Being interested in science, he invented a number of machines out of which
the ‘flying machine’ was the most exciting of his experiments. In the field of
literature Shakespeare was a great dramatist of the later Renaissance period and
he gave expression to human hopes and aspirations, ‘pleasure and pain very
effectively in his dramas.
The period of Discoveries and
Inventions:
The thoughts of the Renaissance
period spread fast from one city to another
all over Europe. At the same time an
incident took place in Europe. It was the
capture of Constantinople by the Turks in
1453 A.D. Previously, a great portion of Fig 6.6A Specimen Ship of the 16 th Century
western Asia was under the control of the Turks. On having taken possession of
Constantinople by the Turks, the trade relations between Europe and Asia came
to an end. Trade between Europe and
Asia was necessary for many reasons.
For example, Europe had the need of
Asian Spices and many European cities
were dependent on this trade. Had that
trade stopped, these cities would have
declined. The simplest and easiest
route from Europe to Asia was through
Western Asia which was now closed.
The European kings and the merchants
encouraged old and adventurous sailors
to discover new sea-routes to Asia in
order to gain the advantage of direct
trade with Asia.Till then, the Europeans
had no knowledge of the other parts of
the world. The scientists of the
Renaissance period were ready to help
these sailors to hunt for new sea-
routes. As a consequence many
European sailors set out on sea- Fig 6.7 Vasco-de-Gama
expeditions towards different directions to discover new sea-routes. Thus the
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Social Science-7
period of new discoveries began.
First of all, the Portuguese came forward in this direction. Bartholomew
Diyaz travelled along the Western Sea-Coast of Africa in 1488 AD. And he
sailed up to Cape of Good Hope, the tip of Southern Africa. Another Portuguese
sailor was Vasco-de-Gama.
Queen Isabela gave him help. Following Diyaz, he continued his journey
along the eastern coast too. Crossing the Arabian sea he reached the harbour of
Calicut on the Western Sea-Coast of India in 1498 A. D. Thereafter the Portuguese
merchants started coming to India. Prior to this the Indian trade was dominated
by the Arabs. So they opposed the Portuguese, but by making attacks on the Arab
trade settlements, the Portuguese brought under their control the Arab trade.
They built trade houses at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanor. Before long, their
position became strong in India. Like the, Portuguese, the Spainiards also did
not lag behind in this sphere. Under the leadership of Columbus, a Spanish sailor
a sea-expedition started. The Spanish kings bore all the expenses of it. Columbus
wanted to reach India by the Western route. He, therefore, sailed towards the
West and reached the islands of West Indies, which
he took to be a part of India. This was in the year
1492 A.D.
Amerigo Vespucia was successful in reaching
America in 1497 A.D. By this time, geographers
had come to know that it was a new continent.
Therefore the continent was named America, after
the name of Amerigo. When Magellane went around
the world in 1519 A.D. The existence of the
continent of America was proved. The Spainiards
met with no success in respect of Asia, but they
discovered two great civilization in America. These
Fig 6.8 Columbus were the Ajtex civilization of Mexico and the Incas
civilization of Peru. They conquered these areas,
destroyed these civilization and took away the gold and silver from there to
Spain.
Scientists and geographers helped the sailors immensely in the discovery
of new trades and new countries. First of all, progress and improvements were
made in the drawing of maps. Whenever a ship went to a new country it returned
with new information and knowledge. Geographers would effect changes
according to the new knowledge in their records. The invention of the ‘Mariner’s
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The Coming Of The Mughals and The Europeans to India

compass’ proved to be a boon for the sea voyages. It lessened the danger of
getting the ships lost in the sea. Now ships could sail, across the sea. The compass
was invented in China and it reached Europe through the Arabs. The Portuguese-
invented the movable sails which could be adjusted according to the direction of
wind. The Portuguese were also the first to fit good quality guns in their ships
and thus they increased their fighting power.
In this adventure of hunting new searoutes and discovering new lands, other
European countries joined in later on.
The Reformation and its reaction:
From the ‘Dark Ages’ upto the Renaissance, Christianity was the dominant
religion in Europe. By now Christianity was divided into two groups. One of
them was the Roman Catholic and the other was the Greek orthodox Christianity.
Constantinople was the centre of the greek orthodox religion. They held that their
religious outlook was the order and more orthodox one. Rome was the centre of
the Roman catholics. Their version of Christianity was of a later date and was
accepted from all over northern and Western Europe. The biggest leader of the
church was called the Pope. Pope means ‘father’. During this period the Pope
was the most powerful authority in both political and religious matters. The au-
thority of the Pope was unlimited and uncontrolled. None could challenge it. He
could punish those who opposed the accepted beliefs and practices in the field of
religion.
Gradually the rights of the Pope and those of the church began to be chal-
lenged. People began to express their indignation at the interference of the Church
in secular matters like politics. Till then, the church had a right to collect taxes of
various kinds from the public. But now people began to object to these taxes also.
Feelings of the people grew stronger against the Roman catholic church and at
last they broke away from it. Christian theologians like Martin Luther, Erasmus,
John Kelvin etc. denounced the church. At the beginning of the sixteenth century
persons denouncing the church organized themselves, into a new group of Chris-
tians called the “Protestants” This movement is known as the reformation move-
ment in religion. On account of this division of Christianity a lot of blood was
shed because the Catholics and the Protestants continued their fight against each
other for along lime. In many northern countries of Europe; the property of the
Church was snatched away and the taxes collected by the Church began to be
deposited in the royal treasury. Trading was encouraged. By and by, the gov-
ernments in these countries began to take interest in trading with Asia. These
countries were, at last successful in setting up their dominions in Asia and Africa.
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The Portuguese in India:
The Portuguese came to India to trade. Their first objective was to take
over the control of the spice trade from the Arabs. They succeeded in their aim
by even resorting to piracy. To snatch away the spice trade they had to establish
their settlements in west Asia, India and later on, in Southeast Asia.
The Portuguese had another interest in India. They wanted to convert into
Christianity as many Indians as possible. They did’ not hesitate even to compel
the people to become christians. They established the inquisition also in India.
Christianity was not a new religion for India. The Syrian Christians had been
living peacefully in India for many centuries before that. Yet the Portuguese
were not satisfied with that situation. They tried their allmost to convert as many
Indians to Christianity as possible.
The Mughals in India :
The Mughals came to India to establish their empire and they did get suc-
cess in it. The biggest difference with them and the earlier invadors was that the
Mughals made India their home, settled down here and became a part of the
Indian population. They always kept the welfare of India in view. Leaving aside
Aurangzeb, other Mughal rulers were liberal in their religious outlook and policy.
The result of the Mughal rule was the laying of the foundation of a powerful
empire in which almost the whole of India was included. India got the opportu-
nity to witness the era of a new civilization. Akbar was the symbol of this new
civilization.
EXERCISES
I. Match the contents of the column A with those of column B.
A B
1. After defeating Humayun 1. The Kingdom of Vijayanagar
Sher Shah, became powerful.
2. Mahmud Gavan helped the 2. Came from Venice and visited
Bahmani kings south India.
3. At the end of the fifteenth 3. Declared himself the ruler of
century when the Bahmani India.
Kingdom declined
4. Marco Polo 4. Came from Russia and
travelled in the Deccan.

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5. Nikitin 5. Rule wisely and justly for
twenty five years.
II. Fill in the blank with the right word or words from those given in
brackets.
1. In 1526 a battle was fought on the famous plains of...................when
Babur defeated the Lodi army. (Talikota, Tarain, Panipat)
2. It was possible that ............... might have become as great..............a
sultan as Akbar if he had more time to rule.
(Babur, Humayun, Sher Shah)
3. ......... was an able chief minister of the Bahmani.....................
Kingdom. (Mahamud Gavan, Ibn Batutah, Al Beruni)
4. ....................discovered that the earth moves round the sun.
(Copernicus, Galileo, Leonardo-da-Vinci)
5. ...............was the first European who reached America.
(Magelane, Columbus, Amengo Vespucia Vasco-de-Gama)
Short answer questions:
1. Give three reasons for the first battle of Panipat.
2. Who was Sher Shah? Why did he get success?
3. How did Humayun regain his lost Kingdom?
4. Who established the Bahmani Kingdom?
5. Who was Krishnadeva Rai? Why is he remembered?
6. Who were the first Europeans to come to India and why did they come?
7. What is meant by ‘Renaissance’? What was its influence on Europe?
8. Write two sentences on each:
Copernicus, Galileo, Leonardo-da- Vinci.
9. What do you understand by the Reformation?
Essay- type questions :
1. Give an account of Sher Shah’s administration.
Things to do:
Find out the routes in the world map through which the Arabs and the
Europeans came to India.

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CHAPTER -7

AKBAR

Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar was born on 23rd November, 1542. A,D. in

the palace of Veersal a Hindu King of Amarkot (Sind). At that time Humayun had
taken refuge at Amarkot after being defeated by Sher Shah. He did not know that
the son born in such adverse circumstances, would one day become a great
emperor of India. Akbar’s childhood was spent in misery. When he became five
years old, arrangements for his education was made, But his heart was not in
studies. He was staying with Bairam Khan in Punjab when he got the news of his
father’s death. Bairam Khan held Akbar’s coronation at that very place on February
14,1556 and declared him the emperor of Delhi. Akbar was thirteen years old at
the time. Akbar was very young, his guardian, Bairam Khan looked after the
affairs of the state.
At the beginning Akbar had to face a lot of dif-
ficulties. Delhi and Agra were under the control
of Adil Shah Sur and his Chief Minister was
Hemu. The Rajputs also were seeking an
opportunity to regain their lost power. Sikandar
Shah Sur was creating trouble in Punjab.
Kabul was in Mirza Hakims Possession.

Besides this, there were a number of

small Kingdoms. Akbar was short of money
and the economic conditions of the
Fig 7.1 Akbar
country was in a shambles.
Akbar’s first conflict was with Hemu. A fierce battle took place on the
historical plains of Panipat on November 15, 1556.A.D. between the two armies.
Hemu was a general of proved merit and he had a large army. But on being
pierced by an arrow suddenly in the eye, he fell down. On his removal from the
battlefield confusion and stampede took place among his soldiers. The Mughal
army was victorious. Hemu was taken prisoner and later on, put to death. As a
result of the victory in the second battle of Panipt. Akbar regained his control
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Akbar
over Delhi and Agra. Once again the authority of the Mughals was established in
northern India.
When Akbar came of age he took the reign of administration into his own
hands from Bairam Khan. After establishing his authority on a sound footing in
Delhi and Agra, he decided to extend the area of Mughal domination. He advanced
to conquer the important forts of Gwalior, Ajmer and Jaunpur. He sent his army
under the command of Adham khan and Pir Muhammad to gain control over
Malwa. The ruler of Malwa, Baj Bahadur was given to luxury and was a lover
of music. Mandu was his capital. Getting defeated Baj Bahadur showed his back
but later on surrendered himself.
Akbar set him free and took him into his army.
Akbar sent one of his generals Asaf Khan to attack on Gondwana. This
kingdom was situated in the areas around Jabalpur and Mandla of the present
Madhya Pradesh. In those days the widow queen Durgawati used to rule there on
behalf of her minor son, Vir Narayan. She faced the army squarely taking a
sword in her hand but when she had no hopes of victory she put an end to her
life. Vir Narayan also died fighting like hero. Asaf Khan plundered the limitless
wealth of the Kingdom.
Akbar was convinced that to rule over
India could be possible only with the support
of the Hindus as well as the Muslims. He put
this principle into Practice firstly by establishing
friendly relations with the Rajputs. He made
many pacts and alliances with the Rajputs. He
cemented this friendly relations with marriage
alliances between his family and those of the
Rajputs. He himself married a number of Rajput
princesses. He also appointed many Rajputs on
high offices of his administration. The result of
this was that the Mughal Administration was
benefitted by the services of many Rajput Chiefs.
The son of the king of Amer, Mansingh was one
of his most prominent and efficient generals.
With the help of his Rajput friends Akbar
was successful to annex to his empire such forts
as Chittore and Rartthambhor. Nevertheless, the
Fig 7.2 Queen Duragwati ruler of Mewar, Udaisingh did not accept defeat
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Social Scince-7

and after his death his son, Maharana Pratap

carried on his struggle against Akbar. A very
fierce battle took place in 1577 A.D. on the
plains of Haldi Ghati between the armies of
Rana Pratap and Akbar.
The Army of Rana Pratap taught the
Mughal army a good lessons of life. Finally,
the Mughal army was victorious. Rana Pratap
was taken away to a safe place. Rana Pratap
underwent a lot of hardships, wandered from
forest to forest, ate bread made out of grass,
but kept up his dignity, honour and glory. Upto
the end of his life, he did not accept Akbar’s
domination and continued to struggle for his Fig 7.3 Maharana Pratap
motherland. Prior to his death, he did regain
his control over the whole of Mewar except Chittore.
Akbar’s desire was to exercise control over the whole of India. He
conquered Gujarat and Bengal. Since there areas were connected with the sea,
they were Important trade centres. Traders in Gujarat traded with the Arabs and
the Europeans. Likewise Bengal traders traded with south-east Asia and China
in spices and cloth. The profits from the trade in both these provinces went to the
Mughal treasury.
Akbar also annexed to his empire the Kingdoms of Khandesh, Ahmednagar,
Bijapur and Golconda. In those days Chand Bibi ruled over Ahmednagar as the
guardian of the minor nephew. When the Mughal army attacked Ahmednagar,
Chand Bibi faced the Mughal onslaught very boldly. She did not accept defeat
till the end. After the death Chand Bibi, the kingdom of Ahmednagar was merged
with the Mughal empire.
Akbar conducted attacks on Orissa and also on the places of military
importance in the North-Western border provinces like Kabul, Baluchistan and
Kandhar and expanded his empire.
The Administration of Akbar
Akbar was an unbriddled aristocrat. He built up a vast empire and applied
a uniform system of administration throughout the country. He brought about the
following improvements in order to reinforce the administration :-
Akbar divided the whole empire into 15 Subas (Provinces) and every Suba
was divided, into Sarkars and every Sarkar into Parganas. The highest officer of
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every Suba was a Subedar who was responsible for the maintenance of law and
order in the Suba. The Dewan kept the record of land revenue. The Bakshi met
the needs of the army and sent necessary information regularly to the Capital.
The administration of a city was the responsibility of the Kotwal. The system of
transferring the officers from one place to another from time to time was also
started.
The Mansabdari system was established in order to strengthen the adminis-
tration. Under this system each noble was given a mansab (rank). The rank of a
mansab was valued high or low according to the number of mounted soldiers
one was authorized to keep. These were from 10 to 10,000 in number. The
emperor could deploy the army of a mansabdar as he liked. The emperor had a
select band of soldiers and an artillery. Therefore, there was not the fear of any
Mansabdar’s using his army against the emperor.

The land-development carried out during Akbar’s time were of great im-
portance and the credit for this goes to his Dewan, Todarmal. He executed ten
year settlements. First of all, land was divided into categories measure the fields
chains made of bamboos were introduced. The land revenue was fixed at one-
third of the annual produce calculated on a ten year average. The cultivator
could credit the revenue either in cash or in kind; according to his convenience.
The officers in charge of land development were paid handsome salaries so that
they did not trouble the farmers.
The sources of Income of the State :
The sources of income were the mint inheritence, presents, monopoly trade,
self tax, octroi duty and land tax. The chief sources out of these was the revenue.
The trade system:
Agriculture was the main occupation. Fishing, saltmaking, making opium
and liquor were the other common occupations. The useful trades of cloth -
making, paper making, production of equipments for war, making utensils of
different metals were in a state of development; cotton cloth making made a
great progress. Trade both internal as well as external made a good progress.
The religious policy:
At the beginning, Akbar was a staunch muslim. But gradually religious
liberation and tolerance came to him. He adopted a policy of equality, freedom,
tolerance, liberalism and compromise with regard to all religions. Akbar himself
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was intelligent He could analyse and test the other Scriptures in the light of
reason. He built a place of worship (Ibadat Khana) at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575
AD. where he would hold discussions with the saints and learned men belonging
to different religions. He studied the basic principles of all religions and came
to the conclusion that the fundamental principles of all religions were the same.
Although the paths of realization were different. He made no discrimination
among Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Parsis, Jains and Buddhists and showed an
attitude of respect towards all religions. In order to attain compromise and ad-
justment. among the different religions and to establish a new religion he started
a new sect called the Din-i-Ilahi. Akbar accepted the principles of conduct and
behavior of the Hindu religion. He used to put’ on a ‘tilak’ on his forehead and
performed worship also. He stopped realizing the Zazia tax from the Hindus.
Pilgrimage tax imposed on the Hindus was abolished. Hindu women used to
worship different Gods and goddesses in his palace.
The consequences of Akbar’s Religious Policy:
1. The fanaticism and bigotism of Islam were turned down by Akbar’s’
religious policy.

2. Akbar’s state authority was strengthened by the support of the Hindus.

As a result, the successors of Akbar could rule peacefully for about
150 years after him.

3. Akbar’s liberal policy brought about a coordination and cohesion in

the society.

4. The non-muslims gave up opposing the Mughal rule.

5. On account of his policy it became possible to establish peace and

strengthen the economic position of the country.

6. A fusion between the Hindu and the Muslim cultures took place on
account of the coming together of the Hindus and the Muslims.
Development of Fine Arts and Literature:
(1) Literature: Tremendous progress was made during the reign of Akbar
in the fine Arts and Literature. Famous poets and literary men like Surdas, Tulsidas,
Abdul Rahim Khankana, Raskhan, Birbal, Keshav das, Abul fazal, Faizi, Badayuni
etc. lived during Akbar’s rule. ‘Sursagar’ of Surdas, ‘Ram Charit Manas’ of
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Akbar
Tulsidas, ‘Ramchandrika’ of Keshav Das, ‘Akbar-Nama’ of Abul Fazal and also
‘Aine Akbai’ were very famous in literary works. Akbar got Sanskrit books
translated into Persian. He himself however was not lettered.

(2) Music and Painting : Music made progress during Akbar’s time.
Emperor of Music, Tansen, was a
famous singer of his court. Akbar
partronised painting also. He invited
artists from overseas to teach painting.
A fusion of the Indian and the Persian
styles of painting began to be made
during Akbar’s time. Bright colours
were used in the paintings of the time.
Fig 7.4 Akbar’s mausoleum at Sikandara
Paintings of trees,
rivers,mountains, animals and human beings used to be done very attractively.

(3) Architecture: A mixing of the Indian and the Persian style of

architecture was done in the buildings built during Akbar’s time.

Akbar got forts built in Agra, Lahore, and Allahabad. The fort of Agra is a
fine specimen of architecture. Akbar built a city Fatehpur Sikri by name. The
buildings of importance here were the Diwan-e-Khas, the Diwan-e-Aaam, the
palace of Mariam, the palace of the Turk Sultan, Jodhabai’s palace, Birbal’s pal-
ace. Jama Masjid, the tomb of Sheikh Saleem Chistie, the Buland Darwaza etc.

Akbar a great National Emperor:

If we consider things from a wider angle, all of Akbar’s actions go to prove
him to be a national emperor. He laid the foundation of a secular state by giving
the freedom of religion to all. He treated the Rajputs with honour. He tried to
remove the evil social customs. He established political unity in the country by
conquering the largest areas of the country. Discrimination was done away with
while making appointments to the posts under the Government. He encouraged
inter-caste marriages. During his reign great advancement was made in the fields
of literature, music, painting and architecture.

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EXERCISES

Essay-type Questions:
l. What were the primary difficulties during Akbar’s accession to the
throne?
2. What were the battles fought by Akbar for the expansion of his
Kingdom?
3. Explain Akbar’s Rajput policy?
4. Explain Akbar’s administrative system?
5. Explain the taxation system of Akbar?
6. What was Akbar’s religious policy? What was its influence on the
society of that time.?
7. Explain the development in literature and Arts during Akbar’s time.
8. “Akbar was a great national emperor” Elucidate.

Short-answer question :
9. Describe the second battle of Panipat and mention its results.
10. How and why did Akbar free himself from his guardian, Bairam
Khan?
11. Mention the incident of queen Durgawati’s sacrifice.
l2. How did Maharana Pratap struggle to save his motherland?
13. How did Chand Bibi struggle against the Mugha1s?
14. What was the influence of Akbar’s Rajput policy on the minds of the
people?
15. Mention the characteristics of the mansabdari system of Akbar.
16. Give any five results of Akbar’s religious policy.
17. Make a mention of the famous buildings of Akbar’s time?
18. Choose the correct alternative and write it:

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(a) The most important result of the battle of Panipat was that :
(1) Hemu was killed.
(2) Akbar got control over Delhi.
(3) The Mughals struck roots in India.
(4) It facilitated Akbar to win other victories.

(b) The main result of Akbar’s Rajput policy was that :

(1) It brought about Hindu-Muslim Unity.
(2) Akbar got reliable persons to help him.
(3) Akbar secured the faith of the people.
(4) Akbar made himself free from treacherous courtiers.
(c) Among Akbar’s measures of improving the strength of the army,
the most important was :
(1) to abolish the Jagir system.
(2) to pay the salary in cash
(3) to start the Mansabdari system.
(4) to keep the navy.
(d) Akbar is considered a national emperor because :
(1) he expanded the Mughal empire in India.
(2) he abolished evil social customs.
(3) he brought about improvement in literature and art.
(4) he ruled as a secular ruler.
(e) Collect the pictures of the famous buildings of Akbar’s time.

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CHAPTER 8

THE AGE OF SPLENDOUR AND WEALTH

Akbar established a vast empire with his strength and made arrangement
for its efficient administration. In reality it was Akbar who was the founder of
the Mughal empire because he put it on a permanent footing. This made it
sufficiently easy for his successor, Jehangir and for the two later rulers, Shahjahan
and Aurangzeb to rule. During their reigns the area under Mughal control was
expanded and its revenue increased. Life at the court went on becoming more
and more luxurious. That is why this age came to be known as the age of splendour
and wealth.
Jehangir :
After the death of Akbar in 1605 A.D. his eldest son, Salim, ascended the
throne by the name of Jehangir. Before that he was the Subedar (Governor) of
Awadh and Bengal. In the beginning he managed the administration well and
made no changes in the religious and administrative
policies of Akbar.
Jehangir was educated and learned. He had a very
good knowledge of Turkish and Persian. He wrote his
reminiscences in
“Tuzuki-Jehangiri” in
which persian style can
be seen. This work of
Jehangir provides us
with a lot of information
Fig 8.1 Jehangir about his reign.
He had a great attachment for painting and
was himself a painter of a high order. During
Jehangir’s time the art of Painting reached its zenith.

Marriage with Nur Jahan :

In 1611 A.D.Jehangir married NurJahan. She,
was a beautiful and intelligent woman. Jehangir
was very deeply influenced by her beauty and Fig 8.2 Nur Jahan
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ability. Nur Jahan’s influence continued to grow on the administration and Jehangir
displayed growing indifference in the affairs of the state and sank into a life of
luxury. He also fell ill for a long period and during that time, Nur Jahan shouldered
his responsibilities and carried on the administration of the empire. Nur Jahan
appointed her kith and kin to the high posts of administration and this gave rise to
dissatisfaction among the courtiers.
The main events of Jehangir’s reign :
On the whole the reign of Jehangir was peaceful. Not many battles were
fought in his time. He consolidated the authority of the Mughals in Bengal. The
struggle that had started between Akbar and the king of Mewar, Rana Pratap,
came to an end with Pratap’ s son, Amar Singh’s entering into a treaty Jehangir
continued his father’s policy of matrimonial alliances with the Rajputs. He sent
his army to the hills of Punjab and took control of Kangra. The clash with the
Ahmednagar Kingdom was a source of trouble. Jehangir sent a large army under
the command of Prince Khurram for an attack but having got frightened Malik
Amber, the ruler of Ahmednagar, made a treaty and the struggle ended then and
there. Thus Jehangir made the Mughal empire more powerful.
During Jehangir’s reign the king of Iran recaptured the Kandhar Province.
This was a loss to the empire.
Jehangir had to face internal revolts also. His son, Khurram (Shah Jahan)
revolted against him because Nur Jahan wanted Shaheryar to be the successor of
Jehangir. However, this revolt was put down.
Jehangir’s general, Mahawat Khan also revolted but Nur Jahan managed to
crush it with her insight and he fled towards the south.
The European traders had started arriving during Akbar’s reign itself. During
the reign of Jehangir the king of England sent Sir Thomas Roe as his ambassador.
He tried to execute a trade agreement with Jehangir, but failed. Sir Thomas Roe
as his ambassador. He tried to execute a trade agreement with Jehangir, but
failed. Sir Thomas Roe lived in Agra for three years. He has given a lively
account of the life in the Mughal court.
Jehangir is specially remembered for the chain of justice. He had a golden
chain with bells tied to it hung by the wall of his palace. Any person was free to
appeal against injustice by pulling that chain.
Shah Jahan :
The reign of Shah Jahan, the builder of the World famous ‘Taj Mahal’ was
the period of highest glory for the Mughals.Shah Jahan was Jehangir’s son.
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After the death of his father 1628 AD.

He succeeded to the throne. In the ca-
pacity of a prince, he had participated
in a battle in which he displayed the
qualities of an efficient general. He had
his marriage with Arjumand Banu, who
was very beautiful and was the daughter
of Asaf Khan. Shah Jahan confirmed on Fig 8.3 Mumtaj Begun and Shah Jahan
her the title ‘Mumtaj Mahal’. It was on
her grave that the world famous ‘Taj Mahal’ was built.
Soon after his coming to the throne Shah Jahan had to face the revolts of the
Rajputs of Bundel Khand and the Mughal Governor Khan-e-Jahan Lodi, the
Deccan. The revolt in Bundelkhand was suppressed easily, but the Deccan had
by this time become an area of trouble for the Mughals. Shah Jahan paid his
attention to this problem. Ahmednagar was made a part of the Mughal empire
1636 A.D. He forced Bijapur and Golconda also accept the Mughal supremacy.
Shah Jahan made his son, Aurangzeb the Governor of the Deccan. Aurangzeb
tried his utmost to conquer Bijapur and Golconda and annex these to the Mughal
empire. But he could not get complete success. Another group in the south to
oppose the Mughal authority was that of the Marathas. We shall learn about them
in detail later on.
After sorting out the problems in the Deccan, Shah Jahan concentrated his
attention on the north west In order to secure- the defence of the north-western
border he sent his armies to Balkh and Badak Shan in central Asia. He recaputred
Kandhar from the Shah of Iran in 1688 A.D. but this victory did not last long
because Kandhar again went out of his hands.
By this time the Portuguese had become quite powerful on the eastern coast.
They had established a business settlement at Hugli. Using it to do piracy in the
Bay of Bengal.
The Mughal armies cleared them out of Hugli. Then the armies advanced
towards the north-east and annexed Kamrupa in Assam.
Shah Jahan was taken ill in 1657 A.D. The war of succession ensued soon
after amongst his four sons Dara, Shuja, Aurangzeb and Muravd. Ambitious
Aurangzeb defeated all his brothers and captured the throne. He also imprisoned
his father, Shah Jahan had to spend his last days in great misery. He used to look
at the Taj Mahal from the fort and remember his queen, Mumtaj Mahal. At last
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Shah Jahan died as a prisoner in
1666 A. D.
Shah Jahan’s reign was a
period of great splendor. He built
a city “Shah Jahanabad” in his
name and made it his capital. It is
a part of Delhi at present. It was
here that he erected the Jama
Masjid and the Red fort.
The “Takhit-i-Taus” i.e. the Fig 8.5 Taj Mahal Agra
Peacock throne, which was
studded with costly jewels was placed in this very fort and Shah Jahan used to
sit on it. The world renowned diamond, ‘Kohinoor’ was studded into this throne
and it was later looted and taken away by Nadir Shah.
At present this diamond is lying safe in the British Museum.
Aurangzeb became the Mughal emperor in 1658A.D. He ruled for nearly
fifty years. The greatest expansion of the Mughal empire was made during his
reign.
Aurangzeb, on account of his policy of religious fanaticism gave up Akbar’s
policy of religious tolerance. He imposed a lot of restrictions on the non-muslims.
On account of this policy the loyalty of the Hindus towards the Mughal rule came
to an end, The Jats, the Rajputs, the Sikhs and the Marathas revolted against it;
one after the other. Most of Aurangzeb’s time was consumed in putting down
these rebellions. This adversely affected the administration.
The Jat Rebellion:
The Jats of Mathura rebelled under Gokula’s leadership against the
attrocities of Aurangzeb. Twenty thousand Jats confronted the Mughal army, but
Gokula was taken prisoner and, later on; he was sentenced to death and executed
in Agra. The enthusiasm of the Jats did not, however, weaken at this. They carried
on the rebellion under the leadership of first, Rajaram and then Chudaman. These
rebellions took place in the life time of Aurangzeb and continued even after that
and helped the decline of the Mughal empire.
The Sikh Revolt:
Aurangzeb was unhappy with the Sikhs. After the death of the Seventh Guru
he tried to take advantage of the differences over the succession of the Guru’s
throne. In the meantime, the power of the Sikhs was increasing. The ninth Guru,
Teg Bahadur, built a fort at Anandpur. In order to put an end to the increasing
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power of the Sikhs, the Mughal administration ordered the execution of Guru
Teg Bahadur in 1675 A.D. This, naturally created a deep anger among the Sikhs,
His son, Guru Govind Singh, organised the Sikhs and made them militant.
Henceforth the expression ‘Khalsa’ which meant ‘the pure’ began to be used for
the Sikhs. To bring about uniformity among the Sikhs it was made compulsory
for everyone of them to have the five characteristics: Kesha (hair), Kangha
(Comb), Kara (Iron bracelet), Kripan (dagger), and Kachcha (underwear). With
these measures Guru Govind Singh turned to Sikhs into a powerful organization.
Which made Punjab a serious danger spot for the Mughal authority. Under the
leadership of Guru Govind Singh the Sikhs carried on their struggle against the
mughals for long time.
The Rajput Rebellion:
The Rajputs had contributed a lot to the strengthening of the foundation of
the Mughal empire; but Aurangzeb hated them. He was afraid of the powerful
courtier, Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur. After his death in 1678 AD. Aurangzeb tried
to annex his kingdom, Jodhpur (Marwar). At this the Rajputs, under the leadership
of Durgadas Rathore, revolted. Aurangzeb sent his son, Akbar to crush it. but the
Rajputs won him over their side. Afterwards Aurangzeb made a treaty with Rana
Jai Singh of Mewar. But the struggle of the Rathores continued unabated till the
last days of Aurangzeb’s life.
The Maratha Rebellion:
The Marathas were the small, chieftains under the control of the Deccan
Kingdoms. They were strong in the hilly region around Pune (Poona) and the
Konkan. The strength of the Marathas was continuously increasing under Shivaji’s
leadership. Seeing the weakening of the Bijapur Kingdom Shivaji tried to make
himself an independent ruler. The King of Bijapur sent his general, Afzal Khan
to fight against Shivaji but Shivaji killed him. Then Aurangzeb got purturbed. He
sent the governor of the Deccan, Shaista Khan to fight against. Shivaji, but on
Shivaji’s making a sudden attack, Shaista Khan had to flee for his life. In 1665
AD. Aurangzeb sent Raja Jai Singh to lead an attack on Shivaji. Although Jai
Singh did not get success in it, he made Shivaji agree to go to the Mughal court
by the treaty of Purandar Shivaji came to the court at Agra along with Jai Singh.
He was not received with due honour and dignity which annoyed him. Aurangzeb
put him under confinement in Agra, With great shrewdness Shivaji slipped out of
the confinement. On reaching Deccan Shivaji declared himself to be the
independent ruler of the Maratha Kingdom. Shivaji sat on the throne in 1674
A.D. During the six years of his reign he was successful in establishing a powerful
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The Age of Splendor and Wealth

Maratha Kingdom. His death occurred in the year 1680 A.D.
Shivaji’s administration was of high order, which was inspired by the
ideals of public welfare. The reins of the Maratha Kingdom were in the hands of
the king, but there was a committee of eight persons called Ashta-Pradhan to
advise him on the affairs of the State. The main-source of income was the tax on
land which amounted to two-fifths of the land produce. In addition to this, taxes
called ‘Chauth’ and ‘Sardesmukhi’ were also levied on those living outside the
Maratha Kingdom (the areas under the Mughal empire and the Deccan). ‘Chauth’
was one fourth of tax which the farmers paid to the other kingdoms of the Deccan
or to the Mughal empire.
Present external Boundary of India ‘Sardeshmukhi’ used to
INDIA 1680 A.D. be over and above the
KINGDOM OF SHIVAJI
above mentioned tax and
was one tenth of the total
revenue. The areas from
where these taxes were
realized, where kept free
from the Maratha looting
INDIA
and attacks.
Baroch Shivaji’s character
Burhanpur was unique. He was an
Elichpwar BAY
ARABIAN Nagpur
OF able administrator. He
SEA Pune BANGAL was inspired by the
Satara
Bombay Kolhapur Machchalipatnam feeling of public welfare
in his rule. He consoli-
Beleari Madras
dated the scattered
Karwar Mysore Pondichery
power of the Marathas
Tanjore and organized it in the
Trichunapalli
form of a powerful na-
tion. He was a highly re-
INDIAN OCEAN ligious man but he also
Map 8.9 maintained an attitude of
Map of India : The Kingdom of Shivaji-India 1680 A.D. tolerance towards other
religions. He had a deep
respect for women. He issued strict standing orders to his army not to do any
harm to the women and children of the enemies and to the standing crops. Shivaji’s
name will always be remembered as an uplifter of the nation.
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The Bijapur & Golconda Kingdoms :
In the Deccan the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda were a problem for
the Mughal rulers. Being an orthodox Sunni Aurangzeb harboured enmity towards
these princely states right from the time of his father, because their rulers were
Shia Muslims. The seige of Bijapur and Golcunda continued for years together.
At least, both were merged with the Mughal empire although, later on, both these
kingdoms went out of the control of the Mughals.
Social and Cultural life in the Mughal Period:
The Society: The society during the mughal period was feudal. It was divided
into three classes the high, the middle and the low, The emperor occupied the highest
status. He lived a life of luxury and splendor among the feudatories were Iranians,
Turanis, Indian Muslims and Amirs as well as kings. Their dresses and interests
exhibited high splendor and glory. The Jagirdars and the Zamindars were very rich
and lived a luxurious life.
Present external Boundary of India
They spent money freely INDIA 1700 A.D.
on hunting, fights of KINGDOM OF
AURANGZEB
animals and birds, music Kashmir
and songs, drinking,
gambling and throwing
re

Delhi
ho

lavish parties. The

La

Agra
officers of the state and
the middle class. People Ajmer Allahabad
Bihar
Rajput
of this class whose INDIA
number was Gujrat Malva
comparatively less, lived Orissa
Khandesh
a peaceful and contented ARABIAN Berar BAY
life. In the lowest class SEA Ahmadnagar OF
Golkunda B A N GAL
were included the
farmers, artisans and Hydrabad
labourers. Their number
was a legion. Their life
was full of Madurai
discontentment and
poverty because their
wages were very low an INDIAN OCEAN
whereas the taxes and, the Map 8.10
prices were quite high. Map of India : Aurangzeb’s Empire in In India 1700 A.D.

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The Age of Splendor and Wealth

Villages had little contact with the towns and cities. Their modes of living,
their mores were as they had been before. There was not, much of a difference in
the dresses of the Hindus and the Muslims. Things like practising magic and
Magical spells, consideration of omens, holding the gurus, pirs and mendicants
and fakirs in reverence bowing heads at the mausoleums and dargahs etc were in
vogue equally was among the Hindus and the Muslims. People belonging to both
the communities participated in the festivals of each other.
Economic Progress
The Mughal period was a period of prosperity in agriculture and trade. The
measures of land reforms introduced by Akbar brought about improvement in the
condition of the farmers. In addition to food grains, canes, cotton, indigo, tobacco
and silk were grown in large quantities. Different kinds of industries also
flourished. The cloth industry prospered a lot during this period, Mulmul of
Dacca, Zari-work of Banaras, cotton, cloth of Bengal, Bihar and Gujaral, Woollen
cloth of Kashmir were the items of world-renown. Factories were run by the
Government in which thousands of workers and - labourers were employed. The
trade of the time was chiefly in the hands of the Hindus. The chief centres of
trade during this period were Delhi, Agra Lahore, Banaras, Surat, Machchlipattam
ete. India’s foreign trade was done with countries like Perisa, China, East Africa,
Russia and Western Europe. The country was getting prosperous by the income
from the trade.
Literature and Education:
Many a Mughal emperor was either himself learned or patronized learned
men. As a result, in addition to the production of original literary works in Persian
and Hindi Works of translation also were done.
Babur himself wrote his autobiography, ‘Babur-nama’ in the Turkish
languages. Humayun’s sister, Gulbadan wrote Humayan in Persian. Humayan
himself was lover of literature. During Akbar’s reign translation of the
Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the Atharvayeda, Nal-Damayanti, Tuzuk-i-Babri,
the Bible, the Quaran etc. were made into Persian. Books of historical importance
like ‘Akbar-nama’ and ‘Ain-e-Akbari’ were written by Abul Fual. Emperor
Jehangir wrote his autobiography ‘Tuzk-i-Jehangiri,’ The ‘Bhagwat Gita’ and
the Upanishads were translated into Persian during Shah Jahan’s time. Muhammad
Sadiq wrote a book entitled .’Shah Jahan nama. ‘Aurangzeb compiled a treatise
‘Tatwah-e-Alamgiri’ with the help of some muslim books.
On account of the Bhakti movement during the Mughal rule, Hindi literature
made an unprecedented advancement. Akbar had, in his court, high-ranking poets
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like Mansingh, Birbal, Abdul-Rahim Khankhana etc. It was during the time of
Akbar that Surdas wrote ‘Sursagar’ and Raskhan and Meera composed literary
works in devotion of Krishan. Tulsi Das also produced his famous poetic work,
‘Ramcharit Manas’ during this very period. Senapati, Bhushan Dev, Bihari etc.
were the other poets of repute who produced poetic works in Hindi.
There was no formal government arrangement for public education during
the Mughal period. The nature of education was chiefly religious, and the schools
situated in the temples and the mosques were the main centres of education.
There were madrsas and school for higher education in which there was’
arrangement for the study of Mathematics, Astrology and Medicine. Girls had
their education at home. The main centres of muslim education were Agra, Delhi,
Jaunpur, Lahore and Ahmedabad. Banaras and Nadia in Bengal were the Hindu
centres of higher learning. The court language of the Mughals was Persian, but
people used Urdu and Hindi in villages and towns. Lucknow and Delhi became
the centres of Urdu poetry during the eighteenth century.
Architecture:
Architecture received a special encouragement during the Mughal period.
We find an admixture of the Central Asian, South-east Asian and Indian styles in
the architecture of this period.
The process of building construction started primarily during Akbar’s time.
He got built many buildings in Agra, Lahore, Allahabad and Fatehpur Sikri. The
buildings of Fatehpur. Sikri are of a high quality from the artistic point of view.
A special mention deserves to be made of the Diwan-e-Aam, the Diwan-e-Khas,
the palace of Mariam, the Jama Masjid, the Buland Darwaza among them. All
these buildings are made of red stone. During Jehangir’s time marble stone began
to be used. The tomb of Akbar in Sicandara built during Jehangir’s time is a
famous building.
The reign of Shah Jahan is considered to be the golden period of architecture
on account of the magnificent and attractive buildings constructed during the
time. He built magnificent buildings, forts, mosques, tombs in Agra, Lahore,
Delhi, Kabul, Kandhar, Ajmer, Ahmedabad etc. The Diwan-e-Aam, ,the Diwan-
e-Khas and the Moti Masjid and the fort of Agra are his famous bui1dings. He
changed his capital from Agra to Delhi and laid the foundation of the city of
Shahjahanabad. Of the buildings erected, here the Red Fort and the Jama Masjid
are the main ones. The most famous building of Shah Jahan is the Taj Mahal. It is
a building made of white marble stone. From the artistic point of view no other
building is comparable to it.
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Painting: The most important painting technique of the period was the tech-
nique of miniature painting. The art of painting reached its zenith during Jehangir’s
time. He himself was a painter and connoisseur of art. He could recognize the
artist by just looking at the painting of the painters of his time Farooq Beg, Ustad
Mansoor and Bisan Das were very high class painter, Painting did not receive
any special encouragement during the time of Aurangzeb.
Music: The Mughal emperors had an interest in music Babur himself knew a
lot of about art. Humayun loved music. Akbar himself was a good singer. He had in
his court many musicians of repute. Tansen was one of his nine jewels in the court
on whom was conferred the title of “The emperor of music.” There were many
singers in Jehangir’s court also. Sahah Jahan’s voice was very sweet. Ramadas and
Mahapatra were the famous singers of his court. Aurangzeb was against music.
Consequently, many musicians left the Mughal court and went away to the courts of
the provincial governors, the Rajput kingdoms of Rajasthan and the Kingdoms on
the hills. That caused the growth of interest in music in these areas. Later on, many
gharanas (schools) of music were established.
The Mughal rulers were lovers of nature. They got the famous gardens built in
Kashmir and they also beautified their buildings by having gardens around them.

EXERCISES

I. Select the most appropriate words from the brackets and fill in
the blanks :
1. During Jehangir’s time the greatest progress was made in the art of
.................(painting, music, writing)
2. Shah Jahan got the Red Fort built in..................(Delhi,Lahore,
Agra).
3. ....................came to the court of Jehangir as the ambassador of the
king of England. (Hawkins, Columbus, Sir Thomas Roe)
4. Vir Durgadas fought against the Mughals for the safety of the Kingdom
of..............(Mewar, Marwar, Khandesh).
5. Shivaji sat on the throne in the year ....................(1574, 1674, 1680).

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II. Match the contents of column A with those of B :
A B
1. Humayun-nama 1. Abut Fazal
2. Akbar-nama 2. Muhammad Sadiq
3. Sur sagar 3. Humayun
4. Shah Jahan-nama 4. Gulbadan
5. Ramcharit Manas 5. Surdas
6. Tulsidas

III. Answer briefly the following questions :-

1. Describe the Major events of Jehangir’s reign.
2. Describe Noor Jahan’s influence on the Government.
3. Which rebellions had Shah Jahah to face in the beginning?
4. Describe the relations of Aurangzeb with Shivaii.
5. What do you know about Shivaji’s administration?
6. What were the results of the policy of religious fanaticism of
Aurangzeb?
7. Name the famous buildings of the Mughal period.
8. Why did the Sikhs revolt during the time of Aurangzeb?
9. Describe the economic condition of the Mughal period.
10. Give an account of the progress made in literature during the Mughal
period.
11. Describe the condition of the society during the Mughal period.
12. Give an account of the war of succession for Shah Jahan’s throne.

IV. Interesting things to do:

1. Prepare an album of the buildings built in the Mughal period. Write
the name of the person who constructed it against each building.

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The Fall of Mughal Empire

CHAPTER 9

THE FALL OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

Aurangzeb was the last powerful Mughal emperor. His empire spread all
over India, from the north to the south. Before him no other emperor had such a
vast empire. But after his death in 1707 A.D. the Mughal empire became very
weak. New powers came into existence in the form of Kingdom.
During the Mughal reign there used to be fighting’s on the question of suc-
cession. After Aurangzeb’s death such as infighting took place among his sons.
The son victorious in this fight acceeded to the throne by name of Bahadur Shah.
The four years of his rule were full of problems and difficulties.
During Bahadur Shah’s reign, the Rajputs and the Sikhs took to rebellion.
Bahadur Shah could do nothing to suppress them. After his death again the battle
for succession ensured and several rulers came on the throne for a short period.
But all of them were incapable and powerless. Taking advantage of the weakness
of the administration Banda Bairagi led the Sikh rebellion and decided to set up
an independent Sikh Kingdom in the Punjab. The Afghans settled in Ruhelkhand
also revolted against the Mughal rule. Taking advantage of the weakness of the
Mughal rule the governors of Hyderabad, Bengal and Awadh established
independent Kingdoms in their respective provinces.
While the Mughal rulers were already facing and suffering from the internal
rebellions. Nadir Shah, the king of Iran and Ahmed Shah Abdali, the king of
Kabul invaded India.
Nadir Shah plundered Delhi to his heart’s content and took away with him
the famous. ‘Takht-i-Taus’ of Shah Jahan and the Kohinoor diamond to Iran. On
the other side after, consolidating their strength, the Marathas were extending the
sphere of their influence to northern India. As a result, the famous third battle of
Panipat took place between the Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali. The Marathas
were defeated in this and they had to go away from the north. But on account of
these attacks the Mughal empire remained restricted just to the areas around
Delhi. They remaind just nominal rulers. Real power passed into the hands of
the newly established kingdoms.
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INDIA IN THE The European

EARLY EIGHTEEN Traders:
CENTURY
Kashmir There was a great
Punjab
demand of lndian cloth
o re Delhi and spices in Europe.
L ah Agra
That is why the traders
Avadh
Bikaner of Europe decided to
Jaipur Bihar
Mewar trade with India. They
Jodhpur Berar Bengal took full advantage of
Khandesh their increasing sea
Gujrat Bijnor
Mewar Golcomba power.
Marathas
ARABIAN BAY
SEA Bijapur OF First of-all, a
Hydrabad B A N GAL
Portuguese sailor,
Goa Vasco-de-Gama reached
Madras Calicut through a new
Andaman &
Sea route. The
L a (In

Calicut Nikobar
Pondichery
k s dia

Portuguese carried on
hy )

Cochin Island
ad

(India) their trade with India for

ee
p

a long time. In the

INDIAN OCEAN
seventeenth century, the
Map 9.1 Dutch, the English and
Map of India : India is the beginning of Eighteenth Century. the French also came to
India to trade. They
established trade companies. There was competition among these companies.
The English companies secured their control over the cloth-trade, The places
where they had established their factories are today known as Madras and Calcutta.
The Portuguese founded the city of Bombay, but on the marriage of the princess
of Portugal with Charles-II, the ruler of England, the Portuguese gave away
Bombay to the English as dowry.

The naval power of the English gradually increased to a great extent. The
traders of Holland and Portugal could not come to their level, but the rivalry in
trade with the English did not end, because now, in 1664 A. D. the French
companies established a trade centre at a place called Pondicherry. Thus, there
was again a stiff competition between the English and the French traders. The
French lost to the English. Now the English companies, not only were able to
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The Fall of Mughal Empire

control the trade in India but they also began to interfere in the politics of the
new kingdoms in India. This gradually enabled them to establish their rule in
India.
The causes of the fall of the Mughal Empire :
After the death of Aurangzeb the Mughal empire broke up, but its fall had
already begun during his very reign. It had reached- its climax in the eighteenth
century. As we have already seen, the successors of Aurangzeb were weak and
incapable. They did not possess the capacity to rule over such a vast empire.
They remained puppets in the hands of the officers.
Succession wars very often took place during the Mughal period and that
went on reducing the strength of the state. The provincial Governors became
powerful and some of them set up independent kingdoms. Hyderabad, Awadh
and Bengal became independent states on account of this very reason.
The military power of the Mughals had also weakened. The artillery, of
which they were very proud, had become outdated. They paid no attention to the
improvement of the guns and cannons. Instead of training the Indian personnel
for the artillery they began to appoint foreign soldiers to manage it. The Mughals
made no efforts to modernise their army.
Many drawbacks crept into the mughal administration. Their manasabdars
were no more loyal to the Kingdom. They discontinued maintaining mounted
soldier in the required strength. Officers also began, to care more for their personal
interests.
Economic reasons were also responsible for the fall of the Mughal empire.
Foreign attacks, internal rebellions and the wars of succession caused a great
deal of money to be wasted. The number of mansabdars increased reducing the
number of Jagirs. That affected the peasants adversely for the Jagirdars started
realizing more from them. The wasteful and extravagant living of the mughal
emperors also added to the financial crisps.
The pompous and luxurious living of the emperors, the mansabdars and the
wealthy in the eighteenth century caused erosions in the moral and social values
of the people. The aristocrats spend most of the their time in drinking, display of
wealth and ideal enjoyment. They were unable to do anything to save the empire
from the imminent decline. Consequently, the English, who were more advanced,
gradually extended their authority over the whole of India.
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EXERCISES

I. Match the content of column A with those of column B.

A B
1. Banda Bairagi 1. Fought the third battle of Panipat
with the Marathas.
2. Bahadur Shah First 2. Plundered Delhi and took away to
Iran the Takht-i-Taus.
3. Nadir Shah 3. Decided to establish an independent
Kingdom in the Punjab.
4. Ahmed Shah Abdali 4. Was an incapable Mughal ruler.

II. Fill in the blanks with the words given in brackets :

1. Vasco-de-Gama was the first........................sailor who came to In-

d i a
by a new sea-route. (English, Dutch, Portuguese, French)

2. The city of Bombay was obtained by Charles, the ruler of England

as dowry from ........ (India, Portugal, Holland, France)
3. The toughest encounter the English company had to do was with
the....................company . (Dutch, German, French, Portuguese)

III. Write ‘YES’ against the statements that are true and ‘NO’
against the ones that are false.
1. Only Aurangzeb was responsible for the fall, of the Mughal empire.
2. The Mughal rulers paid no attention to increasing the sea-power.
3. The third battle of Panipat was fought between Ahmed Shah Abdali
and the English.
4. The trading companies of Europe, came to India after the death of
Aurangzeb.
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The Fall of Mughal Empire

IV. Answer briefly the followoing questions:-
1. Which were the new kingdoms that came into existence in the
eighteenth century?
2. Which defects got into the Mughal administration?
3. What was the result of the Mugha1 emperor’s policy of not paying
attention to the importance of the sea power?
4. What were the reasons that compelled the Mughal rulers to face
economic stringency?
5. Write down the four main causes of the fall of the Mughal empire.

V. Something to do:
1. Make a list of the present day important centres of textile industry.
2. Prepare a list of important Indian Sea-ports.

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Social Science-7
CIVICS

CHAPTER-1

OUR CONSTITUTION

The meaning of Constitution:

Constitution is a collection of those rules through which a country is
governed. In our constitution the rules have been framed on the basis of the
cultural values of India. The ideals of democracy, secularism and socialism
have been enshrined in it. The rights and duties of the citizens of India have also
been anuciated in this constitution.
According to our constitution, there are three chief organs of the Government
of India.
1. The Legislature 2. The Executive 3. The Judiciary.

The Legislature: The law-making organ is called the legislature. The In-
dian Parliament makes laws for the whole country. It has two Houses-The Lok
Sabha and the Rajya Sabha.
The Executive:- That part of the Government which enforces law is called
the Executive. The President, The Council of Ministers and the Public Services
Constitute the Executive.
The Judiciary:- The disputes arising out of the encroachment of laws, are
settled by the Judiciary. The Indian judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, the
High Courts, the Subordinate Courts the Lok Adalats and the Nyaya Panchayats.
The above three organs of the Government work independently. Along with
the division of powers, these organs co-operate with one another. Therefore, no
conflict of any type arises and the balance is evenly maintained.
A short History of the Development of the Constitution :-
We celebrate 15th August, and 26th January as National Festivals each year.
Our country became independent on 15th August, 1947. Therefore, this day is
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Our Constitution
called the Independence Day. This independence was achieved after a long and
hard struggle by the Indian people. Before independence our country was gov-
erned by the laws of the British Government. Since long, we were being exploited
by the British Government. Due to their dual policy of ‘Divide and Rule’ there
was great unrest among the Indians. Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi,
many movements were started, one after another by the Indian National Congress.
In order to crush these movements, a reign of terror was unleased by the British
Government. As a result, there was a demand for freedom from every nook and
corner of the country. Thus the pressure was increasing to grant freedom to India
on the British Government.
In 1939, the second world war brokeout. The British Government got en-
tangled in it. In India the freedom movement was gathering momentum. Indians
were not in favour of helping the British Government in the war. Indian, soldiers
were considered to be very brave. Therefore, the British Government wanted
them to fight for it in the war. In order to please the Indians by giving them some
sort of freedom a goodwill mission was sent to India. The mission is known as
the “Cabinet Mission.”
The Mission recommended that there should be a Constituent Assembly to
frame a constitution for India. According to this recommendation, election was
held in July, 1946 to elect a Constituent Assembly of India. The members were
elected not by the people directly, but by the members of the Provincial Legislative
Assemblies.
Members of the Constituent Assembly
The first meeting of the Constituent As-
sembly was held on 9th December, 1946. The
members were drawn from different
communities and regions of India. It also had
members representing different political
parties. Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Pandit Jawahar
Lal Nehru, Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel,
Maulana-Azad, Dr. Shyama Prasad
Mukherjee, Sardar Baladev Singh were some
of the members. Shrimati Vijayalakshmi
Pandit, Shrimati Sarojini Naidu and
Rajkumari Amrit Kaur were important women Fig 1.1 Dr. Rajendra Prasad

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Social Science-7
members. Some constitutional experts such as Shri Alladi Krishan Swamy Ayyar,
Dr. B.R Ambedkar and Shri K.M. Munshi were.
Why Republic Day on 26th January?
The Constitution was passed on 26th November, 1949 by the Constituent
Assembly but it was enforced on 26th January, 1950. There is a reason for this.
In its Lahore session in December, 1929, the Indian National Congress had
decided to fight for complete independence of India and 26th January, 1930 was
celebrated as the complete Independence Day. More than 30 members belonged
to the Scheduled Castes. The Anglo-Indian and Parsess were represented by
Shri Frank Anthony and Dr. H.P. Modi. Dr. Hari Singh Gaur, Seth Govinddas,
Pandit Ravishankar Shukla, Shri Gopikrishna Vijayavargiya, Shri Ram Sehciya,
Shri Sitaram Jajoo, Shri H. V. Kamath, Shri Kusumkant Jain, Shri Radhavallabh
Vijayavargiya were some of the members from the present Madhya Pradesh. The
Chairman of the Constituent Assembly was Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Pandit
Ravisankar Shukla who belonged to Chhattisgarh was a member of the constituent
assembly.
The Drafting Committee :-
The Drafting Committee was formed to
prepare the draft of the constitution. Dr.
Bhimrao Ambedkar was its Chairman. The
Constituent Assembly took about three years
to prepare the Indian Constitution. All the
sessions of the Assembly were open to the
press and the people. The views and the
opinion of the people were also expressed
freely in newspapers. Thus, the people of India
were indirectly involved in the making of their
constitution. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru had said
that they did not want colonial independence.
They wanted complete independence. In order Fig 1.2 Pandit Nehru
to commemorate this date, the Indian
Constitution was enforced on 26th January, 1950. This day was declared as the
Republic Day, because the constitution made India a Republic. The Supreme
ruler, the President, is elected by the people.
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Our Constitution

Fig 1.3 Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar Fig 1.4 Vallabh Bhai Patel

Fig 1.5 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Fig 1.6 Sarojini Naidu

Fig 1.7 Vijaylaxmi Pandit Fig 1.8 Rajkumari Amritkaur

Lord Mountbatten was the Governor General of India in 1947. After him
Shri C. Raj Gopalachari became the first Governor General, of free India. He
was the first Indian to hold this office. General Election was held in the country
for the first time in 1952. Dr. Rajendra Prasad became the first elected President
of India.

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EXERCISES

I. Why was the Indian Constitution needed?

2. What is the meaning of the Constitution?
3. How was our constitution made?
4. Who was the Chairman of the Constituent Assembly?
5. Why was our constitution enforced on 26th January?
6. Who was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution?
7. Give the name of a member of the constituent assembly who belonged
to Chhattisgarh ?
8. Clarify the meaning of the following :-
The Constituent Assembly the Drafting Committee.
9. Name the persen who represented Chhattisgarh as a member of
Constituent Assembly.

Practical :-
Meet some old man in your locality and collect information about
the Indian freedom movement.
Think over :
If you are asked to preside over some meeting, how will you discharge
your duty?

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Main Characterstics of The Indian Constitution

CHAPTER 2

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDIAN

CONSTITUTION

Before knowing the main characteristics of the Indian constitution, it is

essential to know about its preamble. The constitution of every country in the
world has its own preamble. The preamble reflects the views and the objectives
of the constitution makers and also the basic values of the country and the
constitution. We waged a
long battle for freedom. The
makers of the constitution ge] Hkkjr ds yksx] Hkkjr dks ,d laiw.kZ izHkqRo laiUu
lektoknh] /keZ fujis{k yksdra=kRed x.kjkT; cukus ds fy,
had a dream of an ideal
rFkk mlds leLr ukxfjdksa dks lkekftd] vkfFkZd vkSj jktuhfrd
society which was stated in U;k;] fopkj vfHkO;fDr] fo’okl /keZ vkSj mikluk dh Lora=rk]
the following preamble : izfr"Bk vkSj volj dh lerk izkIr djusds fy, rFkk mu lc esa
O;fDr dh xfjek vkSj jk"Vª dh ,drk rFkk&v[k.Mrk lqfuf’pr
We, the people of djus okyh cU?kqrk c<+kus ds fy, n`<+ ladYi gksdj viuh bl
India having solemnly lafo/kku lHkk esa vkt rjh[k 26 uoacj 1949 bZ- ¼ferh ekxZ’kh"kZ
resolved to constitute India ’kqDy lIreh laor~ 2006 foØeh½ dks ,rn~ }kjk bl lafo/kku dks
into a sovereign, vaxhd`r] vf/kfu;fer vkSj vkRekfiZr djrs gSaA
socialistic, secular
Democratic Republic and
to secure to all its citizens;
Justice, social, economic
and political.

Liberty of thought,
expression, belief, faith
and worship. Fig 2.1

Equality of status and of opportunity, and to promote among them all

Fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the, unity and integrity of
the Nation.

In our Constituent Assembly this 26th day of November, 1949, do hereby

adopt, enact, and give to ourselves this constitution.
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Social Science-7

The preamble as given above clearly states that our country is now sover-
eign in all matters. The ultimate source of an power is the people.
Democracy, secularism and socialism are the basic principles of our con-
stitution. There are also some other features of constitution.
Sovereignty : This is the main feature of the Indian Consitution. India is
completely independent state now. We are not subordinate to any country in
external or internal matters. We the Indians run our own government. Our people
is now capable of making its own government. Our Government is now capable
of making its own decision in internal and foreign affairs.
Democracy : Democracy means a Government which is run by the
representatives of the people who are elected on the basis of adult franchise.
This means that each adult, man and woman, elects a representative of his or her
own choice. The representatives are elected after every five years. These
representatives together, form the Government.
Secularism : The State gives equal treatment to all the religions. It does not
favour any particular religion. The constitution given complete freedom to its
citizens to practise and preach their own religion.
Socialism : The achievement of socialism based on economic and social
equality is one of the chief goals of our constitution. It has been provided in it to
give equal opportunities in education, employment, justice etc. to all. Special
facilities have been given to the backward and the downtrodden people. The
directive principles have been incorporated for the establishment of a welfare
State. Presently, economic disparities create unrest in the country. Under such
condition the country cannot make any progress. Therefore, efforts have been
made to create a society based on social and economic equality. Socialism is
one of our National Goals.

Federal system of Government :

The Federal System of Government is that system where the powers of the
central government and the state government are well defined in the constitution.
Our constitution sets up a federal system of government. In our Country, there are
28 states and 7 union territories. There are separate Governments at the centre
and in the states. The division of powers between the Central and the State
Governments has been made according to the three lists in the constitution.
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Main Characterstics of The Indian Constitution

1. The Union List 2. The State List 3. The Concurrent List.
1. The Union List :- Railways, Post and Telegraph, Armed Force, External
Affairs etc. are some of the subjects included in this list.
2. The State List :- The subjects of local, importance like Police, Jail,
Education, Agriculture, Health etc. are enumerated in this list.
3. The Concurrent List :- Both the Parliament and the State Legislature
can make laws on the subjects given in this list.
Single Citizenship:- our constitution provides for a single citizenship of
this country. The citizen of each state is a citizen of India. We do not have the
system of double citizenship in India. A person may be living in Madhya Pradesh
or Maharashtra but he is called only the citizen of India.
The Parliamentary System:- Like Britain there is the parliamentary sys-
tem of Government in India. The real power is vested in the Parliament. The
ministers in the Central Cabinet are members of the Parliament. The Prime Min-
ister and other ministers are answerable to the Parliament for their actions.
The Directive Principles of State Policy :
To bring about economic and social welfare in the country, the directive
principles of State Policy have been stated in our constitution. The purpose is to
bring social ‘equality’ in the country. Special direction have ‘been’ given for the
uplift of the backward communities and the weaker sections of our society. There
is a provision to make special laws for women. The directive principles direct
the Government to work for the social well-being, security, economic and social
prosperity of the nation. There is a Directive Principle which aims at achieving
free, and compulsory education for all children up to the age of the 14 years. The
directive principles also provide equal pay for equal work to both men and
women.
The Fundamental Rights and Duties :
The fundamental rights are the necessary condition for the development of
the personality of an individual. These help in promoting democratic values.
There are six fundamental rights guaranteed in the constitution, so necessary for
the development of the personality of the citizens.
The rights and duties are inter-related, One man’s duty is another man’s
right Neglect of duties is a curse for humanity and it hampers the growth of
society. When the citizens forget their duties there is lawlessness in the society.
Therefore, proper balance should be maintained between rights and duties.
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Social Science-7
EXERCISES
1. Throw light on the main aims of the Indian Constitution.
2. Explain three main characteristics of the Indian Constitution.

3. Write a short note on anyone of the following :-

(a) Democracy (b) Single Citizenship (c) The Directive Principles of State
policy.

4. Fill in the blanks :-

(a) India is completely a.................state.
(b) The fundamental rights help in the development of the.....................of
a man.
(c) Neglect of duties is a.............................for humanity.

Practical :
Learn the prayers of all the religions.

Think over :
How do all religions promote humanity?

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Fundamental Rights and Duties

CHAPTER 3

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES

In the last Chapter you have read that fundamental rights help in the
development of the personality of every citizen. In almost all the democratic
countries, some rights are guaranteed to the citizen in the constitution. The Indian
Constitution has guaranteed some important rights. Even the Parliament or the
Legislative Assemblies cannot make any law which encroaches upon these rights.
Any law which interferes with the fundamental rights can be set aside by the
Supreme Court. It is only during an emergency that the fundamental rights can be
suspended
Our Constitution has guaranteed six types of rights to the citizens as given
below:-
Our Fundamental Rights
1. Right to Equality : Our constitution gives equal treatment to all the
citizens. The State cannot discriminate on the basis of religion, caste, creed, sex,
language, place of birth etc. The state gives equal opportunities to every
individual, on the basis of abilities, in the field of education, employment,
profession and earning a livelihood. Untouchability has been abolished. Scheduled
castes and Scheduled Tribes have been given special facilities. Due to their
backwardness, some seats have been reserved for them in schools, colleges and
Government services so that they may come at par with other sections of the
society.
All the titles, awarded before independence have been abolished. In free
India such distinctions as ‘Bharat Ratna’ and ‘Padmashri’ are conferred for
outstanding service to the country.
2. Right to Freedom :- Every citizen has the right to read and write, speak,
hold public meeting peacefully and form any association or union. He is free to
go to any part of the country and settle there. He can take up any job or trade any
where in India. He is also free to acquire any property anywhere in the country.
3. Right against Exploitation :- The purpose of this rights is to prevent any
exploitation in society. It is an offense to buy or sell men, women and children.
The constitution prohibits forced labour of beggar’. Nobody can be asked to
work against his wishes. No child under the age of 14 years’ can be employed to
work in any factory or mine.
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Social Science-7
4. Right to Freedom of Religion :- Every citizen in India has the freedom
to practise his own religion. People of different religions have also the freedom
to preach their religion in a peaceful manner. They can also form any religious
association for religious purposes.

Right To Liberty of Religion

Organization
Right To
Education
Writing Culture
Speech
Right
Against
Occupation Exploit-
ation
Right To
Liberty Right To
Constitutional
THE Remedy
Right of FUNDAMENTAL
Equality RIGHT

Fig 3.1 Our Fundamental Rights

5. Cultural and Educational Rights :- Every Indian citizen has the right to
preserve his own language, script and culture People in different part of the
country speak different languages. They take pride in their language and culture.
They have the right to establish their own educational institutions.

6. Right to Constitutional Remedies :- Each citizen has the right to approach

the court in order to protect his fundamental rights. If the fundamental right are
curtailed or taken away by any law of the Government the citizens, can approach
the court and challenge the action of the Government. That is why the courts are
described as the protectors of citizens rights.

Fundamental Duties :- Our constitution was enforced on 26th January,1950.

But nothing was said about the duties of the citizens in the constitution. In order
to make people conscious about their duties, the constitution was amended in
1976 and the fundamental duties of the citizens were incorporated in it. These
are as Under :
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Fundamental Rights and Duties

1. To show respect to the Indian Constitution, the National Flag and
the National Anthem.
2. To have faith in the ideals of National Freedom Movement.
3. To protect the Integrity and Unity of the Country.
4. To Defend and Serve the Country.
5. To Develop the Spirit of Goodwill and brotherhood.
6. To Inculcate Scientific Attitude among people.
7. To Preserve the Ancient Culture.
8. To Protect Forest, lakes and Wild-life.
9. To Protect the Property of the nation.
10. To strive individually and collectively for the achievement of
National Goods.
There is a great relationship between fundamental rights and duties’ as
enshrined in the constitution. The right and duties are complementary to each
other. You cannot think of the one without the other. The rights and duties are
inter related. Both are concerned with the development of a sense of responsibility
among the citizens. By doing so, our National character is developed.

EXERCISES
1. Why are the fundamental rights essential for the citizens of the country?
2. Under the right to freedom, what types of freedom have been granted to
Indian Citizens?
3. Under the right against exploitation, which evils in society have been
prohibited?
4. What facilities have been provided to the weaker section of society in
the Indian Constitution?
5. What rights have been given to the citizens to prevent the encroachment
of the ‘Fundamental Rights?
Practical:-
Make a list of some evils in the society.
Think over :-
What steps will you take to remove social evils?
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CHAPTER-4

CENTRE-STATE RELATIONSHIP

Our Constitution makers have envisaged a federal system of government for

our country. Ours is a vast country. People of different religions, castes, languages
and communities live here. The federal system of government is more suitable
for such big countries. This system of Government has been adopted in India.
According to this system there are two set of Governments. At the National

THE UNION THE STATE

Fig 4.1 Distribution of powers between the

Center and the State

level, there is a Central Government which includes the President, the Prime
Minister, the Council of Ministers and the Parliament. There is another
Government at the State Level which includes the Governor, the Chief Minister,
the Council of Ministers. the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council.
This dual type of government is called the Federal System of Government.
The Division of Powers between the Centre and the States
According to the constitution, the powers of the central and the state
government have been clearly defined in writing, in their respective areas. These
powers have been divided into three lists.
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Center - State Relationship

I. The Union List 2 The State List 3 The Concurrent List.

The Union List :- All the subjects of National importance are included in
this list. These subjects relate to the whole country, e.g. Post and Telegraph,
Railway, Foreign Relations, Armed Forces, Currency etc. In all 97 subjects,
Foreign Affairs Metereology Navy Army Air Force
U.N.O.
National International

SUBJECTS
Relation

IN THE
UNION LIST
Airways Highways Shiping
Railways

Fig 4.2 Subjects in the Union List

only the Parliament is entitled to make law in these subjects.

Hospitals
Courts
The State List :- All the local Sanitation
Jail
or regional subjects like Education,
Health, Agriculture, Jail etc. are
Vet

included in this list. They are 66 in

e
rin
ary

number. The State Legislature are

empowered to make laws on these
e
lic

SUBJECTS
Po

subjects for the states. IN THE

STATE LIST

The Concurrent List:- This list

contains 47 subjects. Both the
Parliament and the State Legislatures
are empowered to make laws on
these subjects. If there is any dispute
Agriculture Irrigation Fisheries Roads Forests
regarding these laws. The laws made Fig 4.3 Subjects in the State List
by the Parliament will prevail.
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Social Science-7
EXERCISES
1. What do you understand by the Federal System of Government?
2. How is the division of Powers made between the centre and states?
3. Why has ‘Defence’ been included in the Union list and ‘Police’ in the
State List?

4. Practical:
Find out the subjects of the ‘Concurrent List’ and Prepare a list of them.

Think Over:
Whose decision is final when there is a dispute between the Central
Government and a State Government? And Why?

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The Indian Parliament

CHAPTER -5

THE INDIAN PARLIAMENT

The Indian Constitution provides for a dual Government. The Union

Government runs the administration of the whole country specially in regard to
the subjects given in the Union list. The President, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya
Sabha form the Parliament in India. The Parliament is the supreme law making
body in our country.
There are two Houses of Parliament.
1. The Lok Sabha 2. The Rajya Sabha.
The Lok Sabha :- The First House of the Indian Parliament is called the
Lok Sabha. It is the house of the people. Its members are elected directly by the
people.
Composition :- The
number of elected members of
the Lok Sabha may be upto 545.
They are elected by the people.
Term : The members of the
Lok Sabha are elected for a
period of 5 years.
Election :- For the election
Fig 5.1 The Parliament House
of the members of the Lok
Sabha, the whole country is divided into constituencies. Every Indian Citizen
who is not less than 18 years of age has a right to vote. This is called Adult
Franchise. The election is held through the secret ballot system.
Qualifications :- The following qualifications are necessary for the candidates
of the Lok Sabha.
1. He must be a citizen of India.
2. He should not be insolvent, mentally unsound or a convict.

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3. He should not hold any office of Profit under the Government.

4. He should have completed 25 years of age.
Office-bearer :- There is one speaker and one deputy Speaker for the Lok
Sabha. They are elected from amongst the members themselves. The speaker
presides over the sessions of the Lok Sabha. He controls the proceeding and
maintains discipline in the house.
The Rajya Sabha:- The Second House is called the Rajya Sabha.
Composition :- There are in all 250 members in this house. Out of these, 12
members are nominated by the President. These persons are well-known in the
fields of Literature, Art Science, Social Service etc.
Election :- The members of the Rajya Sabha are indirectly elected. They are
elected by
members of the
Legislative
Assemblies. The
age of the
members of this
house should be
30 years or more;
The other
qualifications are
the same as those
of the members of
the Lok Sabha.
Term :- The
Rajya Sabha is a Fig 5.2 How Laws are made
permanent house.
It is never dissolved. One third of the members of the Rajya Sabha retire after
every two years and at the same time an equal number of new members are
elected. A member is elected ordinarily for a period of six years.
Chairman:- The Vice President of India is the Ex-officio Chairman of the
Rajya Sabha. At present Shri Bhero-Singh Shekhawat is the Vice-President of India
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The Indian Parliament

and Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. In this way the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabba
together, make the Indian Parliament. Some special facilities have been given to the
members of the Parliament. They get monthly pay and allowances. Every member
is provided with a living accommodation in Delhi. Besides this, he is entitled for
free Telephone,Free First Class Travel by rail to any part of India.
Functions:- The following are some of the important functions of the Lok Sabha :-
(a) Legislative Powers :- The Parliament is the Supreme law-making body
in the country. It makes laws for the whole country. Every bill, which is intro-
duced in any of the houses of the Parliament has to go through three readings. In
the first reading, copies of the bill are given to the members. Any member who
introduces the bill, explains the purpose of the bill. In the second reading, clause
by-clause discussion of the bill takes place. Some members support the bill while
some other members criticise it. The suggestions given by the members are either
accepted or rejected. In the third reading, the bill, as a whole is finally discussed
and put to vote. If the majority of the members are in favour, the bill is passed.
The same procedure is repeated in the other house. After having passed by the
other house also, it is sent to the President for his consent and signature. It
becomes an Act after his signature.
(b) Passing the Budget :- The budget is approved by the Parliament. With-
out the approval of the Parliament, the Government can neither in any taxes, nor
can spend any amount. Thus, the Parliament keeps control on them in-come and
expenditure of the Government.
(C) Control over the Executive :- The Parliament exercises control over
the Executive. The Prime Minister and his Ministers are responsible to the
Parliament for their work. The Lok Sabha can remove them by passing a No
confidence motion against them.
(d) Amendment of the Constitution :- It is only the Parliament which has
the power to amend the constitution, if there is a need for it. Some provisions of
the constitution can be amended only after getting the approval of the State
Legislative.
(e) Impeachment :- Through the process of Impeachment, the Parliament
has the power to remove the President, the Vice-President and the Judges of the
Supreme Court and the High Courts.
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Social Science-7
EXERCISES
1. How is the Lok Sabha formed?
2. How are the members of the Lok Sabha elected?
3. What is the minimum age-limit for voting in the General Election in
India? Write the correct answer.
(a) 25 years (b) 30 years (c) 18 years (d) 21 years
4. Write about each of the following in one sentence :
(a) Adult Franchise (b) The Speaker of the Lok Sabha
(c) The Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
5. Describe the functions of the Parliament.

Practical :-
Find out the name of the member of Parliament in your constituency.
Think Over :-
Why is the Parliament a Supreme body?

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The President and The Union Cabinet

CHAPTER-6

THE PRESIDENT AND THE UNION CABINET

The office of the President is the symbol of National Dignity and Unity. The
administration of the whole country is run on his behalf. He is supreme commander
of the three wings of the Armed Forces. According to the Indian Constitution the
whole Executive Power of the Central Government is vested in the President but
the real powers are exercised by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers.
The President is only the Constitutional head. The Constitution has provided for
a Council of Ministers to help the President. The Prime Minister keeps the
President informed of all the decision of the Cabinet.
The Election of the President : The President is elected indirectly by the
people. Members of both the houses of the Parliament and the elected members
of the State Legislative Assemblies take part in the election of the President. At
Present Shri A.P.J. Abdul Kalam is the President of India.
The Functions and Powers of the President :
The President is the head of the Executive of the Indian Union. He appoints
the Prime Minister, other Ministers,
the Governors, the Ambassadors, the
Judges etc. He summons and adjourns
Parliament sessions. He also
President
inaugurates the Budget Session of the
Parliament. Money bills are presented
with his consent. Every bill becomes
an act after his signature. The President
Lok Sabha Rajya Sabha
has also some emergency powers. He
has also the power to grant pardon.
The Central Council of Minis-
ters :- We have already read that there
is a Council of Ministers to help the Vidhan Sabha
President. The Prime Minister is the
leader of the Council of Minister. The Fig 6.1 Election of the President

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Social Science-7

leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha is appointed as Prime Minister by
the President. On the advice of the Prime Minister other ministers are appointed
by the President.
There are three categories of ministers
1. Cabinet Ministers 2. State Ministers 3. Deputy Ministers. The Council of
Ministers is made up of all the three. Each minister must be a member of either
the Rajya Sabha or the Lok Sabha. If he is not a member of either of the two
houses, he must become so within a period of six months from the date of taking
office.
The Function of the Cabinet :- For the smooth running of the administration,
different departments are allotted to the members of the Council of Ministers.
Very often a minister is allotted more than one department. Each minister is
responsible for the work and administration of his department. The Council of
Ministers is collectively responsible to the Parliament of its actions. Before
assuming office, each minister is administered an oath of secrecy.
The Prime Minister :- The Office of the Prime Minister is very important
in the Indian Constitution because the Prime Minister is the leader of the Majority
party in the Lok Sabha. All the ministers work in a co-operative manner under
his leadership. The Prime Minister distributes the department among the ministers.
The Prime Minister is the Chief advisor of the President. All the important
appointment made by the President are made in consultation with the Prime
Minister. Thus the Prime Minister is the leader of the Parliament, the Council of
Ministers, the country and the people. It is mainly the Prime Minister who runs
the administration of the country.
THE CIVIL SERVICES
The cabinet decides the major issues and the policies. The concerned
minister has a major role to play in the execution of these decisions.. The minister
formulates the policies of his ministry. The execution of their policies is the
responsibility of the Civil Servants. The Civil Servants are called Government
Servant. They execute the laws at the public level.
The Civil Servants are recruited by the Public Service Commission. The
success of the Government depends upon the work of the civil servants. Education,
Health, social welfare, construction of roads, the upkeep of the means of transport
and Communication etc. require the services of a large number of civil servants.
The civil servants should not be members of any political party.
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The President and The Union Cabinet

EXERCISES

1. Throw light on the importance of the office of the President.

2. Write the powers and functions of the President.
3 How is the Central Council of Ministers formed?
4. Describe the functions of the Council of Minister?
5. Why is the office of the Prime Minister of India so important?
6. Write short notes on the followings :
(a) Civil Services (b) Election of the President.

7. Fill up the blanks :

(a) The office of the President is the..................... of National dignity
and unity.
(b) The President is only a constitutional .................
(c) The Prime Minister is the.....................of the majority party in the Lok
Sabha.
(d) The Civil Servants are called.....................servants.

Practical :
Find out the functions of the present Prime Minister of India.

Think over:
If you were the Prime Minister of the country what would you do for its
development?

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CHAPTER-7

THE STATE LEGISLATURE

In the last chapter you have read about the Parliament, the President and the
Central Council of Ministers. Our country is so vast in size and population that it
is difficult to control it from the centre. Therefore, in order to run it properly, our
country has been divided into many states. The administration of these states is
run by the State Governments.
The laws of the states are made by the state legislatures. At the centre there
are two houses of parliament. The Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. Likewise, in
the state legislature there may be two houses, the Legislative Assembly and the
Legislative Council. In our country a few states have Legislative Councils. Most
of the state have Legislative Assemblies only. In Madhya Pradesh there is only
one house i.e. the Legislative Assembly. Like the Lok Sabha this house represents
the people of the state.
The Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha)
The whole of Chhattisgarh is divided into 90 Assembly Constituencies.
Thus, there are 90
members of the
Legislative Assembly
in our state. The
buildingof Chhattisgarh
Legislative Assembly
is located in Raipur. In
the same way there is
a legislative Assembly
in each state.
The term of the
Legislative Assembly
Fig 7.1 The Vidhan Sabha Bulding C.G. is five years. But it can
be dissolved even
earlier than five years by the Governor.
The qualifications of a member of the Legislative Assembly are the same as
those of the members of the Lok Sabha. The election of the Speaker and the
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The State Legislature

Deputy Speaker is made by the members of the ‘Legislative Assembly. The
members of the Legislative Assembly also take part in the election of the President
of India and the members of the Rajya Sabha.
Our constitution has given some special powers to the Legislative Assem-
bly. Under the legislative powers, the Legislative Assembly makes necessary
laws for the state on the subjects in the state list and the concurrent list. Under
the financial powers, it controls the finances of the State. It passes the budget of
the State. It exercises control over the Council of Ministers in a variety of ways.
The Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad) : There is a different procedure
for the election of the Legislative Council. One-third of its members are elected
by the members of the Legislative Assembly. Another one-third is elected by the
local bodies of the State e.g. Municipal committees, Municipal corporations and
Zilla Parishads. Some members are elected by the university graduates and
teachers constituencies. The rest of the members are nominated by the state
Governor. Their qualifications are the same as those of the members of the Rajya
Sabha. This house co-operates in the working of the Legislative Assembly.

EXERCISES

1. Fill up the blanks :-

(a) There are.................. houses, in the state legislature.
(b) There is ................house in the state legislature of Chhattisgarh
(c) There are ..................Assembly constituencies in Chhattisgarh
(d) The term of the Legislative Assembly is............years.
2. Who elects the Speakers and the Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly?
3. What are the powers enjoyed by the Legislative Assembly?
4. How much of the population is represented by a member of the Legislative
Assembly?
5. What is the procedure of election for the Legislative Council?

Practical:
Observe the proceedings of any session of the Legislative Assembly in your
state.

Think over:
If you are made the members of the Legislative Assembly, what would you do
for the Welfare of the people?

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Social Science-7
CHAPTER 8

THE GOVERNOR AND THE STATE COUNCIL OF

MINISTERS

The Governor is the head of the state. The administration of a state is carried
on in the name of the Governor. The Governor is appointed by the President. He
holds office for five years but he can be removed before the completion of his
term and his term can also be extended by the President of India.

A citizen of India who has completed the age of 35 years can be appointed
Governor of the state. A Governor should not be a member of the Parliament or
the state legislature nor he should hold any office of profit.

The powers and functions of a Governor are like those of the President of
India. The Governor appoints the Chief Minister, other ministers, the top officers
of the state like the Chairman and the members of the Public Service Commission
and the Advocate General. The budget session of the Legislative Assembly be-
gins with the Address by the Governor. The Governor has the power to summon
and adjourn the sessions of the Legislative Assembly. All the bills passed by the
Legislative Assembly become Acts after the signature of the Governor. Sometimes
when the Assembly is not in session, the Governor can himself pass some orders.
These orders are called ordinances. These are the legislative powers of the
Governor. The Governor can reduce the punishment awarded under a state law
and he can also grant pardon. If the Governor feels satisfied that the Government
of the state is not running according to the provisions of the constitution, he can
recommend to the President to declare emergency in the state. In such a situation
‘President’ s rule can be promulgated in the state. Money bills require the approval
of the Governor before they can be introduced in the Assembly. This is to be
remembered that the Governor acts only on the advice of the Chief Minister.
The State Council of Minister and the Chief Minister :
The State Council of Ministers is the real executive of the State. The Chief
Minister is the leader of the Council of Ministers. The Governor appoints the
leader of the majority party in the state legislature as Chief Minister. Other
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The Governor and The State Council of Ministers

STATE GOVERMENT
OF
CHHATTISHGARH
THE
GOVERNOR

THE THE THE

LEGISLATIVE CHIEF HIGH
ASSEMBLY MINISTER COURT

THE
CABINET

DEPARTMENTAL
ADMINISTRATION

DIVISIONAL
COMMISSIONER

DISTRICT
ADMINISTRATION

TAHSIL
Fig 8.1 The State Goverment of Chhattishgarh
ministers are appointed by the Governor and then departments are allotted on the
advice of the Chief Minister. The Chief Minister and other ministers must be the
members of the Legislative Assembly.

The Chhattisgarh Council of Ministers Consists of Cabinet Ministers state

Ministers and Parliamentary Secretaries. All these together make the state council
of Ministers. The number of Ministers in the cabinet is not fixed in the constitution.
Their Number is at the discretion of the Chief Minister.

The Council of Ministers is the executive of the state. It Formulates the

policies of the state and gives advice to the Governor on administrative matters.
The business of the Legislative Assembly is approved by the Council of Ministers.
The Council also decides upon the nature of the bills to be presented in the

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Social Science-7
Legislative Assembly. It also formulates the economic and taxation policy of the
state. It also makes plans for the welfare of the state. The budget of the state is
presented in the assemblies after the approval of the Council of Ministers.

THE CHIEF MINISTER

The Chief Minister has a major role to play in the politics and the Govern-
ment of the state. He presides over the meetings of the cabinet. He can demand
the resignation of any minister. He informs the Governor about the decisions of
the cabinet. The appointments to the important posts are made on his advice. The
whole cabinet is dissolved if the Chief Minister resigns. Hence the Chief Minister
occupies an important place in the state.

The State Civil Services

The State Council of Ministers lays down the policies of the state. Each
minister is responsible for the function of his department. But the minister is not
expected to implement the decisions of the government and do all the work
himself. The civil services therefore play an important role in this regard. The
minister is the head of his department. To help him there are many officers like
the Secretary, the Special Secretary, the Deputy Secretary and other Government
servants. Above all the secretaries, there is a Chief Secretary. All these taken
together are called the civil service, The polices of the government are executed
into action with the help of the civil services.

The head office of all the department is called the secretariat. The Secretariat
of Chhattisgarh is situated at D.K.S. Mantralaya Bhawan, Raipur. It is the
Secretariat which implements the decisions of the Government. The Budget of
the Government is prepared by the finance, department in the secretariat.

There are a number of department in the state Government, Some of the

important departments are General administration, Finance, Education, Health,
Agriculture, Law, Irrigation, Home, Public works, Forests, Information and
Publicity, Excise, Revenue, Cooperation, self-government, industries, Jail etc.
Almost all the departments have their head-quarters at Raipur. It is from the
secretariat that orders are sent to the divisional and district places. We have in
our State 3 Division and 16 Districts.

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The Governor and The State Council of Ministers

The head of the ‘division is called the Commissioner and the head of the
District is called the Collector. The Divisional Commissioner hears, the appeals
regarding land and revenue of the lower courts. He supervises the relief work of
the Government during natural calamities like, drought, floods and famine. He
gives orders to the Collectors and inspects their work. He is a senior member of
the Indian Administrative service.

EXERCISES

1. Write the correct Answer :

(a) The Governor is appointed by ..............
(The President, The Prime Minister, The Chief Minister).
(b) The Chairman of the State Public Service Commission is appointed by
.............(The Chief Minister, The Governor The Speaker).
(c) The leader of the State Council of Ministers is ............
(The Governor, The Chief, Minister, The Prime Minister).

2. What are the powers enjoyed by the Governor?

3. Write any four functions of the state council of Ministers.

4. The Chief Minister has an important place in the State Government.

Write any four duties of the Chief Minister in support of your answer.

5. Describe main duties of the Divisional Commissioner.

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CHAPTER-9

OUR JUDICIAL SYSTEM

When children quarrel among themselves at home, for various reasons,

the elderly people settle their disputes. In the same way whenever there is a
dispute or a controversy between two persons or institutions, they go to the
court of law for justice.
The Supreme Court :- Our constitution has provided for a free and unitary
judicial system. The highest and most prominent court is the Supreme Court
in our country. This is located in Delhi.
Organisation :- The Supreme Court has one Chief Justice and 25 other
judges. The Chief Justice is appointed by the President. The other judges are
also appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief Justice.
The qualifications for the post of a judge of the Supreme Court are as
follows :
1. He should be a citizen of India.
2. He should have worked as a judge for at least five years or must be an
advocate for at least 10 years.
Term : The judges of the Supreme Court can work up to the age of 65 years.
Removal of the Judges :
Once appointed the judges cannot be removed easily from their posts.
They can be removed only by the President on grounds of proven misbehav-
ior and incapacity. For this the Parliament must pass a resolution by a two
third majority. No judge of the Supreme Court has so far been removed from
his post.
Functions and Powers :
I. Original Jurisdiction :- This court has the original jurisdiction to hear
cases for the first time. Such cases are of two types :
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Our Judicial System

(a) Such cases where
there is a dispute
between the Union
Government and a
Chief Justice State Government,
one side and one or
more state Govern-
ment on the other side.
Supreme Court
(b) Such cases which
relate to the funda-
mental rights of the
citizens of India. Here
the protection of the
fundamental rights is
Sub Ordinate Court involved, Any citizen
of India can move the
Supreme Court, if his
fundamental rights
have been encroached
upon by the
Government.
Fig 9.1 The Judiciary

2. Appellate Jurisdiction :

(a) The supreme Court hears appeals against the decision of the State High
courts.
(b) Civil suits involving the amount of at least Rs. 20,000/ - can be heard as
appeal in the Supreme Court.
(c) The Supreme Court hears appeals in such criminal cases where the death
sentence has been awarded by a State High Court.
(d) The permission to appeal is given when it is certified by the High Court
that the case, civil or criminal, is fit for appeal. The Supreme Court can also
grant special permission to appeal in some cases.
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Social Science-7
3. Advisory Powers
The President of India can seek advice from the Supreme Court on any
legal issue. But the President is not bound by the advice given.
4.Protection of the Fundamental Rights :
The laws which violate any clause of the Constitution may be declared
null and void by the Supreme Court on a writ. Any citizen of India can move
the Supreme Court for the protection of the fundamental rights granted in
the constitution.
5. The court of records :
The Supreme Court is also the court of records. All the Judgements given
by the Supreme Court are used like laws in the other courts. They are cited a
precedents in the lower courts
The High Courts
The constitution provides for a High Court in each state.
The High Courts :- The High Court of Chhattisgarh is located in Bilaspur.
Composition :- The High Court has one Chief Justice and some other Judges.
The President of India appoints the Chief Justice and other Judges in consul-
tation with the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.
Qualifications :- The following are the qualifications of the judges of the
High Court -
1. He should be citizen
of India.
2. He must have
worked as a judge in
any court in the state
for five years or must
have been an advocate
for at least 10 years.
3. He should be a dis-
tinguished jurist in the
opinion of the Presi-
dent of India. Fig 9.2 The High Court Building of Chhattishgarh

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Our Judicial System

Functions and Powers :

I. Judicial Powers :- The High Court has both original and appellate
jurisdictions. It has the power to hear, for the first time, civil and criminal
cases and cases regarding the fundamental rights.

2 Power to Pass orders :- The High Court can take necessary action regarding
the protection of the fundamental rights granted in the Indian constitution. It
is binding on all the subordinate courts to obey the orders of the High Court
regarding the protection of the fundamental rights.

3 Control over the Subordinate Courts :- The High Court has the power to
Inspect and control all the courts of the state. It has the power to appoint,
promote and transfer the judges of the subordinate courts. It has also the
power to decide the election petitions. The appeals against Its decision can
only be made in the Supreme Court.

The Subordinate Courts

The Court of the District Judges is the highest civil court in the district.
You have already read about it in the 6th class. This court has the power to
hear civil cases. Civil judges are appointed in the district courts. The cases of
lesser amounts are heard by the Sub-judges and the Munsifs.

The Sessions Courts :- There are sessions courts to hear the criminal cases.
The cases involving fighting, looting, murder are heard in these courts. These
courts work under the high court of the state.

Lok Adalats : In the existing system the Indian courts take a long-time to
decide cases. The parties in dispute have to spend a lot of money. To reduce
the time and expenditure, a system of Lok Adalat has been started in this
country. Under this system, cases are decided speedily and without much
expenditure.

The Nyaya Panchayat : The minor cases in the rural areas are settled by the
Nyaya Panchayats at the village level. You have already read about it in
earlier classes.
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EXERCISES

1. Why do we need a court ?

2. Who appoints the judges of the High Court?
3. What are the qualifications of the judges of the Supreme Court ?
4. What types of cases are heard in the Supreme Court ?
5. Describe the composition and powers of the Supreme Court ?
6. How is the High Court in our state organised ?
7. Describe the, functions of the High Court ?
8. Write short notes on the following :-
(a) Civil and Criminal Cases
(b) The Lok Adalats.

Practical :
Find out the names of the Judges of the High Court of your state.

Think over:
If you are appointed a Judge, what Points would you take into
consideration?

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Our National Symbols

CHAPTER-10

OUR NATIONAL SYMBOLS

Shri Rabindranath Tagore had called India a sea of greatmen. This is the
country where we can .see unity in diversity. From Kashmir to Kanyakumari
India is one. Every Indian feels proud of his country. Every citizen respects the
Indian constitution.
Every free country has its own National Flag, National Anthem and National
Emblem which are the holy symbols of its national glory and national unity.
The National Flag is the symbol of our freedom, equality and unity. The
Constitution Assembly has approved this flag. This flag is rectangular in shape.
The length and breadth are in 3:2 proportion. For example if the length of the
flag is 15 centimeters, the breadth is 10 centimeters.
The composition :- Our National Flag is divided horizontally into three
equal parts of stripes which are of different colours. The top most stripe is of
deep saffron colour. The saffron
colour is the symbol of patriotism,
sacrifice and bravery. This reminds
us of those brave people who laid
down their lives for the country.
The middle stripe is white. The
white colour is the symbol of Truth
and purity. According to Mahatma
Gandhi, the Father of the Nation,
truth is God. The white colour
inspires to speak the truth and live a
simple and pure life.
The lowest stripe is dark green.
This colour represents progress and Fig 10.1 Our National Flag
prosperity in life. This inspires us
to make our motherland greener and more prosperous. We should grow more
and more food in our country. The green colour is a symbol of the dignity of
labour. Our National Flag is called the Tricolour because it is made up of three
colours.
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In the centre of the white stripe, there is a wheel called the Ashok Chakra. It
is of navy blue colour. Its diameter covers the whole breadth of white stripe.
There are 24 spokes in it. These spokes inspire us to serve the country through-
out the 24 hours of the day. The wheel signifies motion, progress and change.
Importance :- Our Flag reminds us of the freedom movement in our country.
In the beginning the flag of the Indian National Congress was the same with the
only difference that in place of the ‘Chakra’, there was a ‘Charkha’. The ‘Charkha’
was very dear to Mahatma Gandhi. The ‘Charkha’ became a symbol of Boycott
of foreign goods and the use of Swadeshi goods. The spinning on the ‘Charkha’
and wearing of ‘Khadi’ made out of it was a step towards self-reliance. The
‘Charkha’ was also a symbol of the opposition of the foreign rule in the freedom
movement. This flag links the present with our past.
The National Flag is hoisted on the occasion of National festivals. You can
see the National Flag on all important Government buildings in the country. In
other countries also, it is hoisted on the Indian Embassy buildings. It is lowered
as a mark of respect when a honourable national leader or dignitary of a friendly
country dies. This is how we express our respect to the departed soul.
Rules :
· We should respect our National Flag.
· When the National Flag is raised, the saffron colour band should be
at the top.
· No flag or emblem should be placed either above the National Flag
or to its right.
· All other flags are to be placed to the left of the National Flag, if the
yare flown in a row. Also the National Flag must be put in the
highest position.
· The National Flag should be flown over important Government
buildings only, When the National Flag is carried in a procession it
should be carried on the right shoulder and in the front line.
· The National Flag should be hoisted on important national festivals
and on special occasions.
· The National Flag should not be displayed by the common people
on motor cars and other vehicles even on special occasions.
· The National Flag should not be used for decorative purposes.
· The National Flag must not be used for purposes of trade or business.
· The National Flag should be hoisted from sunrise to sun-set. It should
always be taken down on sun-set.
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Our National Symbols

The National Anthem
The National Anthem is full of praise for our motherland. It has been com-
posed by the poet Rabindranath Tagore. The hoisting of the National Flag is
immediately followed by the singing of the National Anthem. The complete poem
has five stanzas. But only the first stanza has been adopted as the National Anthem.
The National Anthem reads as follows:
Jana-gana-mana-adhinayaka, jaya he
Bharata-bhagya vidhata
Punjab-Sindhu-Gujarata-Maratha-
Dravida-Utkala-Banga
Vindhya-Himachala-Yamuna-Ganga
Uchchhala Jaladhi Taranga
Tava subha name jage,
Ta_a subha ashish mange
Gahe tava Jaya-gatha.
Jana-gana mangala dayaka, jayahe
Bharat-bhagya-Vidhata
Jaya he, Jaya he, Jaya he,
Jaya Jaya Jaya, Jaya he.
Rules for singing the National Anthem:
! When the National Anthem is sung or played every one should stand at
attention.
! We should not move or talk while singing or listening to the National
Anthem.
! Every Indian should know the words and the meaning of the National
Anthem.
! Everybody should know the tune of the National Anthems that it may be
sung in chorus.
! While singing in chorus, it should be sung in tune.
! This is the emblem of the Government of India. It is in two parts the Crest
and the base.
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The crest shows three lions but in fact there
are four lions, The lion on the back is not seen
in the picture. It can be seen on the Ashoka Pillar
which is in Sarnath. The base shown as horse
to the left and a bull to the right. In between
there is a wheel which is made of twenty four
spokes.
Below the crest is inscribed. the motto
written in Devanagari Script, Satyameva Jayate.
It means ‘Truth alone triumphs’.
The chakra in the centre is a symbol of
‘Dharma’. It signifies motion, progress and
change for the welfare of humanity. The horse
Fig 10.2 Our National Symbol represent energy and speed. The bull represents
hard work and steadfastness. The citizens of
India should resolve to exhibit three qualities in their characters. This emblem
has been adopted as a seal by the Government of India. It can be seen on all
currency notes and coins.

EXERCISES

1. Name the three colours in our National Flag.

2. What do the three colours in the National Flag represent?
3. What rules would you follow in paying respect to the National Flag?
4. What rule should be followed while singing the National Anthem?
5. Explain the importance of the National Emblem.
6. Who has composed the National Anthem?
Tick mark the right answer.
(1) Bankimchander Chatterji
(2) Rabindranath Tagore
(3) Maithli Sharan Gupta
(4) Makhan Lal Chaturvedi

Practical:
Prepare an album of National Flag of other countries.

Think over :
India is a land of unity in diversity, How?

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Atmosphere
GEOGRAPHY

CHAPTER-1

ATMOSPHERE

The earth consists of three spheres. the Atmosphere, the Hydrosphere and
the Lithosphere. Life is found on the earth in the Zone where all these three
spheres come in contact with each other. This zone is known as ‘Biosphere’
which is very important for us.
This section deals with the atmosphere
The atmosphere extends several hundreds of Kilometres above the surface
of the earth. This gaseous envelope is known as the atmosphere. It is always
restless and so weather changes are frequent in it. The amount of insolation is
not the same everywhere on the earth so, it can be divided into various temperature
zones. The changes in temperature bring about pressure changes. The water vapour
present in the atmosphere is responsible for many weather phenomenon such as
clouds, rainfall and snowfall.
With the increase in height above sea level, the air becomes rarer.
New Terms :-
Atmosphere :- A layer of gases surrounding the earth for few hundred
Kilometres.
ATMOSPHERE
Air :- A gaseous mixture. .
Heat :- A feeling of
warmth given by a substance.
Rain :- Water droplets
EARTH falling from clouds.
The atmosphere is a
mixture of different types of
gases. These gases are in a
definite proportion in the
atmosphere. The following table
Fig 1.1 Atmosphere illustrates this fact : -
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TABLE
S.No. Gases Percentage
1. Nitrogen 78.03
2. Oxygen 20.99
3. Argon 0.94
4. Carbon-di-oxide 0.03
5. Hydrogen, Ozone,
Helium etc. 0.01
Total 100.00
It is clear from the above table that nitrogen and oxygen are the two main
constituents of the atmosphere. All these gases are very important for our life.
We inhale oxygen and exhale carbon-di-Oxide during respiration. On the
contrary, the plants take carbon-di-Oxide and give off oxygen. This helps in the
maintenance of ecological balance.
Apart from gases, the atmosphere consists of dust particles and water vapour.
The dust particles are more in number near the earth surface while, water vapour
is found even at higher elevations. Their quantity varies with seasons and they
are responsible for occurrence of fog and rainfall over the earth.

EXERCISES

Fill in the blanks: -

1. The atmosphere extends upto a height of........................ above the
earth’s surface.
2. As one rises high above the surface of earth, the air becomes..............
3. Man inhales......................gas during respiration.
4. The plant takes in........................and gives off.................gas.
5. Apart from the gases the atmosphere also contains
............................. and ..............................
Write short Answers :-
1. Write down the names of different gases of the atmosphere.
2. What is atmosphere?
3. How is air pollution caused? How does it affect the human life?
Do it :-
Draw a diagram of the atmosphere.
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Air and Temperature

CHAPTER. 2

AIR AND ITS TEMPERATURE

The heat in the atmosphere is known as temperature. The sun is the source
of this heat. The sun is about 15 crore kilometres away and thousand times larger
than the earth. It causes heat and energy in the space all around. Through the
atmosphere the sun rays enter and reach the surface of the earth. The surface
absorbs heat first and then slowly releases it. This process is known as
‘Radiation.’ The atmosphere is heated up by the temperature released from the
surface. When the air is heated it becomes lighter and so it rises up. In this way,
heat spreads in the atmosphere. Temperature is measured with the help of an
instrument-Thermometer.
‘Degree celsius’ (°C) is the unit of temperature. Celsius was the scientist
who invented the centigrade. Thermometer in which °C is the freezing point and
100 °C is the boiling point of water.
The temperature of any place does not remain constant. The variations of
temperature taking place in 24 hours can be found out by a special type of
Thermometer known ‘Maximum and Minimum temperature Thermometer.’ It was
invented by Sir Mr. Six.
The following factors affect the amount of radiation :
(a) The perpendicular sun rays travel a shorter distance of the Air and its
temperature sphere and also heat lesser earth surface. The result is that more
insolation is received at places with perpendicular sun rays.
(b) The inclined rays travel a greater distance of the atmosphere and have
to heat a larger earth surface. Hence, lessers insolation is received at places.
(c) The temperature changes are diurnal and seasonal. The days are hotter
than the nights and the summer is hotter than the winter season.
Factors affecting Atmospheric Temperature
The sun is the source of heat for atmosphere Temperature depends upon
many factors:
1. Latitude :
There is a decrease in temperature as we proceed from equator towards
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poles. On latitude depends the angle of striking sun rays. Therefore, higher
temperatures near equator and lower temperatures near poles are found.
2. Altitude :
There is a decrease in temperature with increase of height above sea level.
For this reasons, the higher mountain peaks are cooler than the low lands. Usually,
forever 165 metre rise, there is a decrease of 1°C.
Thermal Zones
On the basis of unequal temperature distribution over the earth surface,
there are three zones:
1. Tropical Zone :
Maximum solar radiations are received in lower latitudes (middle portion
of the earth) and so it is known as Tropical Zone.
2. Frigid Zone :
23 1/2
0 0

60 1/2 Both the Poles gets

TE
0
0
M
PR
PRIEID ZONE minimum insolation and therefore, the
0

TO
RR
AT
E
60 1/2 polar areas are called as “The Frigid
ZO
0
IE
D NE Zones.”
23 1/2 T ZO 0
E NE
M
PR
23 1/2 3. Temperate Zone :
AT
60 1/2
0
E
ZO 0
Between the tropics and poles lies
NE 0
FRIGID ZONE the area with higher temperature than the
0

60 1/2
0
23 1/2 poles and lower temperature than the
Fig 2.4 Temperature Zones tropics. This region is termed as ‘The
Temperate Zone.’

EXERCISES
I. Short Answer Questions :
1. What is radiation?
2. Which instrument is used for measuring temperature?
3. Write down the factors which affect temperature?
II. Fill in the blanks :-
i. Thc perpendicular rays trave1.................part and the inclined rays trave1
......................part of the atmosphere.
ii. Sun is................kilometres away from the earth.
iii. Thc surface receives temperature from....................
III. Do it :
Draw a diagram showing the temperature zones of the earth.
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Atmospheric Pressure
CHAPTER-3

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Air is a gaseous material. Like other natural substances it has its weight
too. This weight is known as air pressure or atmospheric, pressure.
“Atmospheric Pressure is the Pressure of a vertical air column of a unit
area of the surface of earth.” The instrument used for measuring atmospheric
pressure is called a Barometer. Millibar is a unit for showing pressure.
The atmospheric pressure is unequal over the earth surface. It depends
upon two factors. They are :
1. Height above sea level :
Atmospheric pressure is maximum near sea level. With the increase in height,
the air becomes lighter and so there is a decrease in the atmospheric pressure.
The amount of oxygen also decreases at higher elevations Therefore, when we
climb up a mountain, carrying of oxygen gas becomes necessary.
2. Temperature:
Higher the temperature, lighter is the gas. The result is that it rises up. Low
temperature makes the air heavy and so there is a rise in the atmospheric pressure.
The permanent wind system is highly affected by the changes of temperature.
Atmospheric: Pressure Belts.
Earth movements, temperature and height above sea level give rise to
different pressure belts over the earth. These belts are as follows.
Air Pressure Relta Extent
1. Equatorial Low 0° to 10° North and South.
Pressure Belt
2. Sub-Tropical High 30° to 35° North and South.
Pressure Belt.
3. Sub-polar Belt of Low 45° to 66 ½ North and South.
Pressure Belt
4. Polar High Pressure 85° to 90° North and South.
Belt.
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0 0

66 1/2 66 1/2
0 0

45 45
0 0

35 35
0 0

23 1/2 23 1/2
0 0

10 10
0 0

0 0
0 0

10 10
0 0

23 1/2 23 1/2
0 0

35 35
0 0

45 45
0 0

66 1/2 66 1/2
Fig 3.1 Air Pressure Belt

During summer the northern hemisphere faces the sun, So all the pressure
belts shift 2°-5° North-Wards, In winter, the Southern hemisphere faces the sun
for a longer time and so these pressure belts shift 2°-5° South-Wards Weather,
land and water are highly affected by the pressure belts.

EXERCISES

Write Short Answer :

I. What is atmospheric pressure?
2. On what factors does the air pressure depend?
3. What is the extent of various atmospheric pressure belts?
4. Give the position of pressure belts in summer and winter seasons.

Fill in the blanks :-

1. Unit for measuring air pressure is........
2. Air is a...............Substance;
3. The places where temperature is higher. the pressure is ..........
4. At sea level the atmospheric pressure is............

Do it :-
Draw a diagram to show the atmospheric pressure belts.

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Wind Direction and Velocity

CHAPTER-4

WIND DIRECTION AND VELOCITY

The air is not visible like the other substances. But we cannot ignore its
existence and importance. On the earth surface, the horizontal moving air is
known as ‘Wind.’
The wind always moves from high pressure area to low pressure area..
The wind does not move straight but, it is deflected towards right or left. The
deflection of wind is found out with the help of an instrument ‘Wind-vane.’
‘The direction of wind is governed by Farrel’s Law’.
Farrel’s Law
According to Farrel :
The earth rotates on its axis from west to east. Due to this rotation, in
the northern hemisphere the winds and ocean currents turn towards their
own right and in the southern hemisphere towards their own left. This deflec-
tion is not apparent in a short distance of one or two kilometers. But, if the
winds move for a distance of thousands of kilometers then the change in
direction becomes apparent. This is the reason why the Trade wind and West-
erlies do not follow the straight courses while moving from high pressure to
low pressure. They follow the inclined paths.
Wind-Velocity
When two places consist of different atmospheric pressure, the wind
blows from high to low pressure area. The speed of wind depends upon the
change of pressure or the pressure gradient. Higher the pressure gradient,
faster is the wind speed. The velocity of wind is measured in kilometer per
hour. Actually, a slight change of pressure, Say 1/10th of a millibar, can pro-
duce high velocity. wind. In such cases the wind reaches a velocity of 75-100
kms/hour. The leaves of a tree are moved by a wind velocity of 4.5 kmslhour.
The instrument used for of measuring Wind velocity is known as ‘Anemom-
eter.’ Beanfort’s chart is used for finding and comparing the wind speed.
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TYPES OF WIND
Depending upon the pressure and velocity the winds are put in three
categories:-

Categories Permanent Seasonal Local

Winds Winds Winds
Types of winds 1. Trade 1. Land and Sea 1.Loo
breeze .
2. Westerlies 2. Cyclones 2. Chinook
(Anti Trade) and
Anticyclones
3. Polar 3. Monsoon 3. Sirocco
4. Fohn
5. Hurricane
6. Typhoon

Permanent winds (Planetary winds)

The Permanent winds are of three types :.
1. Trade Winds :
In both the hemispheres they move from the sub tropical high to the
equatorial low. In the northern hemisphere their direction is from north-east
to south west and in the Southern hemisphere from south-east to north-west.
For this reason they are also known as the “Easterly winds.”:
2. Westerly Winds :
They blow from the sub-tropical high pressure areas to the sub-polar
low pressure belts. They mainly flow in the temperate zones. Their direction
is south-west in the northern hemisphere and north-west in the southern hemi-
sphere. This is the reason, why they are called as ‘ Westerly Winds.’
3. Polar Winds :
In both the hemispheres these winds blow from polar high pressure belts
to the sub-polar low pressure belts. In northern hemisphere they blow North-
East to South-West land in the Southern hemisphere from South-East to
North-West. These winds are very cold and dry because of having their origin
from the poles.
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Wind Direction and Velocity

Seasonal Winds :
Apart from the planetary winds there are some winds which blow dur-
ing a particular period of a day or a year Their directions are also fixed. The
seasonal winds are as follows:
(i) Land and Sea Breeze :
On the sea shore on one side there is
sea water and on the other side there is land P.Easter Line
surface,with the variation of temperatures Subpolor Low
Prevaling Weater Lines
during day and night land and sea breeze Subtropical High
blows. Breeze means wind. (Horse Latitude)
North East Trade
During day the land surface is quickly Equatorial Low (Dolddurms)
North East Trade
heated up while the water is relatively cool. Subtropical High
(Horse Latitude)
The air over land also gets heated, it be- Prevaling Weater Lines
comes lighter too, so it rises up. The air Subpolor Low

over the sea water is cooler and heavier. P.Easter Line

So, it moves to fill the empty space. This Fig 4.1 Regular Winds
movement of air is from sea to land, there-
fore, it is called “Sea Breeze.”
(b) The land is quickly heated or cooled while, water takes more time
for this process. During night, the land surface is cooled earlier than water
so, warm air over water becomes lighter and it rises up. The lower surface is
left vacant, towards which cooler wind from the land surface blows. The
wind that blows from land towards sea is known as “Land Breeze.”

Fig 4.2 Sea Breeze and Land Breeze

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Cyclones and Anticyclones :

These winds are irregular in their speed and direction. They blow for a
short duration and that, too, occasionally. Their territories are also indefi-
nite. Therefore, they are also known as the changeable winds.
As these originate eddies in river water due to some obstruction
similarly,whirling movement of air is also caused in the atmosphere. These
atmospheric eddies are known as cyclones and anticyclones.
Cyclones
When a low pressure develops in the centre, the wind rushes towards it
from the surrounding
high pressure areas.
This type of wind sys-
tem is called as a “Cy-
clone.” The centre of
the cyclone is termed as
“Eye of Cyclone.”
Heavy rainfall resulting
in a great loss of men
and money is caused by
cyclones.
Fig 4.3 Cyclones and Anticyclones.
Anticyclone
A high pressure area surrounded by low pressure on all the sides, is
known as an anticyclone. Since, high pressure lies in the centre, wind blows
out from it. The speed of wind is low, sky is clear and there is no rainfall in
the anticyclonic conditions.
Monsoon Winds
Winds blowing in a particular season are known as the monsoon winds.
It means they are seasonal winds. They are best developed on an extensive
portion of the continent of Asia, which is well surrounded by oceans and has
a greater range of summer and winter temperatures.
With the change of season the wind direction also changes, for examples.
(I) In summer season the interiors of the continent become very hot.
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Wind Direction and Velocity

This condition makes it a region of low pressure from where air is lifted up.
Winds from the surrounding oceans, where pressure is higher, rush towards
the continent.
(2) During winter season the conditions are reversed. The oceans be-
come warmer than the continental portion and the low pressure is developed
on the former. The air is warm and lighter on oceanic waters and so it is
lifted up. The wind from the cooler high pressure areas of the continent
comes to take its place.
The monsoon winds blow from sea to land in summer and from land to
sea in the winter season. Their duration is of about six months each.
Local Winds
On the earth surface the winds, blowing on a particular place are known
as “Local Winds”. In each region they are given a different name. The impor-
tant local winds are as follows:-

(i) Loo (Hot Wind) :

These winds blow on northern India in the summer season, especially, in
the months of May and June. They are called Loo or Lapat (Flames). They
cause illness and sometimes they prove fatal.
(ii) Chinook:
It blows in the North-Western part of North America. After crossing the
Rocky mountain ranges the wind which, descends down in the rain shadow
area becomes very hot. Ice melts due to these winds. The prairie plains are
benefitted and cattle rearing conditions become favourable by the Chinook
Winds.
(iii) Fohn :-
It is also a hot wind of Europe. It too helps in melting of snow. The
grapes ripe faster.
(iv) Hurricane :-
High speed storms in the south eastern North America are called Hurri-
cane. Such type of storms are also common in Australia. They cause im-
mense harm.
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(v) Typhoon :
On the South Eastern coast of Japan, in the Philippines, East Indies etc.
Cyclones with high velocity wind strike. They are termed as Typhoons. They
too are destructive in nature.

EXERCISES

I. Answer the following :-

1. How do the winds and currents flow according to the Farrel’s Law?
2. Which instruments are used for finding the direction and velocity of
winds?
3. Give names of the Planetary winds?
4. Which are the seasonal winds?
5. Give names of the local winds?
6. What are monsoon winds?

II Fill in the blanks :

i. Wind blows from................to.................pressure area.
ii. The sea breeze blows during..................... and the land breeze blows
during.......................time.
iii. At the centre of the cyclone the pressure is ...........and at the centre of
an anticyclone the pressure is.................
iv. In India..........winds blow.

III. Essay type Questions:

1. What do you understand by Farrel’s Law?
2. Describe the planetary winds?
3. Differentiate between a cyclone and an anticyclone.

IV. Draw figures to show land and sea breeze.

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Atmospheric Humidity
CHAPTER-5

ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY

The water present in the gaseous state in the air is its humidity. It is also
known as water vapour. This water vapour is the most changeable factor of the
atmosphere.
Sources of Water vapour and it’s Characteristics

The sources of water vapour of the atmosphere are the Oceans, seas, lakes,
tanks, rivers, wells, vegetation etc. Whenever air and water come in contact
with one another, the water droplets enter the atmosphere in the form of vapour.
It’s amount is not the same in the atmosphere. Higher the temperature more is the
amount of water vapour. The water vapour can interchange into solid, liquid or
gaseous stage.
States of Humidity in the Atmosphere
Humidity plays a major role in heating or cooling of the atmosphere. There
are three main stages of humidity:
(A) Evaporation :-
Due to high
temperature the water
turns into vapour and
mixes with the air. This
process is known as
evaporation.
(B) Condensation :- CONDENSATION

Through evaporation,
a fixed amount of water
vapour is absorbed by the
SURFACE WIND CONVENTIONAL RAINS
air, which is said to be
Saturated when the Fig 5.1 Conventional Rain
temperature of the
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saturated air goes down 0° when vapour changes into minute droplets of water.
This process is known as condensation.
(C) Forms of Condensation
Various forms of condensa-
tion are seen in the atmosphere; Cool Air
such as-Cloud, dew, hail, snow,
fog, rainfall etc. Chinok Wind
RAINFALL
In the atmosphere conden- RainShadow
sation process is responsible for
the falling of water droplets on
the surface of earth. This is Fig 5.2 Rain Caused by Mountains
known as rainfall. There are
three types of Rain.
(1) Conventional Rain:
The land and the air over it gets heated up in the tropics due to higher
temperatures. This gives rise to the conventional Currents. The rainfall which is
caused by the condensation of these conventional currents is known as the con-
ventional Rainfall. It is always associated with lightening and thunder of clouds.
Such type of rainfall is very common in the equatorial Regions.
(2) Orographic Rain :
When a mountain comes in the way of a humid wind, it is forced rise up.
The ascending air gets cooled and rain occurs. Such type of rainfall is known as
“Orographic Rainfall’.” On the lee-ward side (Opposite side) of the mountain
the air descends down and there is no rainfall on this side. This region is known
as the “Rain Shadow Area.”
(3) Cyclonic Rain:
There is low pressure in the centre of a cyclone. The air rushes fast towards
this centre because there is high pressure all around it. The air in the centre is
warmer and lighter, so it quickly rises up, resulting heavy rainfall. Such type of
rainfall is known as “Cyclonic Rain.”
The rainfall is measured with the help of an instrument the “Rain ‘Guage.”

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Atmospheric Humidity
EXERCISES

I. Give short answers :

I. What is humidity?
2. What are the different forms of atmospheric humidity, Write their
names?
3. What is rainfall?
4. What do you understand by Cyclonic Rain?
5. What is a rain shadow area?

II. Fill up the blanks :-

1. The sources of water are .....................
2. The evaporation is.............in summer season than the winter season.
3. The whether vapour changes into.............................state with
condensation

III. Do it :
1. Find out whether humidity is higher in sumner season or in rainy
season.
2. Draw figures to explain conventional rain and orographic rain.

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CHAPTER-6

WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Weather:
The description of atmospheric conditions such as temperature, humidity,
wind direction, its velocity, amount of rainfall etc. of a place at a particular time
is known as it’s Weather. Thus weather deals with the atmospheric condition ofa
short period. The weather constantly changes with place and time.
Climate:
The average of weather conditions is known as the climate. It is the sum
total of variety of weather conditions of an area for a longer time. The clements
of climate are temperature, wind, humidity, and rainfall etc. They all affect the
weather and climate of a place.
Meteorologilcal Instruments
Many instruments are invented to measure elements of weather and climate
a few of them are as follows :
1. Thermometer:
An instrument used to measure the temperature of a place is known as
Thermometer. The unit for measurement of temperature is Celsius/Farenheit/
Rumur. But now a days degree celsius is
commonly used. A thermometer, consists of
a glass tube with a round bulb at one end.
Mercury is filled in this tube and bulb.
Within the increase of temperature the level
of mercury rises up in the tube. The tube is
o
well graduated in °C and f. The graduations
denote both the freezing and the boiling
point. The reading is taken by observing the
level of mercury in the tube. Read out the
temperature from (from6.1).
2. Maximum and minimum
temperature Thermometer :
The temperature of a place does not Fig 6.1 Thermometer

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Weather and Climate

remain constant. The change of temperature is
The Dial
found out with the help of Maximum and mini-
mum temperature thermometers. Temperature is
shown by the index pins. The instrument is made
up of glass tube which contains mercury or
alcohol. In one tube, the level of mercury rises
and the index pin shows the maximum temperature
while in the other tube with the fall of level of
Fig 6.2 Barometer
alcohol, the index pin shows the minimum
temperature. The graduations of the tube are in
opposite directions. They are from 0°-130°.
3. Barometer :
Atmospheric pressure is measured with the help of an instrument called
Barometer. There are two types of Barometers. In one type, mercury is used
while in the other no liquid is used. The former is Fortins’s Barometer and the
later is Aneroid Barometer. Aneroid means without liquid. Aneroid barometer
looks like a rounded watch. It consists of graduations on the dial and a needle.
The needle inside the box moves with the change of atmospheric pressure and
points to the graduated dial. The number indicated by this needle is read and this
shows the atmospheric pressure of that a
place.
4. Rain Guage :
A rainguage is an instrument to b
measure rainfall of a place. It consists of a
cylindrical vessel with a funnel at its
opening mouth. This funnel collects
rainwater in the vessel. The collected
water is poured in a graduated flask to
measure the amount of rainfall. The flask
is graduated both in inches and
Centimetters.
c
5. Wind vane and Anemometer :
Wind vane is used to find out the
direction of wind. It consists of a straight Fig 6.3 Rain Guage

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rod on which one arrow rotates and shows the

direction of the wind. The cardinal points i.e.
North, South; East and West are written on the
instruments and one can find out the direction of
the wind by observing the alphabet of the cardinal
point (N.S.E.W.) and the position of the arrow.
Anemometer is used to measure the velocity
of wind. There are four cups attached to a vertical
metallic rod which move with the force of the
wind. The wind velocity is read from the
Fig 6.4 Weather Clock (for
instrument. The speed of wind is measured in knowing wind direction and
Kilometres per hour. wind velocity)

EXERCISES

I. Short answer question:

1. What is the difference between weather and climate?
2. Write down the element of climate?
3. Which instruments are used to show weather conditions? Give their
names.
4. What is a wind-vane? Give its use.

II. Fill up the blanks :-

1. The average of weather condition is known as.................
2. A thermometer is used for measuring ...........
3. The main unit for measurement of temperature is ..........
4. Rain fall is measured with the help of...............

III. Do it:
1. Prepare a model of wind-vane by observing its figures.
2. Draw figures in diffferent weather instruments.

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Hydrosphere
SECTION II

CHAPTER -7

HYDROSPHERE

Continent - Large land masses of earth surface above Sea Level.

Ocean - Vast water bodies surrounding the land masses.
What is Hydrosphere?
The part of the surface of the earth which is covered with water is known as
Hydrosphere. Water is found in Oceans, seas,
lakes and rivers of our earth. The snow and ice
are also included in hydrosphere. On 71 % of
the earth’s surface there is water.
Importance of the Oceans :
Water is necessary for all the living be-
ings. Oceans playa significant role in our life.
The water which evaporates from oceans give
us rain. Different types of salts, fishes, corals.
pearls etc. are also obtained from the Oceans.
Look at the globe and the world map. Give
names of the Ocean and mark their size wise
orders. They are-Pacific Oceans, Atlantic
Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean (The North
Polar Sea), Antarctic Ocean (The South Polar
Sea).
The Pacific Ocean is the largest Ocean.
Its area is larger than the areas of all the Oceans
put together. It is also the deepest among all the
Oceans. The Marinas trench is the deepest
trench (11022 M below sea level) of the world.
Movements of the Ocean water Fig 7.1 Hydrosphere on the
Children you must have seen a river or a globe.

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tank. Its marginal area is shallow and the central part is much deeper. The depth
in the centre is not equal everywhere. Similarly, the depth of the seas and oceans
is also not equal. It becomes clear from Fig. 7.2.
There are three types of movements of Ocean waters:
1. Waves
2. Currents
3. Tides
Waves :- In waves only the surface water oscillates. Winds are respon-
sible for the origin of the waves. When one wave moves forward, in succession
other waves are formed. They push one another and end up near the shore.
Currents :- The CONTINENTAL
hydrosphere is never at SHELF CONTINENTAL
rest. It always shows SLOPE OCEAN DEEPS ISLAND
one or the other type of
movement. The ocean
water is mobile. Out of
all the movements of
ocean water, currents
are most important.
“The general
movement of a mass of
surface water in a Fig 7.2 Depth of Oceans.
fairly defined direction
for a considerable distance is known as an Oceanic current.” “Actually currents
are like rivers in Ocean water which flow in a definite direction regularly.”
Types of currents
Depending upon their speed and temperature, the currents are of two types:
1. Warm Current
2. Cold Current
Generally those that flow polewards from the equatorial region are known
as warm currents. Those that flow from the polar regions towards Equator are
called as the cold currents.
Reasons for the Origin of currents
The factors responsible for the origin of Oceanic currents are as follows:
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GREEN
1. Difference of
LAND Temperature :
Temperatures are
higher in the equatorial
NORTH region where water
AMERICA
surface is raised up due to
expansion of water. This
NORTH water flows towards
ATLANTIC poles. For bringing
OCEAN
AFRICA equilibrium colder water
from poles flow towards
the equator.
SOUTH
2. The Planetary
AMERICA Winds :-
SOUTH ATLANTIC Majority of Ocean
OCEAN currents flow along the
direction of the planetary
winds.
3. The Earth’s
COLD Rotation :
HOT
In 24 hours the earth
Fig 7.3 Currents of Atlantic Ocean.
makes one rotation on it’s
axis. This daily movement deflects the Oceanic water in the form of a current
The direction of a current depends on two factors:
(i) The direction of the planetary winds.
(ii) Shape of the lands mass.
Important Oceanic currents

(A) Currents of Atlantic Ocean :

(i) North Equatorial Current Warm Current
(ii) South Equatorial Current Warm Current
(iii) Gulf Stream Warm Current
(iv) Labradore Cold Current

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ASIA

NORTH
AMERICA
NORTH
PACIFIC
OCEAN

North Equiterial Currents

Counter Equiterial
SOUTH
AMERICA
SOUTH
AUSTRALIA
PACIFIC
OCEAN

COLD
HOT

Fig 7.4 Currents of Pacific Ocean.

(v) North Atlantic drift Warm Current

(vi) Canary Cold Current
(vii) Brasilian Current Warm Current
(viii) Bengula Current Cold Current
Saragasso Sea is the calm region encircled by currents.
(B) Currents of the Pacific Ocean :
(i) North Equatorial Current Warm
(ii) KurosivoWann Warm
(iii) North Pacific Warm
(iv) Kurile Cold
(v) California Cold
(vi) East Australian Current Warm
(vii) Peruvian Cold

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Hydrosphere
(C) Currents or the Indian Ocean :
(i) West Australian current...................cold.
(ii) North Equatorial current...............warm.
(iii) Mozambique................................warm.
(iv) South Equatorial current..............warm.
(v) South Equatorial current..............warm.

1. Impact of climate :
The warm currents tend to increase the temperature of the coastal region
closer to them while, the cold currents reduce the temperature.
2. Impact on Fisheries :
The fish is found in a large number at places where the warm and cold
currents meet. New found land and Japan are famous fishing grounds in the
world.
ASIA 3. Impact on Ports :
The port remains
open throughout the year
Monsson DRIFT
when a warm current
EQUATOR flows adjoining to its
coast. Due to the effect of
a cold current the coastal
AFRICA water freeze and the
S. EQUATOR ports are closed for a
AUSTRALIA greater period of the
year.
INDIAN OCEAN 4. Impact on
Transportation :-
The ships are
WEST WIND DRIFT naturally benefitted by
HOT
the favourable directions
COLD of the currents, because
The territorial waters of India extended into the sea to a distance of twelve
they can reach their
nautical miles measured from the apporopriate base line. destiny in less fuel. But
Fig 7.5 Currents of Indian Ocean (Summer) on the contrary at the
confluence of cold and
warm currents, a danger of accidents due to fog formation, always persists.

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EXERCISES
1. Write the correct answer :
1. Of the earths, surface, hydrosphere covers :
(a) 68%
(b) 31 %
(c) 71%
(d) 65%
2. On the basis of their speed and temperature, the currents are of
the following types:
(a) Five
(b) Two
(c) Four
(d) Three
3. Which of the following industry would have been affected, had
there been no Gulf Stream near the eastern coast of North
America.
(a) Lumbering
(b) Textile
(c) Fisheries

II. Explain:
1. What is the difference between waves and currents?
2. Why is gulf stream a boon for North Western Europe?
3. What is the effect of Ocean currents on our life?

III.Do it:
1. From where do we get drinking water? Collect paper cuttings.
2. Collect photographs of the animals found in,Oceans.
3. Find out the places of the confluence of warm and cold currents in a
world map.

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Tides
CHAPTER-8

TIDES

In 24 hours the surface of sea water rises and falls twice. This periodic
regular rise and fall of the level of sea is known as tides. The rise of water
towards the coast is termed as the “High Tide” while the fall of the retreat of the
Ocean water from the coasts is known as the “Low Tide.”

Causes of Tides :

The gravitational pull of the sun, and moon causes tides. The Sun is very far
from the earth. On the contrary the Moon is quite near to it. Therefore, water is
attracted by the gravitational pull of the moon than the sun. The water being
liquid, is affected more than
the solid earth by moon’s pull.
Moon The moon attracts the water
Spring Tide
Spring Tide

Moon
Sun surfaces. The part of water
Earth
which is just infront of the
New Moon moon is pulled up. The rise in
water level is a tide. The tides
are produced at two points
Fig 8.1 High Tide simultaneously, firstly, at the
place just infront of the moon,
and secondly, at the place just on opposite side of it. The rise of water level at
the second place is due to the fact that the moon slightly attracts the solid earth
too. Due to this water at the opposite side is left behind and so it accumulates,
resulting in a tide. Thus, at a time there are two tides at two different places on
opposite sides in the Ocean waters.

Due to the rise of water level at two points. There occurs a fall of water
level midway between the high tides. This fall is termed as “Low Tide.” In
oceans, low tides also occur simultaneously at two places on opposite sides.

A place experience two high and two low tides in twenty four hours. But the
time and height of the tides is not uniform.
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Social Science-7
Types of Tides
Depending upon the height of the waves, there are two types of tides:
(i) Spring Tide
(ii) Neap Tide.
(i) Spring Tide :- On a full moon and new moon the sun, the moon and the
earth, all the three lie in a straight line. Due to the combined gravitational pull of
the sun and the moon the tides on these days are higher. Such type of tide is
known as “Spring Tide.”
Moon
(ii) The Neap Tide :
When the gravitational pull of the
Neap Tide sun and the moon act at right angles to
the earth’s centre, their force of
Earth Sun attractions acts opposite to each other,
Neap Tide
resulting in a small rise of the ocean
water. This type of tide is known as the
“Neap Tides.” It happens when the
Moon
moon is in its first and third quarters, is
Fig 8.2 The Neap Tide the eighth day after the full moon and
the new moon.
Effect of Tides on Human Life :
(1) With the tidal waves the river mouths are kept clean. The waves wash
away the debris.
(2) The tides help in navigation. Larger ships can reach the shallow harbours
with high tidal waves and they can return to the sea with the ebb (low side).

EXERCISES

I Choose the right answer :

1. On which day there will be no spring tide?
(a) Full Moon
(b) New Moon
(c) The eighth-day (Asthami)

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Tides
2. The sea coast must have suffered in the absence of tides because of
(a) Accumulation of debris.
(b) Rivers not flowing into the sea
(c) The fish not reaching the Coasts.
II. Explain:
1. What is the difference between a Spring Tide and a Neap Tide?
2. How do the tides effect the human life?

III. Do it:
i. Draw a diagram to show “Spring Tide.”
ii. On full moon and new moon nights observe the position of the moon
in the sky.

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CHAPTER-9

NEW TERMS EUROPE

Land Hemisphere: The northern hemisphere of the earth surface, which

contains nearly six sevenths of the world’s total land area.
Fold Mountains: Mountains with long parallel ranges. They are formed
when the land gets gradually compressed owing to forces at work under the
earth’s crust.
Massif : A large mountain mass with one or two summits.
Fiord : Deep inlets of sea standing between high cliffs and penetrating into
the land.
Peninsula: A large stretch of land surrounded by sea on all sides except one
through which it is connected to a large land mass.
LAND AND CLIMATE
As a continent, Europe is indeed very small. It is just three times the size of
our country. Barring Australia, it is the smallest continent. But Europe is very
thickly populated; and yet it is prosperous too! During the past few centuries on
other continent has left its impact on the
rest of the world so much as has Europe.
Study the map of the world. You will
find that Europe is not a continent but is at
best a big peninsula of the continent of
Eurasia. This subcontinent occupies a
central position in the land hemisphere.
This is an excellent position for reaching
out to the other continents by sea or air
routes. Also note the shape of this
continent. Large arms of seas have
penetrated deep into Europe. Find out the
names of these seas from the figure. Can
Fig 9.1 Europe-Location
Look at the central of Europe in the you think how their presence must have
Northern hemisphere. affected Europe?
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New Terms Europe

Look at the
coastline of
Europe. It is highly
i n d e n t e d .
Obviously, it
should provide a
number of natural
harbours and
ports.
Many of the
bays and seas
surrounding
Europe are
shallow. They
offer some of the
best sites for
Fig 9.2 Europe - Political Division fishing. As no part
Note the names of the countries, their capitals, sizes and of Europe, except
locations in Europe. Russia is very far
from sea, there has been a greater search for sea communication among the people.
This made it encouraging for the European seamen taking to trade and to the
discovery of unknown continents.
It thus became possible with the new sea routes that many of the ideas,
movements and inventions born in Europe have influenced the life of people all
over the world today.
POLITICAL MAP OF EUROPE
Study the political map of Europe carefully and name the largest country in
the subcontinent. Name landlocked countries in Europe. Locate British Isles and
four other important countries of western Europe. Name their capital cities.
Belgium and Netherlands are the two small lowland countries very thickly
populated. The countries of Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Greece, Rumania and Albania
situated on Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea are known as Balkan states.
There is the small and independent Vatican city state in a part of Rome with a
population of a few hundred people. It is the seat of Pope and the headquarters
of the Roman Catholic Church. Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark are
collectively known as Scandinavia.
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Physical Features

Look at the map of Europe and note the degrees of latitude and longitude
within which it is situated. This map will also tell you that Europe is a continent
of mountains and plains. It may broadly divided into three major physical divi-
sions. (i) the North Western Highlands, (ii) the Great European Plains, and (iii)
Central Plateau and the Southern Mountains.

The North Western Highlands

The North Western Highlands include the mountains and plateaus of Nor-
way and Sweden. They also extend into the northern parts of Scotland, Wales
and Ireland. These mountains are situated close to the ocean, and their branches
penetrate deep into the sea. They form highly indented and rugged coastlines. At
places, like the coast of Norway, long, narrow and deep arms of the sea between
high cliffs penetrate
into the land, these
are called fiords.
These mountains
along with the Urals
in the east are the
oldest in Europe.
Many of these
mountains are low
and slope very
gently away from
the sea.

The Great
European Plains
These plains
stretch between the Fig 9.3 Europe - Physical Features.
Atlantic Coast in Note the three major physical division of Europe. Locate the
the west and the important mountains ranges, rivers and seas shown in the map.
Ural Mountains in the east. These are broadest in Russia and go on narrowing
westwards. To their north lie the white sea and the North Western highlands and
to their south are the southern plateaus and mountains. Besides the Great Plains,
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New Terms Europe

there are small plains of Lombardy in Italy and the lowland of Andalusia in
Spain, and the plains of Hungary.
The Great European Plains are drained by a number of rivers. The Seine
and the Rhine are the important rivers that join the English Channel and the
North Sea, respectively. River Rhine is known for its great rift valley and its
delta formed Netherlands along the North Sea. The River Danube is the second
largest to the east and after cutting across the Carpathian mountains falls into the
Black Sea. It passes through a number of countries. The other rivers joining this
sea are the Dnieper and the Don. The Volga which is the largest river of Europe
joins a landlocked sea named the Caspian.
Central plateau and Southern Mountains
A series of plateaus and the mountains lying close to the southern border of
the great plain are also not very high. They have been considerably eroded in the
past. In fact, these mountains today are only the stumps of the mountains which
once were very high. Important among these are the Central Massif of France,
the Vosges, the Black forests and the Plateau of Bohemia. They are more important
for minerals than for agriculture.
To the South of these old mountains, lies a chain of young and very high
mountains barring the way to the Mediterranean Sea. It stretches from the Atlantic
in the west to the
Caspian in the
east, from where
it further extends
into Asia. These
mountains with
highpeaks, steep
slopes and deep
valleys are the
y o u n g e s t
mountains of
Europe. The most
important
mountain system
among them is
known as the
Fig 9.4 Rainfall Alps Mont Blanc
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Social Science-7
is the highest peak of the Alps. You will find that this peak is only half as high as
Mount Everest which is 8,848 metres above sea level in the Himalayas.
Besides the Alps, the other important mountain ranges in this group are the
Pyrenees, Apennines, Dinaric Alps, Carpathian and Caucasus. The plains of
Hungary and Lombardy within this mountain zone are agriculturally productive
But these high mountains are important for pastures for cattle and sheep and for
being the sources of water power.
The highest mountain peak of Europe lies in the Caucasus. It is known as
Elbrus. It is nearly two-thirds the height of Mount Everest.
The ranges of the southern mountains generally run parallel to one another,
forming folds, as it were. It is believed that such fold mountains were developed
when the land was gradually compressed from either side as a result of the
internal movement beneath the earth’s crust
Climate and Vegetation
The major part of the continent is situated in the cool temperate zone. In
spite of its location and compact size, the climatic conditions in Europe vary
from region to region. This is because the climate of Europe is influenced by
many factors. They
are its relief,
proximity to the
seas, the effects of
the North Atlantic
Drift and the
Westerlies.
The deep
penetrating arms of
the sea have a
moderating
influence on the
climate of Europe.
The warm waters of
the North Atlantic
Drift keep the seas Fig 9.5 Natural Vegetation of Europe.
along western Find out the relationship between the belts of rainfall and
Europe ice free. The natural vegetation.

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New Terms Europe

warming influence of these waters is carried further in land by the westerlies. In
their wake, they also pick up moisture and cause a fair amount of rainfall.
These permanent winds are responsible for a fairly well distributed rainfall
all through the year especially in the western parts of Europe. The rainfall is
heavy in the west and along the western slopes of the mountains. It decreases as
one proceeds eastward, where it mostly occurs in summer.
The moderating influence of the westerlies and nearness to ocean make
summers warm rather than hot in western Europe. Winters too are cool, rather
than cold. In winter weather is often very foggy. The temperature remains equable
and the rainfall is well distributed all over the year. This is a typical marine or
maritime climate also known as west European type.
Away from it the Central and Eastern Europe get little of the moderating
influence of the Sea. As a result, the summers are hot and winters very cold.
Such a climate with extremes, a wide range of temperature and moderate rainfall
is known as the continental type of climate.
The rainfall in Southern Europe is confined mainly to the winters. During
summer this region comes within the influence of off-shore winds. These winds
give little rainfall. In winter, however, this region is open onto the influence of
the rainbearing, westerlies. This is typical Mediterranean type of climate in
which summers and long, hot and dry, and winters warm and wet.
The land north of the Arctic Circle has an extreme cold climate. Precipitation
is very scanty and is in the form of snow. Summers are short, with days long and
warm. The sun is visible even at midnight for a period in a country like Norway
beyond the Arctic circle. This wind-swept region is covered with snow for the
major part of the year. It is covered with the tundra type of vegetation, that is
moss, lichen and a few stunted trees such as willows and birches. The reindeer
and the polar bear are the common animals of the tundra region.
South of the tundra lies the belt of the taiga region Between the two, there
is never a sharp line of demarcation. It is a region of coniferous forests with tall
and straight pine, spruce and fir as the common trees. These trees provide
softwood and as such are valuable the forests and their northern margins are
also the trapping grounds of fur animals like lynx, sable, mink and squirrel.
Denmark has become the second largest producer in the world of mink furs,
skins of seal and blue fox which it gets from Greenland. Further south lies a belt
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of mixed forests. It consists of some coniferous trees of the taiga type. More
common, however, are the broad leaved trees which shed their leaves in winter.
They are called deciduous tree. Common among these are oak, ash, and popular.

In the Mediterranean region trees are required to stand a long summer

drought. Therefore the trees are small in size but have deep roots. Their leaves
are small, generally thick and oily or glossy. This helps to avoid evaporation of
water. Some trees are thorny and other have thick and pulpy barks. Olive cork-
oak and storie pine are the common trees. Olive, fig, grape and orange are the
well-known fruit trees of the region.
In Eastern Europe, where rainfall is too meagre, the common vegetation is
of grasses and herbs. The grass is coarse and found in patches. The region is
known as steppe grasslands.

EXERCISES

REVIEW QUESTIONS.
1. Answer the following questions.
(i) Which are the three major physical divisions of Europe?
(ii) What is a land hemisphere?
(iii) Name the channel that separates the British Isles from the European
mainland.
(iv) Which country has the plains of Lombardy?
(v) Inspite of dense Population the countries of Europe are well
developed. Give reasons?
(vi) Name two countries of Europe which are centuries ahead?
(vii) Norway depends on the Sea. Give reasons.

2. Distinguish between
(i) The marine type of climate and the continental type of climate.
(ii) The taiga and the Mediterranean types of vegetation.

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New Terms Europe

3. Complete the following statement with a correct ending.
Southern Spain receives rainfall in winter because.
(i) It lies in the zone of the westerlies.
(ii) It lies in the zone of winter monsoon.
(iii) It attracts moist winds from the Mediterranean Sea.
(iv) Westerlies wind belt shifts southwards in winter.

4. (Describe the four types of climate found in Europe. How far are
they influence by the westerlies?)

MAP WORK

5. Study the map of Europe and then make the correct pair-from
the following:
(i) Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Balkan States
(ii) lrish Republic, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales and England Low
countries
(iii) Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Greece, Rumania and Albania. Scandinavia
(vi) Belgium, Netherlands and Luxemburg. British Isles

6. Show the following in an outline map of Europe:

(i) Baltic Sea and Black Sea.
(ii) River Danube
(iii) The Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, and
(iv) Rome, Warsaw, Oslo and Copenhagen.

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CHAPTER-10

NATURAL RESOURCES AND THE PEOPLE

NEW TERMS

Mixed Farming :- Combination of cultivation of crops and rearing of animals

for their milk and meat on the same farm.
Dykes: Big embankments built in order to protect land from the sea.
Sericulture : Rearing of silk worms and producing raw silk as a cash crop
for supplementing farm incomes.
Truck farming: A term used for vegetable and fruit farming. It is also known
as truck or market gardening because things like vegetables, fruits and flowers
are carried, by trucks to markets.
Intensive Agriculture : A farming practice involving greater use of man-
power per unit of land,
Europe is a vey thickly Populated continent. Europe is fortunate to have a
large proportion of a level and well watered low land. Almost every inch of it
has been brought under the plough. Lands in the hills which are neither so fertile
nor so level, are used as pastures. On them are fed some of the most cared-for
cattle in the world. Hill and mountain slopes and tracts of infertile lands are
wisely left under forests. The forest trees are carefully nurtured. Even the small
European countries have used the natural beauty of their landscape in mountains,
along river and the sea coasts in attracting tourists from far and near.
Where the land has not been found fertile to provide adequate food for
people they have, turned to the sea to make good this deficiency. Many of them
learn their living by taking to fishing, shipping and overseas trade or commerce.
The Dutch have been constantly at war with the sea for wresting land from
the sea by pushing it back and back. Their country is rightly known as Holland or
Netherlands since, it is a low land In fact, a struggle for keeping sufficient quantity
of water free of sediments in rivers for navigation along their deltas is also
carried on. The water has to be saved from salts of the sea and pollution from a
large number of factories.
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In order to protect these newly claimed fertile low lands from the sea the
Dutch have built big embankments, called dykes along the sea front. These
embankments protect land from being flooded by the sea. Such lands in low
countries of Netherlands and Belgium are now used for cattle-grazing and for
truck gardening. Formerly, hundreds of windmills were busy pumping out water
from these low lands into the sea. Now it is being done with the help of big
pumps worked with electricity.

The Europeans have gone further in discovering very large underground

deposits of coal and iron. The bowls of earth have also been exceptionally kind
and generous to these people. These black twins-iron and coal-have helped
Europe to develop several industries, big and small. Even the much needed oil
has now been extracted from beneath the shallow waters of the North and the
Baltic seas in Netherlands, Norway and Great Britain.

Europe is bestowed with one more gift of nature, namely, water, which has
been used very wisely for the development of water power, inland navigation
and, irrigation. In fact, the Europeans were the first to develop power from
running water and put it at the service of man.

Industries, a network of transport and the mastery over the seas have all led
Europe to capture international trade. A very large proportion of this trade is
very much in its own favour. This explains why Europe is popular as well as
prosperous. It has helped the small countries like Denmark, Belgium and Nether-
lands to build up a large variety of their exporting industries by importing essential
raw materials and even food.
EXPLOITINGS OIL
Cultivating Crops
About one third of the total land in Europe has been brought under the
plough. However, the quality of soil and the climatic conditions are not the same
allover the region. Therefore, a variety of crops are grown in different parts of
Europe, depending upon soil, climate and availability of farm labour.
By far the most important crop of Europe is wheat. The important wheat
producing areas are the Ukraine in the Soviet Union, Paris Basin, in France, the
Plains of Hugary and the Great Plains of Europe, the low countries and the
Povalley in Italy. Wheat cultivation is confined to rich soils with cool but relatively
long summers with abundant sunshine.
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The poorer soils
are devoted to barley,
rye; and oats, in that
order. Europe and
Russia are the leading
producers of these
coarse cereals. They
supplement wheat,
the sample food crop
of Europe.
Sugar-beet and
potatoes are the
important root crops
of Europe. The sugar-
beet is the source of
sugar and has the Fig 10.1 Europe-Forests, Ceops and Livestock.
same importance to Note the various ways in which land is used in Europe. Why are
the Europeans as it forests found mostly in the northern part and why is the crop land
largest in the central part ?
has for us. Potatoes,
too, are used to supplement their food. These are grown in the plains of Central
and Eastern Europe such as in Germany and Poland. Flax is the only fibre crop
of Europe and is used for making linen. It is grown in cool, damp lands, especially
in Russia. It is the only raw material which is grown in Belgium and is not
imported.
Fruits such as apples, olives, figs, grapes, peach and oranges are also grown
in very large quantities. The orchards are confined to the sunny hill slopes and
stony soils of Mediterranean Europe. Bulgaria, in the east, is known for its
horticulture, roses and vegetables in its warm valleys. Belgium and Netherlands
in the west have also excelled in producing flower bulbs and vegetables. These
products are exported to countries in their neighbourhoods.
Rearing Animals
Europe has nearly one fifth of its land, namely the meadows and pastures,
left open for its animals. Well distributed rains and cool summers ensure abundant
and nutritious grass for its animals. Dairy cattle do very well in cool, moist
marine type of climate. The countries around the North Sea are famous for
dairying. Cattle are also reared for their meat. Since pigs multiply and grow
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very quickly, they are
reared on farms for
pork. Denmark is the
example of a country
which has shifted
from growing cereals
to the production of
cattle and pigs.
Butter, eggs and
bacon form the basis
of its agriculture and
the milk yield of a
cow is very high.
Sheep are confined
to drier parts. They Fig 10.2 Europe-Distribution of Minerals
are reared both for Note the location of major coal and oil fields of Europe. In which
countries are these located ?
wool and mutton.
Poultry farming is a very common feature of agriculture in Europe.

Nurturing Forest Trees

About one-fourth of the land in Europe is still left under- forests in spite of
heavy pressure on land for agriculture, Forests in Europe are confined to Scandi-
navian and Alpine mountains and to the taiga region in Russia. On the other hand
the regions in Southern and Central Europe have experienced a rapid removal of
forest over vast areas.

Harvesting The-Seas
Europe possesses some of the rich fisheries of the world. Famous among
them are the Dogger Bank and the Great Fisher Bank. The fish catch in Europe
being well over ten million tonnes, Europe has the highest consumption of fish
per head of its population. Norwegians are the great seafarers and fishermen of
Europe. They have well-equipped vessels working as central floating factories
for catching a variety of fishes along their fiords coast. They exploit the icy
waters and barren islands in polar regions for catching the valuable seals and
the whales. Norway catches 582 kilograms of fish per inhabitant every year and
at least 85 percent of it is exported. Thus Europe is, some what able to make up
for its insufficient food supplies. Fish provides a valuable source of protein for
a balanced and nutritious diet at a relatively low cost.
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Exploiting Underground Wealth
Europe possesses large mineral deposits hidden under the land. By far the
most important among them are coal and iron ore. Bituminous coal of good
quality is found in Germany, Russia and the United Kingdom. A low grade variety
go coal, brittle and brown in colour, is known as lignite. German Democratic
Republic is its principal producer. In Eastern Europe, Czechoslovakia and Poland
have fairly good coal deposits for their home needs. Coal is the major source of
power in Europe. It is now supplemented by waterpower in an equally big way.
Petroleum, on the other hand, is still largely imported by many countries in Western
Europe. Big reserves of mineral oil and natural gas are found in Russia and
Rumania. Rumania is an important producer of petroleum and natural gas in
Europe outside Russia. That is why the oil derricks occupy the central place on
its national emblem as one of its main riches. In Western Europe the North Sea
oil-fields discovered in the later sixties are now producing sufficient oil.
Iron ore is found in France and Russia on a very large scale. Other producers
are Sweden, the United Kingdom and Spain. Europe also produces bauxite, sulphur
and potash.

Converting Nature’s Gifts into Goods and Utilities

It is true that Europe has a wide range of natural resources. But what is
really more interesting is the way they are wisely used by the people. Even in
cultivating land, they
follow different methods.
Where the land is
abundant and the labour
scarce, they use big
machines on their farms.
Extensive agriculture is
thus practised on large-
sized farms where more
and more machines are
employed in place of
human labour. In the
areas where land is
scarce but the labour is
Fig 10.3 Europe-Major Industrial Areas
surplus, intensive
Name the countries and the main parts of Europe known for
agriculture becomes the
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rule. Where they find that raising of crops can be combined with rearing of
animals and the practice of sericulture they follow mixed farming. It is found
throughout Europe, from Ireland in the West to Central Europe, Russia and Northern
Italy.
In order to maintain and improve the fertility of soils, they use fertilizers,
follow rotation of crops and employ other scientific techniques. In dry lands of
the steppes and the Mediterranean region, they have readily taken to irrigation.
Much of the agricultural produce is processed before it is consumed. In the
process people have developed several industries, employing a large number of
workers. A large number of mills are engaged in converting wheat into flour.
Bakeries, in turn, convert it into loaves of bread. Sugar mills are busy in
manufacturing sugar from sugar-beet. Even fruits and their juices are preserved
in various forms and widely marketed. Denmark andthe countries of Eastern
Europe like Bulgaria, Hungary and Poland have developed their food procesing
and agriculture-based industry.
Wool, flax fibres and silk are now turned into textiles. The textile mills in
Europe are busy not only in manufacturing wollen cloth and linen but they, also
produce cotton textiles by importing cotton from other parts of the world.
Milk is converted into cheese and butter. Some of it is now turned into
condensed and powedered milk. These tinned dairy products enter international
trade on a big scale. The use of science and technology has gone a long way in
changing milk, a perishable commodity, into prized articles of international trade.
Meat and fish are also now frozen and tinned before they are marketed like
many other commodites.
Logging and lumbering is now followed, with several other industrial
activities. Important among them is making of pulp and cellulose. Newsprint,
paper rayon, and other synthetic fibres are produced from wood.
Fishing has become a very complex operation. Deep sea fishing involves
preservation of fish. The fish is marketed both fresh and as a Preserve product.
Fish oil like cod liver oil and fish manure are also marketed on a large scale.
Norwegians value seal fishes for their skins, leather furs and edible fats. There
are allied industries which manufacture fishing nets, fishing boats and fish
preservation plants.
Iron and steel industries have become key industries since they are basic to
many other manufacturing industries. The major centres of these industries are
found in the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Russia. But many other
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countries like Italy, Bel-
gium, Czechoslovakia
and Poland make good
steels by even purchasing
from abroad the raw
materials which are not
found in their own
territory. They are
responsible for producing
varieties of steel. This, in
turn, is consumed by
other industries, engaged
in manufacturing railway
engines, wagons, Fig 10.4 Europe-Railways
Which part of Europe has a thick network of railways ?
automobiles, ships and
Study this figure and fig 6.3 given in this book to find out Alpine
other machines. Coal as passes or the routes crossing them.
a raw material is used in
several chemical industries. Aluminium is used in making aeroplanes. The poor
Scandinavian countries like Norway, in 1920’s have also become rich by being
industrialised. Agricultural countries like Denmark and small countries like
Switzerland, Belgium, Netherlands, Czechoslovakia and Austria have also built
up diversified industries producing articles in small quantity but of great value
and high quality. They are reputed for making electronic goods, precision
instruments, metallurgical and glass articles and chemicals, fetching good prices.
The European countries are competing with one another in exporting their special
skills and knowledge to the developing countries of Asia and Afiica.

Moving The Goods And The People

One of the essential condition for the development of industries is the presence
of a network of transport and communication. Europe has every modern means
of transport for moving the goods and the people.

The railway lines criss-cross Europe, not with standing the great mountain
barriers. Railway routes cross the mountain passes like St.Gotthard and St.Bernard
in the Alps connecting the countries on both side of high mountains, which have
the major railway junctions of Europe. Compare the positions of London, Paris,
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Berlin and Moscow. How do they differ from one another. Very often the road
transport competes with the railways. The highways are broad and well surfaced
roads, busy with trucks, buses and cars. People have developed a high sense of
road traffic with the result that there is a very low rate of accidents.

The bulky and heavy goods or cargo are generally transported by major
inland water ways since water transport is very cheap. Note the Rhine passing
through the industrial heart of Western Europe. It is the busiest inland waterway
of Europe and carries more traffic than any other inland waterway in the world.
Besides the, Rhine, the Seine, Thames and Danube are important waterways. In
the medium-sized country of Rumania, there are nine ports on the entirely
navigable river Danube over a distance of only 1,075 kilometres. Denmark, the
land of 97 inhabited islands, has a number of bridges and a network of ferry
services to maintain communication links. Moscow is connected by rivers and
canals to several seas. Locate on your map the important sea ports of Europe.

Air transport has also now become very popular in Europe. Airways connect
all important cities of Europe with one another. The international airports of
Paris, London, Berlin, Frankfurt connected with almost all other continents.
Distances which were
earlier covered in
months are now
covered in hours by
large and speedy jet
planes.
Population of
Europe
Asia has the
largest number of
people. But it is
Europe that has the
Fig 10.5 Inland Waterways of Europe.
highest density of Mark the rivers connected by navigable canals.

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population. If the people

of Europe were to be
uniformly distributed all
over the continent, there
would be 98 persons per
square kilometre. If we
exclude the former So-
viet Union from Europe,
it possesses only 7 per-
cent of the world’s land
area. But it accounts for
nearly one fifth of the Fig 10.6 Europe-Distribution of population which areas
of Europe are very densely populated and which ones
world’s population. sparsely populated ? why are they so ?

By and large, the great plain of Europe are densely populated. While north-
ern Europe is thinly populated. Western Europe and some islands like Malta are
thickly populated. Eastern and southern Europe have a moderate density of
population, leaving aside a few pockets. However, the most densely populated
parts of Europe are found around coal fields and major ports. While the former
are essentially industrial centres, the later are the centres of international trade
and commerce. The more the number of big industrial centres and major ports,
the greater is the trend of more and more people leaving the villages for towns. It
is turning a country like Denmark into a large town with many green spaces. In
former German Federal Republic there is an unbrokenline of about 30 towns in
the Ruhr industrial belt. Belgium (323 persons per square kilo metre), German
Federal Republic (247), Netherlands (240) the United Kingdom (239), Italy
(186) and former German Democratic Republic (155) are the top six countries
with highest densities of population.

The geography of Europe points out to us how important the natural resources
of a country are to its people. But, more so, are the people themselves who
utilise these resources intelligently for national Prosperity.

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EXERCISES
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Answer the following questions :
(i) What is the staple food crop of Europe?
(ii) Name two cereals that supplement the main food crop of Europe.
(iii) Which is the busiest inland waterway of Europe?
(iv) Name the two leading sea fisheries of Europe.
(v) How should natural resources be utilized for national development.
2. Distinguish between:
(i) Bituminous coal and lignite.
(ii) Extensive and intensive agriculture,

3. Make out correct pairs from the two columns.

(i) A farming practice in which only a few farmers (a) I n t e n s i v e
farming till large farms mainly with the help of machines.
(ii) A farming practice in which major emphasis is (b) Extensive
farming laid on breeding and rearing of milk cattle. (c) Mixed
farming.
(iii) A farming practice involving combination of (d) Plantation and
agriculture cultivation of crops and rearing of animals for their
milk and meat on the same farm.

4. Complete the following statement with the most suitable ending. Europe
has made great progress because.
(i) it has very large and rich agricultural lands.
(ii) it is favourably situated in relation to other parts of the world.
(iii) its people have made the best possible use of its position and
natural resources.
(iv) it has been the “Cradle of the Western Civilization.”

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5. Write how the following countries have used their natural resources to
their advantage.
(i) Denmark
(ii) Netherlands
(iii) Norway
6. Give reasons for the following. .
(i) European agriculture had to be mechanised thoroughly.
(ii) European countries are the exporters of technical know-how to
countries in Asia.
(iii) Denmark has a large number of bridges and network of ferry
services.
(iv) Some countries of Europe depend upon fisheries for their
livelihood.
(v) Most of the inhabitants of Europe use machinery in Agriculture.

MAP WORK
7. On an outline map of Europe locate and name the following.
(i) the straits joining (a) the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean
Sea and (b) Sea of Marmara and Black Sea.
(ii) Two important passes in the Alps carrying important railway line.

TOPIC FOR-CLASS DISCUSSION

8. From Practices in Europe.
Collect information on this topic. Divide the class into a few group
each collecting information on one aspect of it. Then discuss which
practices have any significance for India.

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CHAPTER 11

THREE MAJOR COUNTRIES OF WESTERN AND

CENTRAL EUROPE

NEW TERMS
Dairy farming: A kind of agriculture in which major emphasis is on breed-
ing and rearing milch cattle. Hay and other fodder crops are raised mainly to
feed cattles.
Insular Location: Surrounding by seas on all sides.
Industrial Revolution: A marked change in manufacturing from hand-oper-
ated tools in houses of people to power-driven machinery installed in spacious
factories especially built for it. It came about in England in the middle of the
eighteenth century.
Rotation of Crops:
Raising of crops in a
certain sequence on the
same piece of land mainly
with a view to restoring
the fertility of soil.
France and the United
Kingdom are important
countries of Western
Europe. France and the
United Kingdom, located
very close to each other,
have several things in
common, Paris and
London are capitals of the
two countries and are
Fig 11.1 France-Relief Features.
Note the location of France, its mounatins, plateaus, river
centres of governmental,
basins and important rivers. industrial and business

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activity. But they are also differ from each other in many respects. Paris like
London is not a great seaport. France is larger in size than the United kingdom
but has less population. France is still a country of farmers and not of
manufacturers like the United Kingdom and German countries. Of all, the West
European countries, France is not dependent on supplies of foodstuffs from other
countries.
FRANCE
France is only one sixth the size of India. Still in Europe it is the second
largest country, next only to Russia. France faces three seas. It is further bounded
by two big mountains. Together they have given France a well-de-fined boundary.
Relief and Climate
France has a varied relief Look at its north western coastline, which is
highly indented and rugged. France has narrow coastal plains and fertile river
valleys like those of the Seine and the Loire. It possesses low hills such as those
in Brittany. The Central Massif of France is a wide plateau made up of very old
rocks. On its borders are situated the young fold mountains, namely, the Alps and
the Pyrenees. The Rhone river valley separates the folded ranges of the Alps to
its east from the Central Massif towards its west. Mont Blanc (4807) meters
above sea level, the loftiest peak of the Alps, lies in France.
France is ‘Small Europe’ in many ways. This is so not only in regard to its
relief but more so with regard to its climate. While the western and northen parts
of the country enjoy the oceanic type of climate, north-eastern France and the
high central plateau have continental climate, with hot summers and severe
winters. But autumns are long and sunny in the sheltered valleys of central plateau.
Eastern France, much farther than the Atlantic, reminds us of the continental type
of climate. Southern France experiences typical Mediterranean type of climate.
It has long dry summers and mild rainy winters. This part of France is much
warmer and has much more sun shine than any part of the United Kingdom. The
diagrams of temperature and rainfall for some places in France, are given here.
If you study them carefully you will be able to understand the contrast in climate.
Land Use and Economic Development
The indented coastline of France has given it numerous natural harbours.
They provide good opportunities for fishing, shipping and overseas trade.
Narrow coastal plains and fertile river valleys have been turned into rich
agricultural farmland. A little over one-third of the total area of France is under

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cultivation. Wheat is by-far the most important crop of France especially in the
northern plain of Paris Basin. It also produces maize, rye, potatoes, flax, barley,
oats and sugar-beet. Flax and sugar-beet are grown chiefly in the north of France
with linen mills and sugar factories in the neighbouring town. Barley grows
more in the cooler north, oats and rye on poorer soils of north-west coast and the
central plateau. France farmers generally follow mixed farming and rear cattle,
pigs and poultry on their farms. The animals are fed on hay, fodder and tops of
sugar-beet. The animal products fetch good returns to the farmer.
France is a land of intensive agriculture. Every bit of land is used. Manures
and fertilizers are applied. Rotation of crops is followed. All these help to main-
tain fertility of the soil. As a result, the yields of crops in France are very high. It
is the only West European country which is self-sufficient in food grains. Ter-
raced and sheltered valley slopes are generally devoted to cultivation of grapes
every where particu-
1arly in southern
France. The fields
where grapes are cul-
tivated are known
vineyards. Most of the
grapes are used in mak-
ing wines.
French wines are
known for their
quality. The most
notable among them is
Champagne. France
also produces other
Mediterranean fruits
like olives, figs,
peaches, plums, pear
Fig 11.2 France-Resources
and oranges. In
Note the varied land use and resources of France.
northern half of the
country the apple takes the place of vine. Here apples and grapes with hops,
instead of the vine, are used to prepare wine.
The low hills and plateaus of France make it possible to leave about one-
fourth of its total area under meadows and pastures. These pasture lands which
are well fed with rain showers, are used for rearing animals for their milk as
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well as meat. As a result, it is a leading producer of milk, butter and cheese in
the whole of Europe, excluding Russia. France also has a large number of sheep,
yielding fine wool.
Fortunately, France has preserved nearly one-fourth of its land under for-
ests. Besides its forest wealth, the mountainous part of France possesses some
of the turbulent rivers. These rivers, which are well fed with snow and rain-
water, tumble down the high mountains and plateaus. They provide France with,
abundant water-power at a low cost. Down below on the plains they are used
for inland water transport.
France is equally well endowed with underground wealth. More then 90
percent of very rich-iron ore deposits are found in Lorraine in the north-east
Coal is available only in some parts. Iron-ore, coal and water-power provide
the necessary base for its iron and steel industry. France exports iron-ore bauxite
and alumina and imports 60% of their coa1 needs from the neighbouring countries
of Europe.
France is well known for its iron and steel industry. It specialises in building
machines, It produces motorcars, trucks, railway equipment, ships and
aeroplanes. It has also a large textile industry. It manufactures chemicals,
fertilizers, electric goods and perfumes.
France has an integrated network of transport. It possesses well-kept high
ways and efficient railways. Well-knit inland waterways have proved an asset
to its heavy industries. It can now boast of its modern air-services. Paris is the
capital city of about 9 million people and is the centre of every kind of transport,
It is rightly called the heart of France, This well planned city of France gives us
an idea of the achievement of France in arts, literature, science and technology.
It has been the leading fashion-centre of the world.
The total population of France is about 55 million which is even less than
that of Bihar. It gives it an average density of nearly 101 persons per square
kilometre. Over 70% of its population is now concentrated in big towns and
cities.
THE UNITED KINGDOM
The United Kingdom is yet another small country of north western Europe.
It is hardly one-thirteenth the size of India. In total area it is nearly as large as the
state of Jammu and Kashmir. But it, too has been a big European nation.

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Unlike France, the country is situated off the mainland. This country, occu-
pying a major portion of the British Isles, is surrounded by the sea. It is, there-
fore, insular in location.
The English Channel which separates this country from the continent, is
hardly 33 kilometers at the narrowest. However, it had been found too wide to
overcome for any invader. The country did wisely utilize this advantage to
increase its wealth and prosperity. Two Indians, namely Mihir Sen and Arti
Saha, made news by swimming the English Channel.
While France is a compact and homogeneous country, the British Isles consist
of some 5,000 islands, those of Great Britain and Ireland being the largest of
them. They comprise two sovereign states of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
including North Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. The major Part of the country
thus consists of the bigger island of Great Britain including three Units of England,
Scotland and Wales.
Relief and Climate
Unlike France, the United Kingdom is a country of low relief. It is marked
with undulating lands, rolling hills, dissected plateaus and small rivers. These
are highlands or uplands but not mountains as such. The highest peak is only
about 1,350 metres above sea level. The country has an indented coastline with
a number of big and small natural harbours and no part of the land is more than
125 kilometres away from the sea.
The climate of the United Kingdom is typically oceanic. It is temperate and
equable with a range between summer and winter temperatures. The westerlies
tend to make its winters warm and summers cool. The rainfall is fairly well
distributed throughout the year. But the winter months are slightly rainier than the
others. The clouds and fogs restrict the sunshine, on an average, to less than two
hours a day. The cyclones or the western depressions crossing the islands tend
to make the weather cloudy, humid and often foggy. Such day of raw weather are
followed by fair weather. It is thus a land of variable weather.
Land Use and Economic Development
As there are no mountains worth the name in these islands, it has just 7
percent of land left under the forests. Neither the forests nor the farmlands dominate
the landscape of the United Kingdom. Nearly half of its land is claimed by the
meadows and natural pastures predominantly in the western part of the country.
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As a result, sheep and cattle
rearing have become very
important agricultural
activities. The United King-
dom has become famous for
its milk cattle. On an average,
a milk cow yields more than
3,000 kilogram of milk every
year. The country exports its
milk cows on a large scale.
The country has less than
one-third of its total land
devoted to farming. The major
farmlands of the United
Kingdom are to be found in
east and south-east England.
Not much of this land is fertile.
Only 5 percent of its people
are engaged in farming. Yet
with the help of modern tools
Fig 11.3 The United Kingdom-Location and Relief
and techniques, they produce Features.
enough food and raw, What makes it an island country of Europe ? Note the seas
materials to meet two-thirds separating it from other countries, Which parts have the
of the country’s food needs. highlands and which have the lowlands ? Why does the
coastline favour the location of a number of natural
Barley, wheat, rye, oats, harbours ?
potatoes, sugar-beet, veg-
etables and fruits are the major crops. Even on these farms cattle and pigs are
reared for their milk and pork. Poultry-farming is very common. Now more and
more machines and tractors are being used on English farms.
The shortage of food supplies is made up by fishing. The country is
surrounded by the shallow seas that abound in fish. The long indented coastline
has provided numerous natural fishing harbours. The most important fishing
ground is the Dogger Bank. The country has a large mechanized fishing fleet. It
has facilities, to preserve fish, both on the fishing craft and at the fishing ports.
The total fish catch of this small country is nearly eight lakh tonnes a year,
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No wonder then that the fish is an important item of food in the United Kingdom.
Perhaps, the
greatest natural re-
sources of the United
Kingdom has been
coal. It was the first
country to use this
‘black gold’ on a very
large scale. This
helped the country to
place itself on the
industrial map of the
world very early.
Although the good
reserves of coal have
been worked out
rapidly, the country
still produces 43
million tonnes of hard
coal. Some new coal
deposits were
discovered in the
North Sea. The country
has not much of water-
power and it is coal
which supplies nearly
three- fourth of the total
energy produced in the Fig 11.4 The United Kingdom-Resources
country. Locate the areas having croplands, dairy, farms, fishing-grounds,
coal and the oil-fields. Note the important industrial centers.
Huge oil and
natural gas deposits were first discovered in the bed of the North Sea in the late
sixties of this country and production began in 1975 by 1986, Great Britain was
the world’s fifth largest oil producer. Today Britain is meeting most of its own
oil needs from this source. The United Kingdom was the first to produce atomic
energy for commercial purpose, supplementing its power resources.
The country was equally rich in its iron-ore deposits. For several decades
it led the world in the production of pig iron and crude steel. Its iron-ore deposits
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Social Science-7
are now almost exhausted or are of low grade, and the annual production. I
remained only 4.5 million tonnes. Nonetheless, it has a flourishing iron and steel
industry based mainly on imported iron-ore.
The widespread use of steam and mechanical power led to the birth of the
Industrial Revolution in this country. Principal industries are coal-mining, iron
and Steel engineering, electronics and the chemical works. It builds Ship and
manufactures railway engine wagons, motor-cars and aeroplanes. This country
also stands high in the respect of processed foods and beverages. It has a very
big textile industry, which grew in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. It
manufactures cotton and woollen textiles. It has to import raw materials like
cotton and wool from other countries. But now cotton textiles are being rapidly
replaced by plastics, chemicals and paper making industries. Look at the map
and locate the centres of various industries. They are located either near the coal
fields or near the sea-ports. Why should it be so ?
Although Britain has come down in many industries among the leading
producers of the world, yet manufactured goods and their export play a dominant
role in national economy.
For industries, a good network of transport is a must. The United Kingdom
has a fine network of roads and railways, surpassed only by Belgium in Europe.
Many of its industries and commercial centres are located on the coasts.
They are well served by the seaways. There are over 300 ports among which
Liverpool, Glasgow, NewCastle, Southampton and London are also notable as
important industrial centres.
In the midland plain of England, the cities of Birmingham, Manchaster and
Sheffield are other important industrial centres. London is the capital city, largest
in size and population (Greater London having 6.8 million people). It is served
by the busiest international airport in the world. It is situated on the Thames
river which is navigable by ocean going ships. This small country has a large
population of nearly 56 million. The average density of population is as high as
that of our country. There are almost 239 persons per square kilometre in the
country as a whole. While England is the most densely populated, Scotland is
the least densely populated area. Four out of every five persons live in cities and
towns. This shows how industrialized this country is But the big increase in the
number of automobiles, especially private cars, rise in population and increased
crowding in cities are causing-noise and air pollution. Can you find out how?
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The waste material from a large number of factories goes into the rivers. It is
called water pollution. The quality of air and water has gone down and is bad
for the people health. These problems are now catching the attention of the peo-
ple and the government not only here but elsewhere also.
The British industries greatly depend upon trade with other countries. This
country imports foodgrains and a variety of raw materials for its industry. It
exports manufactured goods. But for such a trade, the British people would have
been poorer than what they are today.
In addition to it the large number of Indian and Asians settled in Britain are
working industries and other services. Their contribution towards the building
up of British economy is significant.
UNITED GERMANY
The two post war halves of Germany covering western part known as Federal
Republic of Germany and eastern part as German Democratic Republic were
united on October 3, 1990. With nearly 80 million people, a formidabled army a
potent export driven economy, United Germany will again dominate Europe, is
an nerving thought for some of its neighbours, especially those who suffered
Nazi Occupation and atrocities during the world war second.
United Germany is a land of plains, low plateaus and the uplands. Because
of its central position in Europe, almost every trans continental route passes through
this country facing the north and Baltic seas, this country shares land frontiers
with as many as nine countries. This had been an asset to this Country for devel-
oping international trade. The two halves of Germany are comparted as :-
Basic Statistics West East
1. Area 000' sq. Ian. 249 108
2. Population 61.7million 16.1million
3. Density of Population 247 155
4. Percentage Employed in
Industry 41 48
Agriculture 5 12
Services 54 40
5. Work Force Employment 29.7 million 8.6 million

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RELIEF:
The northern half of the country consists of low lands forming apart of the
great European plain. They border the North sea, which is an arm of the Atlantic
Ocean. These lowlands are covered with sand, gravel, pebbles and pieces of
rocks. They are the deposits left behind by the old ice sheets of the past ages.
The coastal area is sandy with dunes, lakes and marshes at a number of places.
The central zone consists of low and worn down uplands, deeply eroded by
rivers flowing through them. The black forest is a low lable land belonging to it.
To its south lie the rugged high lands of the Bavarian Alps separating them from
Switzerland and Austria. On the east of the central zone, there is the famous
Rhineland a wide rift vally of Rhine river. The 864 km long river is the busiest
water way of the world. The Elbe, weser and Danube are other important rivers.
All the rivers flow in a northerly direction towards the north sea with the exception
of the Danube. The Southern section consists of the high lands, small valleys and
heavily wooded mountain ranges.
CLIMATE
The country lies between 47° and 55° latitude, so it has a temperate climate
having frequent changes in weather and rainfall through out the year. The coastal
lowlands enjoy a marine type of climate with cool summers and mild winters.
As one proceed south wards or eastwards, the sea influence diminishes and the
range of temperature tends to increase. The winter become severe in the south
owing to the rise in altitude and snowfall is relatively heavier.
LAND USE AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Although Germany is a leading industrial country, it has an efficient
agriculture. This is because of man’s efforts in bringing about a technical
revolution on the land. The country’s agriculture is now almost mechanical, from
the ploughing of soil to harvesting. This was necessary because a large man
power was moving from village farms into the towns. The reclamation of swamp-
land and building of dykes along the North sea coast have helped to raise the
productive capacity of land. Inspite of the huge productive capacity of German
agriculture, it meets only about three fourth of the nation’s food requirements.
Great quantities of fertilizers and manures are used to raise good crops of wheat,
barley, rye, oats, potatoes and sugar beet, depending upon the soil and climatic
conditions. In the production of rye and potatoes, the country is second only to

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the Soviet Union. The vine-clad hills and terraces along the slopes of the Rhine
valley are called vineyards. The fertile soil of the valley is known for growing
fruits and vegetables. Land is extensively cultivated employing all the modern
means and mixed farming is practised allover the country. This country is one of
the largest producer of sugar beet in the world.
The best leaves and its factory waste form valuable fodder for cattle in the
country. It has made animal husbandry, including dairying an important agricultural
activity. The northern most vine growing region of Europe is found on the slopes
of Elbe river valley, which is most important in the heartland of this country.
Although intensive agriculture is still carried on in lowlands and valleys, farming
is highly mechanized especially in the collective farms in the south middle region.
Nearly one third of the land is under forests and woods. These are mostly
confined to the southern uplands and the Bavarian Alps. Besides lumbering the
well cared forests revolution provide base for manufacturing wood pulp, paper
and news print.
MINERAL RESOURCES:
The great resource of the country is its coal. The Ruhr is the biggest and the
richest coal producing area in Europe. It is this coal which has given rise to the
largest number of mining and heavy industries in the Ruhr area known as
Germany’s black Country. The saar is yet another important coal field of the
Germany. The excellent cooking coal is even exported arid is one of the bases of
the country’s most intensive iron and steel industry in the world Bulk of its iron-
ore is, however low grade. That is why the country has been importing at least
one-third of its iron-ore requirements from Sweden alone.
The hills and plateaus in the south of eastern Germany are more important
for the wealth of metals, silver copper, lead, Zinc and iron have been mined
there since long. A part of these uplands has been known as Erzgebirge or ore
mountains on this very ground. Two resources, brown coloured lignite coal and
potash salt have been responsible for making these region of the country highly
industrialised. Lignite is used both for producing thermal electricity and as a
raw material for the chemical industry. Although there are small fields of hard
cooking coal in this region its production is less than one percent of the total
production. Potash salt is a mineral resource gaining increasing importance for a
number of chemical industries. Besides industries based on agricultural prod-
ucts, this country is known for plastic, synthetic rubber, chemicals artificial
fertilizer and photographic optical and engineering industries.
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INDUSTRIES:
The Ruhr is a small right bank tributary of river Rhine which joins it as it leaves
the hills on its way to the sea. It is studded with heaps of coal coke furnaces, foundries,
iron and steel plants, steel rolling mills, chemical plants, and textile factories. The
Ruhr is often called the heart of Industrial Europe, making this country the third largest
producer of steel in the world after the United States of America and Soviet Union. A
large number of towns and cities are so close together, that it is not easy to distinguish
one from the other. It is the most densely populated part of this country. It leave an
appearance of a single integrated industrial area in Europe. Industrial centres are now
found in all parts of the country away from Ruhr’s coal depending other advantages
like hydropower in southern high lands, traditional skills, the raw materials and the
improved means of communications. The country is known also for its automobile
industry and is next to the United States of America in the production of cars and
trucks. It is also reputed for its chemical products.

The industries are well served by a dense network of railways, inland water-
ways and roads. Airways are also very important in connecting different parts of the
country and those of the world. Besides the life line of the Rhine, there are canals
connecting the rivers and the seas. The 99 km. long Canal known as kiol canal con-
nects the North sea with Baltic sea. As many as 400 ships pass through it every day,
which is indeed a greater volume of traffic than that in the Panama Canal. The traffic
on river Rhine consists of raw materials, food supplies. coal, petroleum and indus-
trial products to and from the Gennany. In the southern part of country, the Danube
Serves a similar purpose in carrying the traffic from northern and central Europe.
Major Cities and Towns :
Berlin is the capital city of Germany. It is the meeting place of important
roads, railways and airways of middle Europe. It is river port and is linked by
river and canal with parts of the country with Baltic and North Sea and also the
Rhine. Before unification Berlin City was divided into two parts. Eastern part
was the capital of German Democratic Republic while western part was under
Federal Republic of Germany.

Magdeburg, Leipzig and Dresden are other important cities in eastern part
situated along river Elbe or its tributaries. Magdeburg is built on an island of
river Elbe to the northwest of leipzig in the southern part of the great plain. It is
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the crossing point of routes, the focus of the sugar beat growing area, sugar
refineries, breweries tobacco and the chemical works. It has an iron works and
steel photographic and optical products are made at places in this region. Leipzig
is an ancient city, a great road and railway junction to the north of the valuable
coking coal field and has important lignite deposits close to it. Besides, largescale
commerce it has industries depending upon agriculture based on lignite.

Bonn was the capital city of Federal Republic of Germany. It is situated at

a point where the Rhine enters into northern low lands. Hamburg and Berman
are leading ports along the North Sea.

Leaving aside Ruhr industrial cities Cologne, Mannheim and Frankfurt are
the other important cities or Rhine valley. Mannheim is not only an important
river port but is the centre of one of the most well known chemical works in the
country. Frankfurt is the focus of routes and the second largest airport in the
country. It has become famous for its fur trade and some industrial aspects of the
city activities. Cologne is situated on the Rhine where its valley starts widening,
after which the river emerges in to plains. It is the oldest bridging point on it and
is a junction of the highways from east to west along the southern edge of the
European plain, and from North sea Ports into the heart of western Europe. It is
thus at the head of Navigation for sea-going vessels on the Rhine. It has facto-
ries, manufacturing textiles, sugar, tobacco, chemical, chocolates and cars. Mu-
nich is the chief city of Bavaria in the far south. It is noted for its breweries and
for manufacturing leather, paper, rubber goods and furniture. Yet is continuous to
be better known for its art and culture.

TRADE AND COMMERCE :

The Commercial links of this country with many other nations have grown.
The turnover of exports and imports has greatly increased over the years. The
region along the Baltic coast is very large but there were inadequate
communication links between it and the ports. These have now been improved
and Rostock has become an important port having better links also with the
Berlin. Besides commerce, fisheries, shipbuilding and the transport industry have
gained an added importance.
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EXERCISES

1. Answer the following questions:

(i) Name three different types of climate found in France.
(ii) Mention three important features of the oceanic climate.
(iii) By what name is the central plateau of France known?
(iv) Name one important river each of the two German republics.
(v) Why is France called a miniature Europe?
(vi) Britain is equal to Kashmir state of India in size but it is counted among
the great countries why?
(vii) The government of Britain is worried about the over industrialisation
Why?
(viii) The Ruhr region is called the heart of Europe. Why?

2. Give reasons for the following :

(i) Britain looks more to the sea than to the land for its prosperity.
(ii) While France has been mainly a land power, the United Kingdom has
become a sea power.
(iii) Whereas France exports iron ore, the United Kingdom has to import it.
(iv) The United Kingdom was the first to set up an atomic power plant.
(v) Lignite is the most important resource of unified German.
(vi) The government of Britain is worried about the over industrialization.
(vii) The Ruhr region is called the heart of Europe.

3. Give a brief account of the natural resources of France and show how
they are being properly used.

4. What geographical factors have made the Federal Republic of Germany

the leading industrial country of Europe?

5. Give a brief account of some route-towns of the two German republics

showing their importance.

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CHAPTER-12

THE COMMON WEALTH OF INDEPENDENT

STATES

It is a vast area extending across the continents of Europe and Asia. It was
formerly known as the Union of Soviet Social Republics or the Soviet Union.
After the World War I, the Russian empire was replaced by the Soviet Union.
During the World War II it enormously extended its frontiers and several parts of
Asia were annexed by it. This Union of fifteen republics emerged as one of the
major powers in the world politics. But as a result of the formal dissolution of
the Union, fifteen republics were established. Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia were
the first to declare themselves as independent states. Later remaining twelve
republics emerged as sovereign states. In order to maintain proper co-ordination
among themselves, the eleven republics organised themselves into the common
wealth and the Independent States. Russia is the largest of these republics. Out
of the above eleven republics the ten situated in Europe are as follwos :
1. Estonia 2. Lativa 3. Lithuania 4. Byelorussia
5. Ukraine 6. Moldavia 7. Georgia 8. Armenia
9. Azerbaijan 10. Russia

Physical Features
But for its mountainous fringes, nearly the whole of its area is flat, or consits
of low plateaus of uplands.

The Plains of Russia

These are one of the most extensive plains in the world. They stretch from
the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea in the south. It
is a continuation of the Central European plains bounded by the Ural mountains
in the east.
These low-lying rolling plains are drained by several rivers flowing in
different directions. Find out their names from the map. Of these the Volga, the
Dneiper and the Don are the most important. Being very fertile, these plains
form the heartland of Russia.
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Eastern mountainous region.
The Urals are the main mountains of this region. These mountains form
barrier between the two continental wings of the country. They rise to a greater
height in the south. The Pachori river rises from the Urals. It is a tributary of the
Volga. The Ural river also rises from these mountains. It falls in the Caspian Sea.

South-eastern lowlands
The land in the north of the Caspian Sea is up to four metre below sea
level. The Volga and the Ural fall into the Caspian Sea after crossing this land.

Climate
Russia has continental type of climate with extreme variations. It ranges
from the bitter arctic winters to suffocating hot summers of the Central Asian
deserts. In general, winters are long and cold and summers short but warm.
Except the European part of the country, Russia is little affected by the tempering
influence of the oceans. Moreover, the northern lowlands are exposed to the
cold polar winds. They blow from across the Arctic Ocean which is frozen for
nine months. Owing to these reasons together with the huge size of the country
the winters in
Russia are THE COMMONWALTH OF INDEPENDENT
extremely cold. STATES (FORMERLY REPUBLICS OF USSR)
The freezing of
inland and coastal
water; covers large
areas and there are
few all-weather
ports. Only in the
sheltered areas in
the Mountains
J a n u a r y
temperature may be
above freezing
point.
A large part of
Russia receives
rain during the
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short summers. Snowfall is common all over the country for as many as nine
months in Siberia. Rains go on decreasing from west to east. It is scanty in
Siberia ard the Caspian Turan lowland. The heaviest rainfall occurs in the
Caucasus mountains. They get most of their rain in winter.

Vegetation
There is a great variety in vegetation. Several vegetation belts succeed one
another in regular sequence from north to south. They are the tundra the taiga, the
mixed forests the steppes and the desert vegetation belts.
Forty percent of land is covered with forests. They are most extensive in
Siberia and the eastern region. It is the largest source of timber in the world. The
trees are mechanically felled. This saves a lot of time. Soft wood is used for
making pulp for paper and newsprint. This region is the major producer of logs
and boards of wood which are exported.

Animal Rearing
Only 15 percent of the land is under pastures and meadows. Cattle, pigs,
sheep and reindeer are reared in large number for their milk, meat, wool and
fur. Dairy-farming is specially developed around Moscow. Sheep are scared,
both wool and mutton, in the dry parts of central Asia. Reindeer are reared on
the far north for their milk and meat. They also serve as beasts of burden in icy
region.

Economic Development
Russia is very rich in natural resources of all kinds. But its valuable resources
is its own people. After the revolution of 1917 the people, by their hard labour,
have done a lot to develop the vast natural resources. This has made their country
one of the strongest in the world.

Agriculture
Agriculture is the main occupation of Russia. Only 10 percent of its total
area is under cultivation, yet it is very large when compared to that of any other
country in the world. Collective farming was developed here. They have big
farms called Kolkhozes. They occupy almost half of the cultivated land. The
farmers pool their resources such as land, cattle, implements and seeds.
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There are some farms owned and run by the government. They are called
sovkhozes. The managers and the labourers on these farms are appointed by the
state. These farms specialize in certain products. Their main object is to conduct
experiments. They also serve as demonstration farms and are scattered in different
parts of the country. They have their own machines and equipment. In the dry
central Asian land irrigation has increased the agricultural productivity.
Russia produces wheat, barley, rye, oats, maize, sugar beat, potato,
sunflower seeds and cotton. Flax is grown around Moscow. It is a useful fibre.
Cotton is an important crop of the warm desert region of central Asia.

Mineral and Power Resource:

The country is very rich in mineral resources. It has huge reserves of iron
ore, manganese and bauxite. The country has very rich deposits of gold. Its other
minerals are lead, tin, nickel, copper, potash, platinum and tungsten.
Coal is the greatest power resource of Russia. It has a leading position in
the production of coal and lignite. It has a large output of petroleum and natural
gas. Russia has also considerable deposits of uranium. It is used for the production
of atomic energy. Russia has large dams for the production of hydroelectricity. It
is the second largest producer of electricity from all sources. The Syr and Amu
rivers provide water for irrigation in the dry south.

Industries
Heavy Industries account for more than two-thirds of the country’s industrial
production, contributing half of the national income. Iron and steel is the most
important industry of Russia. New Centres have come up in Siberia and Central
Asia. The country produces tractors, heavy machines, trucks, blast furnaces,
arms and ammunitions and chemicals. It helps in building shops and aeroplanes.
The centres of textile industry are Moscow and Leningrad. The country is the
largest producer of beet sugar.

Transport
Russia is a country of vast distances. Railways and rivers are the chief
means of transport. The Trans-Siberian railway is the largest railway in the
world. Moscow is the biggest railway junction. The Trans-Siberian Railway
has connected Moscow and Leningrad with distant cotton growing areas. Now
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attention is being paid to the construction of good roads and electrification of
railway lines.
Most of the country is flat and has been suitable for inland water transport.
But in early winters and early summers, floods in the north flowing Siberian
rivers make them unsuitable for navigation. In winter rivers are frozen and serve
as natural tracks for sledges. Most of rivers in Russia are now inter connected
with canals. Moscow has now become a port of four seas the Caspian Sea,
Black Sea, Baltic Sea and White Sea.
Murmansk is the only ice-free port in Russia which operates throughout the
year in the Arctic Sea. It is along the route to Vladivostok. Despite its location in
the extreme north the warm Atlantic Drift keeps it ice-free. Some of the important
ports on the Black Sea, the Baltic and the Pacific are kept open by the ice breakers.
Pipe-lines carry oil from the oil fields to other parts of the country and to many
east European countries.
There has been amazing development of air transport in Russia. Moscow
and Leningrad are the plain airports of the country. Airlines connect practically
every country with them. Aircraft are of great help in the remote areas like northern
and eastern Siberia.
Moscow is the capital of Russia. It is the largest city of the country and the
most important transport centre. Russian is the official language. It is the first
language of about sixty percent people.

Ukraine
Ukraine is the second largest state in terms of population. It has many
important industries though it is basically agricultural region. Kiev is the capital.
The people of Ukraine are of Russian origin Ukraine is important as a wheat
producing area. The other important producer is rye Sugar-beet and sunflower
are also produced here. Ukraine has big iron and steel plants. It is a thickly
populated area.

Georgia
Historical evidence suggests that about 2800 years ago Georgian civilisation
emerged in the caucasus mountains. In early 19th century the Russians occupied
it. Tibilisi is the capital of Georgia.
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Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan had been a part of the Russian empire in the pre-christian era.
Later the turks settled here in large numbers. In the 19th century under difference
treaties the northern portion which includes the oil rich area of Baku was included
in Turkey. In 1918 Azerbaijan emerged as a republic in 1920, it was taken over
by the Red Army of Russia. It has a big Muslim population. It is an important
cotton producing republic. Baku is the capital which is situated on the Caspian
Sea.

Armenia
Armenia had been under the Persian, Roman, Greek, Arab and Turk influence.
In 1920 Turkey and the Soviet Union divided Armenia between themselves. In
the December of the same year Armenia was declared as a Soviet Republic. It is
known for its copper mines. Yerevan is the capital of Armenia.

Estonia
Estonia is one of the Baltic republics. Tallin is its capital.

Lithuania
Latvia is situated between Estonia and Lithuania. Riga is its capital.
Lithuania is on the Baltic Sea which is ice free even in the winter and it’s
navigable throughout the year. For more than fifty years, it had been an unwilling
partner of the Soviet Union. Volnius is the capital of Lithuania.

Russia
The Russian empire came into being in early fifteenth century. Both in turns
of area and population it is the largest constituent of the Soviet Union. Moscow
which has a population of 5.17 crore is the capital. Russia extends from the
Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean. It has 8800 km east-west and 4800 km north-
south dimensions. The large variety of its population can be particularly seen in
the north-eastern and western areas.
Byelorussia
Byelorussia was established by the Russian Ukrainians and basically by
the white slave communities of the east in the 9th century. After the Mongol

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invasion, this area was occupied by the Polish and the Lithuanian Kings. As an
after the conflict between Poland and the Soviet Union during the first world
war, half of the western portion of Byelorussia was handed over to Poland.
According to a treaty concluded in September 1939, the Soviet Union took back
the portion from the Poles. This is a major fertilizers producing area. It is an
exporter of consumer goods.

Moldavia
A portion of this area which was known by the name of Kiev Russia was
annexed by the Romanian Kings in the 15th century. In the 19th century it became
a part of the Russian empire. Vesverya, its western portion, was transferred to
Romania in 1918. But in 1940, under a treaty Vesverya was regained to form the
Moldavian republic. It is an important centre for the production of grapes and
implements. Kishinev is the capital of Moldavia.

EXERCISES

1. What natural features divide Russia into two continents?

2. Name the main minerals found in Russia.

3. Write a note on the agricultural products of Ukraine.

4. Name the eastern and western terminals of the Trans-Siberian

Railway.

5. When did the Soviet Union collapse?

6. Which areas compose the commonwealth of Independent states?

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CHAPTER 13

AFRICA

LAND, CLIMATE, RESOURCES AND THEIR UTI-

LIZATION

NEW TERMS
Strait: A narrow stretch of water Connecting two large bodies of water of
seas.
Isthmus : A neck of land separating two seas.
Waterfall: A sudden descent of water over a big step in the bed of the river.
Wildlife: Animals and birds leading a free life in their natural surroundings.
Rift valley: A long and deep valley with steep slopes on both sides formed
due to a crack or a rift in the land.
Tropical Rain-forests: Dense and thick forests of the equatorial region
where the temperature and rainfall are very high.
Savana : The tropical grasslands in Africa having tall and coarse grasses.
Density of population: The average number of persons per unit area, i.e.
square kilometre.
The African continent is separated from Europe by the Mediterranean sea
and from Asia by the Red Sea. However, it almost touches Eurasia at three
different points. (a) the Straits of Gibralter in the north-west, (b) the Suez Canal
in the northeast and (c) the Straits of Bab-el Mandeb in the east. By the beginning
of the twentieth century several European countries had become so powerful
that they had brought most parts of the world under their rule. Almost the whole
of Africa had come under the domination of one or the other European power.
Today, however, most of the African people have gained independence. The
people who are still under foreign rule are fighting for their independence and
are due to win their freedom soon. The political map of Africa has changed
rapidly in recent years.
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Africa - Land, Climate, Resources and Their Utilization 183

The Land Map
The map shows some of
the major land forms of Africa.
Almost all of Africa appears to
be one huge plateau though it
consists of several plateaus.
The plateaus is higher in the
south and in the east. A few
volcanic mountain peaks rise
above the plateau in the eastern
part near the equator. In fact, the
highest peak of Africa is located
in this highland region. It is
mount Kilimanjaro with a height
of 5,895 metres above sea level.
It remains snow-covered
throughout the year.
The lowland areas are in Fig 13.1 Africa- Political divisions
the western and the northern
parts and along the coast.
One of the special physical features of Africa is its Great Rift Valley. A
RIFT VALLEY is a long and deep valley formed due to cracks or rifts in the
land. It is bounded by wall like steep slopes on both sides. In Africa, there is a
long chain of such rift valleys runnning from the south of lake Malawi northward
to the Red sea and then through the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Afuaba to the
Dead Sea. Hence it is known as the ”Great Rift Valley.”
Many of these valleys are filled with water called lakes. Therefore, there
are several large lakes in the highland region of Africa. Lake Victoria is the
largest lake in Africa. It is also the source of river Nile, which is the longest
river in the world. It rises in the rainy equatorial region and flows northward.
After a long journey through the Sahara desert, it reaches the Mediterranean Sea.
Another important river is the Zaire in Central Africa. It is also known as Congo
in the later part. It drains a large area and discharges a huge amount of water into
the Atlantic Ocean. In fact it carries the greatest volume of water among all the
rivers of Africa. The Niger in the western part and the Zambezi and the Orange
in the southern part are the other important rivers of Africa.
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With the exception of the Nile and the Zaire, few African rivers can be used
for shipping. This is because the rivers drop from the higher plateaus to the
coastal lowlands making waterfalls. Victoria Falls on Zambezi is higher and
wider than even the famous Niagara Falls of North America.
About one-third of Africa is a desert land The Sahara is the largest desert
in the world. It is located in the northen part of Africa. The Kalahari desert in
southern Africa is another great desert.

Climate and Natural Vegetation

Africa extends between 370 14' N to 340 50' S latitudes. Thus the major
part of it lies within the tropical zone. It is, in fact, the most tropical of all the
continents. The temperature is very high almost througout the year. The highest
temperature in the world has been recorded at Al-Aziziyah (Libya) as 58 0C.
Only on the high plateaus and mountains is it somewhat moderate. Even on the
plateaus the day temperatures are high although the nights are cool.
There are marked variations in the distribution of rainfall. It has caused
wide variations in climate.
The belt lying along the equator on both sides has a hot, wet climate
throughout the year. It rains
almost daily and there is only one
season, namely, the hot-wet
summer.
This is known as the equa-
torial type of climate. Because of
the abundance of heat and
moisture, most of the region is
covered with thick forests called-
TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS
it has a varied wildlife.
To the north and south of the
rain-forests, there are regions of
warm summers and mild winters.
In these belts most of the rain
occurs in summer. There is a
distinct dry period. Total rainfall
Fig 13.2 Africa Physical features

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Africa - Land, Climate, Resources and Their Utilization 185

is also much less than that in the tropical rain-forests. This climate is known as
the Sudan type of climate. This climate is found in a very large part of the continent.
Its vegetation is mostly grasses. The tropical rainforests gradually begin to open
up and give place to woodlands, which finally turn into grasslands. The region
covered with tall and coarse grasses is known as the SAVANNA. It is the
homeland of a variety of grass-eating animals and the wild beasts that live by
killing them.
Beyond the savanna, both in the northern and in the southern parts of Africa,
there are extensive deserts. They are known as the Sahara in the north and the
Kalahari in the south. Temperature
is very high. In fact the highest
temperature in the world is found
here. There is almost no rainfall.
The climate is hot and extremely
dry known as the desert type of
climate. Vegetation is either
wholly absent or includes only
scrubs and bushes.
The northern and the southern
coasts of Africa have mild and
rainy winters and warm and dry
summers. This is known as the
mediterranean type of climate.
The climate is cooler in the
highlands of southern and eastern
Africa. Fig 13.3 Africa-Climatic divisions

Natural Resources And Their Utilization

The boundaries provided by nature to any area are known as NATURAL
RESOURCES. They include things such as soil, water, minerals, forests and
animals. Africa is rich in several natural resources.

Soil
Soil is one of the most important natural resources. It supports different
kinds of plants and trees. Soil is formed very slowly. It takes, hundreds of years
to form a one centimetre thick layer of soil

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Some soils,
are better suited for
crops. Such fertile
soils are usually
found in the river
valleys and plains.
However, some of
the less fertile soils
can also be made
fertile by adding
fertilizers. But
some soils are not
Fig 13.5 Africa-Natural
at all suitable for Fig 13.4 Africa-Annual Rainfall
crops, though they can support other kinds of plants or grasses.
In Africa, only, 10 percent of the soil is suitable for crops. It includes
the volcanic soils of east Africa, the alluvial soils of the Nile valley and certain
soils of the savanna lands, which are very fertile. In other parts of the continent
climatic conditions and the nature of the land form have been unfavourable for
the formation of good soil. However, a very large part of central Africa is under
forest cover, which is also an important natural resource of the continent.

Water:
A large part of the Africa is dry. However the remaining parts get good
rainfall. There are many rivers which carry plentiful rain water throughout the
year. A good deal of this water is used for irrigation. Many rivers reach the sea
through a series of waterfalls because they flow from the higher plateau areas on
to the lower coastal plains. As such ships and boats are prevented from sailing
very far upstream. These can, however, be used for the development of
hydroelectricity.
The Kariba dam on the Zambezi is the largest producer of water-power in,
Africa. The Aswan dam on the Nile in Egypt is another very big dam.

Minerals:
Africa is very rich in several valuable minerals. It leads the countries of the
world in the production of diamond, gold and platinum.

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Africa - Land, Climate, Resources and Their Utilization 187

More than 95 percent of the world’s diamond production Comes from Africa.
The price of diamond depends on its size and brightness. Good quality diamonds,
often used in jewellery, fetch a high price. Inferior quality diamonds are used for
industrial purposes.
Africa is responsible for more than half the world’s gold production. South
Africa is the major producer of gold and platinum in Africa. As you know, gold is
used for making ornaments but its greatest value lies in the fact that it serves as the
basis for issuing currencies in all the countries of the world.
Africa has large reserves of cobalt, manganes, chromium, copper, tin, bauxite,
and uranium. But there is not much coal and iron ore in this continent. This has
hampered the production of steel, which is so important for industrial growth. In
the past, most of these resources were used reck essly by the Europeans powers,
who exported them in large quantities. As a result, several large copper mines are
now closed. Today the independent nations of Africa are facing the problem of
finding out ways by which these resources could be utilize wisely for their economic
prosperity. Cobalt and manganese, which are mixed with iron to make steel, are
found in the Southern half of Africa leads the countries of the world in the production
of chromium, a metal which does not rust. Zaire and South Africa are the main
producers of copper (Which is used for making electric wires), bauxite (which
yields alumimum) and uranium (which is used in producing atomic energy).
Petroleum is found in many parts of Africa such as Nigeria, Libya and Angola.

Forests
Forests and trees are very important sources of wealth. Besides timber, many
other products are obtained from them. Large parts of central Africa are covered with
thick forests. They yield hardwood which may be used as timber. They have many
valuable trees such as mahogany, ebony and kapok.
Rubber trees grow wild in these forests, though they are native to South America.
However, they are now being planted properly. Africa exports rubber in large quantities.
Three different types of palm trees are found in Africa. They are coconut
palm, oil and date palm. Coconut palms are found in the tropical islands (such as
Zanzibar and Pemba) and along the equatorial coast such as Tanzania. They
yield copra from which coconut oil is obtained. Oil palm, from which palm oil
is obtained, is common in west Africa. Nigeria exports a good deal of this oil.
Date palm grows in the oasis in the drier regions. Dates constitute an important
item of food for the local people. Egypt exports a large amount of dates.
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Cacao and kola are
trees which provide us
beverages. Cocoa is
obtained from the cacao
trees. Like coffee, it is a
very popular drink and is
also used for making
chocolate. Cacao grows
well in the equatorial
lowlands. West African
countries, Such as Ghana
and Nigeria, export a
good deal of cocoa. Kola
trees yield nuts which are
used in preparing cola
drinks and chewing gum.
Africa has a large
variety of fruit trees. In
the tropical region,
banana, pineapple, Fig 13.6 Africa-minerals and industries.
papaya, jackfruit and
mango are common. Citrus fruits such as lemon, orange and lime are also grown
here. The mediterranean regions grow olives, apples, peaches and grapes. East
Africa produces cashewnuts. Zanzibar and Pemba islands are the biggest producers
and exporters of cloves in the world.

Wildlife
There is an abundance of wildlife in Africa. The extensive equatorial forests
and swamps as well as the huge grass lands are ideal homes for a variety of
birds and animals.
Elephants, wild buffaloes, snakes, pythons, monkeys; hippopotamuses and
rhinoceros are some of the important animals found in the forests and swamps.
Deer, stag, zebra and giraffe belong to the open woodlands and grasslands. Some
animals such as lions and tigers prey on these grass-eating animals. Camels are
found in the deserts. The ostrich, a large, fast-running bird, is found in the Kalahari
desert.
Wild animals and birds are important natural resources. Previously they
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Africa - Land, Climate, Resources and Their Utilization 189

were hunted for their skins
bones, horns, tusks and
feathers, which were sold
for good prices. As a result,
the number of these animals
and birds reduced. The
governments of the different
countries of Africa have,
therefore, made laws against
unlicensed hunting. Several
Wildlife sanctuaries and
national parks have been
developed. These are
restricted woodlands and
forests where hunting is not
allowed. The animals can
live freely in their natural
surroundings. Tourists from Fig 13.7 Africa-widlife
all over the world visit these national parks to watch wildlife in natural
surroundings. Tourism is thus a fast growing industry which provides good
income to the local people. However, hunting of these animals has not stopped
completely, and so there is a need to enforce the laws.
In the higher savanna regions of eastern, northern and western Africa, cattle
grazing is very important. Large herds of cattle are owned by nomadic tribes,
who move from one place to another with their herds.

Crops
Different kinds of crops are grown here. Some crops are grown by the
people for food. These are called FOOD CROPS.
There are other crops which are grown mainly for manufacturing industries.
These are known as CASH CROPS.
Most of the food crops of Africa are root crops such as yam and cassava.
With the exception of maize, cereals are not very important. Wheat, rice and
millets like sorghum are grown only in small quantities.
Amongst the cash, crops, palm oil, groundnut, cocoa, coffee, cotton and
sisal are important.
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Palm oil and groundnut are produced mainly in west Africa. Cocoa and
coffee from Africa constitute about 60 and 24 percent of world trade respectively.
Cotton has been grown in the Nile Valley for several thousand years. About nine
percent of the world’s trade in cotton comes from Africa. Sisal is a vegetable
fibre that is used in making ropes and sacks. Africa is one of the world’s largest
producers and exporters of sisal. In fact, Tanzania leads the countries of Africa
in sisal production. Sisal plants thrive well on poor, sandy, soils. They are reared
in a nursery. After words they are planted in rows in large fields. After three or
four years, their leaves are cut off and crushed by machines. The fibre is left
which is dried and made into ropes and sacks.

The islands of Zanzibar and Pemba are famous for cloves and coconuts.
They produce about nine-tenths of the world’s cloves. The clove trees grow to a
height of about 12 metres. They have long, dark and shining leaves. The creamy
pink buds of the trees are picked just before they burst open. Picking must be
done within a very short time. The picking season is a very busy time.

In the past few years, many African nations increased their production of
cash crops. This could provide them money to build dams, industries, transport
and communication lines and improve their living conditions. Hence, the area
under food crops decreased in many countries. In some parts of Mica, drought
conditions are prevailing because of the failure of rainfall for many years. There
has been acute food shortage in several countries of Africa.

The People
The people of Africa vary greatly. About 70 percent of these people are the
Blacks. The rest of them have come from other parts such as Europe and Asia.

The first European settlement in South Africa was made in 1652. Now there
are more than 3,000,000 Europeans in south Africa alone, but they constitute
only 20 percent of the population. Though the white people are in a minority they
rule the country. Besides, they practice a policy of segregation i.e., the non white
population is not allowed to live freely in the country. It is a serious problem.

Like in our country, several hundred languages are spoken here. This presents
problems in communication. Many Africans, therefore, find it useful to be able
to speak at least two languages like us. One is the local language or dialect. This
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Africa - Land, Climate, Resources and Their Utilization 191

enables them to
communicate with
people in their own
village or tribe. In
addition, they learn to
speak French, Italian,
English, Arabic or
Swahili. SWAHILI is a
language which is
understood by many
people. Different
religions such as Islam,
Christianity and Animism
are followed by the
people of Africa.
ANIMISM is the religion
followed by many tribes.
Fig 13.8 Crops and livestock It is based upon love and
respect of nature.

The total population of Af-

rica is about 537 million. If it is
distributed uniformly over the
whole continent there will be
only 18 persons per square kilo-
metre In other words DENSITY
OF POPULATION in Africa is
18 persons per square kilome-
tres We may, therefore, say that
it is a thinly populated continent.
The actual distribution of popu-
lation is, however uneven.

Look at the population map

and note the vast spaces which
are unpopulated. The Sahara
desert in the north and the
Fig 13.9 Africa-distribution of Population

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Kalahari desert in the southwestern part have very little population. Why are
these regions thinly populated? Why do we find a dense population in the valley
and the delta of the Nile and some parts of west Afiica?
Transport
Africa does not have enough means of transport. The extensive deserts and
thick forests hinder the construction of roads and railways. Rivers are useful
only for local
transportation. The
presence of waterfalls
makes them largely
unnavigable. Railways
and roads are not well
developed. Mostly they
link the mining and other
important centres with
the coast. Air transport is
becoming more and more
important but it is costly.
Locate on the map
the two sea routes of the
world, one passing
through the Suez canal
and the other going
around the Cape of Good
Hope. Fig 13.10 Africa- transport lines, major cities
Africa is a continent of great promise because it has vast natural resources.
The new independent countries of Africa are making great progress in develop-
ing their agriculture, industries and transport routes. India and many other na-
tions are helping African nations to develop their resources.

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Africa - Land, Climate, Resources and Their Utilization 193

EXERCISES
Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) Which mountains lie in the north-western and south eastern parts of
the continent of the continent of Africa?
(ii) Why do most of the rivers in Africa have water falls before they
flow into the sea?
(iii) Why has there been a serious food shortage in Africa?
(iv) Which are the thickly populated parts of Africa?
(v) Which language of Africa is understood by many people?
(vi) Why is climate in Africa different at different places?
(vii) Which is the hottest place in the world?
(viii) How many years does it take in the formation of one Centimetre
layer of Earth?

2. Make correct pairs from the following two columns:

(a) The world’s longest river (i) Zaire
(b) The African river discharging
a huge amount of water into the Atlantic Ocean (ii) Kariba
(c) The desert northern Africa (iii) Kalahari
(d) The dam on the Nile (iv) Nile
(e) The dam on the Zambezi (v) Aswan
(t) The desert of southern Africa (vi) Sahara

3. Some of the trees and plants found in Africa are sorghum, ebony,
kola, wheat, mahogany, sisal, cotton,. and cacao. List them under the
following categories :
(i) Trees which give hardwood
(ii) Trees which give fruits for making beverages
(iii) Plants which yield fibre
(iv) Plants which produce cereals

4. Give reasons:
1. Although a big continent, Africa, has small population.
2. Why are most of the countries of the continent still undeveloped?
3. Why is Africa called a dark continent even today?
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CHAPTER-14

LAND OF FORESTS-ZAIRE

NEW TERMS
Cassava: An important plant of the tropical region. The roots of the plant
are eaten as food.
Export: Goods and services sold by one country to another country.
River basin: A large area drained by a single river and its tributaries.
Zaire was ruled by Belgium for a long time. But it became an independent
country in 1960. It is about three-fourths the size of India but it has a small
population which is just a little more than that of Kerala State. See the location
of Zaire in the map of Africa.
Land and Climate
The greater part of Zaire lies within the basin of river Zaire from which it
has derived its name. The Zaire basin is a large saucer-shaped depression
surrounded by the plateaus.
The Zaire is one of the
largest rivers of the world
But it is navigable only in
parts because it has
numerous waterfalls and
rapids, i.e., small waterfalls.
Zaire lies in the
equatorial region and so it
has high temperature and
heavy rainfall throughout the
year. The abundance of heat
and moisture causes plants
and trees to grow very
rapidly. The land is
therefore, covered by
tropical rain forests. These
forests are evergreen Fig 14.1 Zaire
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Land of Forest - Zaire

because all trees do not shed their leaves at the same time. In these dense forests
trees compete with each other for sunlight and become very tall. Many of them
reach a height of 40 metres or more. Trees of several species are found in a very
small area. Below the tall trees there are several small trees. Beneath them is a
mat like green cover of grasses, shrubs and climbers. Because of the trees and
the undergrowth, it is very difficult to travel in these forests. River courses are
the only means by which one can travel in these forests. The foliage in these
forests is so dense that the rays of the sun hardly reach the forest floor. These
forests are, therefore, dark and gloomy.
On both sides of the rainforest, savanna grasslands are found.
Resources and their Utilization
Zaire is rich in several natural resources such as forests, wildlife, soil,
minerals and water power, Agriculture and mining are the two important economic
activities of the people.

Forests:
A large part of the country is covered with equatorial or tropical rain-
forests. Though they contain one of the largest reserves of hardwood in the
world, they have not yet been utilized much.

Wildlife:
Zaire is often called a gigantic zoo because of its large variety of wildlife.
Snakes, phythons, monkeys, elephants and hippopotamuses are some of the
examples of animals living in the forests and swamps of Zaire. Besides, a variety
of birds also live in its forests.

Soil and Crops:

Although Zaire is a lowland, only onefifth of its total land is under cultivation.
It is because of its vast forest cover.
The principal food crops grown here are rice, maize, cassava and sorghum.
Rice is grown in the north, the north-east and in the Kasai province in the south.
Maize is grown in the Savanna region. Cassava is a kind of tuber. Its plant grows
to a height of about a metre and a half. The tuber is dried and pounded into flour.
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Cash crops such as rubber, coffee, cotton and oil palm are grown just for
export. Cattle rearing is done on the high lands especially in the savannas.
Methods of agriculture are mostly traditional. The food crops are used mainly
by the families producing them. Efforts are being made to improve agriculture
by providing fertilizers and using new methods of farming.

Minerals and Industries:

Zaire has vast reserves of copper, diamond, cobalt, tin, zinc, manganese
and uranium. They are found mainly in the southern province of Shaba (Katanga).
It is one of the largest producers of copper and industrial diamond in the world.
Most of the minerals extracted within the country are exported.
Most of the industries in Zaire process agricultural and mineral products
for export. They are located mainly in Likazi (Jodotville) and Lubumbashi
(E1izabethville).

Water Power:
There is huge potentiality for water power. It has a number of dams and
hydel power stations. It also supplies water power to its neighbouring countries
- Congo and Burundi.
However, there is a lot of scope for future development.

The people:
The people of the country are mainly the Blacks. They, however, belong to
different tribes. Nearly two-third of the population consists of the Bantu-speaking
Blacks.
Its total population is about 32 milion. Because of the country’s huge size,
the density of population is low, i.e., about 14 persons per square kilometre.
Zaire is mainly rural. However, the number of people now living in urban
areas is growing very fast. In fact, the rate at which the towns and cities have
developed in Zaire, is one of the highest in Africa. Many of, these urban centres
were developed by the European settlers. They are similar in appearance to any
city of a developed country. Kinshasa is the largest city and is the capital of
Zaire. Lubumbashi (Elizabethville) and Kisangani are other important cities.
Matadi is the chief port of the country which is situated on the river Zaire.
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EXERCISES

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Answer the following questions briefly?
(i) In which river basin is Zaire located ?
(ii) Why is the river Zaire navigable only in parts?
(iii) What is an evergreen forest?
(iv) Which are the main food crops of Zaire?
(v) The population of which state of India is equal to that of Zaire ?

2. What are the characteristics of equatorial rain-forests? Why have

these forests not yet been used much?

3. Why are most of minerals from Zaire exported and not used ?

4. Explain how cassava is grown and used.

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CHAPTER-15

LAND OF PALM AND PALM OIL-NIGERIA

NEW TERMS
Tributary: A stream or river which joins a larger river. Hydroelectricity
Electricity produced by the force of falling water on turbines.
Inland drainage: A river system in which rivers do not reach the sea or the
ocean.
Nigeria is one of the largest countries of Africa. In population it leads all
the countries of Africa. It is one of the wealthiest and most progressive countries
of the continent.

Land and Climate:

Nigeria is a country of
lowlands and plateaus. The
coastal area in the south is a
lowland covered with rain-
forests. The surface of the
land is undulating, i.e., it
rises and falls so that it looks
like waves.
Further north, lies the
plateau of Jos where
woodlands of the south
gradually give place to
grasslands. The extreme
north of the country merges
with the Sahara Desert.
The Niger is the most
important river after which
the country is named. It
Fig 15.1 Nigeria
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Land of Palm and Palm Oil - Nigeria

drains the greater part of Nigeria before it fall into the Gulf of Guinea. Rivers of
the north-eastern part of the country flow into lake Chad, thus forming an inland
drainage system, i.e., one where the rivers do not reach a sea or an ocean.
Coastal Nigeria has an equatorial type of climate and has rainfall throughout
the year. In the interior there is a marked dry season in summer. Hot and dust-
laden winds often blow from the north east during this season known as the
HARMATTAN.

Resources and their utilization

Crops:
Nigeria is mainly an agricultural country. The major part of its land is
under food crops which are consumed locally. They include yam, cassava, millet,
maize, sweet potatoes, rice and beans. The country is self-sufficient in food and
is very important for certain agricultural exports. It is the world’s largest exporter
of palm kernels, palm-oil and groundnuts It is second largest producer of cocoa.
It also produces cotton, rubber, tobacco and banana.
The oil palm tree grown very well in the equatorial climate. It reaches its
full height of approximately 12 metres in about fifteen years. The fruits of the
tree grow in clusters. Oil is extracted from the hard nut as well as from the pulp
fruit by simple crude methods or by machines. The chemical properties of the
two oils are different. It is used in making margarine, soap, candles, hair-oil and
other things.

Animal Rearing :
It is important in the northern grass lands, Cattle, goats and sheep are reared.
The goat-skins are supplied to the leather industries of Nigeria.

Forests:
One-third of the country’s total area is under forest. Timber and plywood
are the important exports.

Water Power:
Nigeria is rich in water power resources. Kainji dam has been counstructed
on the river Niger. There are four hydel power stations in Jos in the north.
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Minerals and Industries :
There are large reserves of tin and columbite in the central plateau. They
are exported on a large scale. Nigeria also posses iron, lead, zinc, manganese
and limestone. It is the only coal producing country of western Africa. It is one
of the largest mineral oil producing countries of Africa. In the 1970s it experienced
a real oil boom because of increased production. This affected the economic
condition of Nigeria in many ways. On the one hand it helped in earning more
money for the country, and on the other it affected agriculture adversely. Increased
income generated demand for services of all types. As a result the percentage of
people employed in services increased from about 10 in 1970 to 23 in 1982. But
the percentage of people engaged in agriculture dropped from 75 in 1970 to 59
in 1982.
Nigeria has several industries such as textiles, food processing, leather and
tanning, oil mills, cigarettes, rubber factories and metal works.
The transport and communication system of Nigeria is one of the best in
Africa.

The People:
The majority of the people are the Blacks. They however, belong to different
tribes.
Nigeria has a population of 92 million. The density of population is about
100 persons per square kilometre. The density of population is comparatively
higher in the south western and south eastern parts than in the rest of the country.
Lagos is the capital city of Nigeria. Lagos and Port Harcourt are the principal
ports. Ibadan is the largest city and an important trade centre. Important industrial
‘centres are Kano, Kaduna and Jos in the north and Lagos and port Harcourt in
the south.

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Land of Palm and Palm Oil - Nigeria

EXERCISES

1. Answcr the following questions briefly

(i) How did Nigeria receive its name ?
(ii) Which industries are found in Nigeria?
(iii) Name the river on which the dam in Nigeria is located. Also name
the dam.

2. Make correct pairs from the following two columns :

(a) The capital city of Nigeria
(b) An important port of Nigerla
(c) An important trade centre of Nigeria
(d) The most important cash crop of Nigeria
(c) An important industrial centre of northern Nigeria

(i) Kano
(ii) Cocoa
(iii) Lagos
(iv) Port Harcourt
(v) Ibadan
(vi) Accra
(vii) Palm oil
3. What-are the major crops of Nigeria ? What climatic factors are
responsible for their growth ?

4. In what ways has the oil boom in Nigeria affected its economic
condition?

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CHAPTER-16

THE GIFT OF THE NILE - THE ARAB REPUBLIC

OF EGYPT

NEW TERMS

Gulf: A small area of the sea penetrating into the land. It is usually of a
larger extent than a bay.
Distributaries: The channels of a river by which it distributes its water.
Delta: A more or less triangular tract made up of alluvium at the mouth of a
river. It is traversed by a number of distributaries.
The Arab Republic of Egypt is situated in Africa but it is at the junction of
two continents, namely, Africa and Asia. Until the Suez Canal was constructed,
the isthmus of Suez formed a land bridge between Africa and Asia. The Suez
Canal serves as a very useful and convenient gateway of international trade
between the countries of the east and the west.
You will notice, that Egypt is a part of the Great Sahara Desert which
occupies nearly half the northern part of Africa. A very small part of Egypt lies
in Asia also. The life-giving waters of the Nile have made it one of the richest
and most thickly populated lands of Africa. No wonder the Egyptians consider
their land the gift of the Nile. The Nile Valley has been the home of one of the
oldest civilizations of the world.

Land and Climate

The larger part of the country is a desert because of scanty rainfall. This
part is almost wholly uninhabited. Hot, dry and sand laden winds blow from the
south during early summer, i.e, April and May. These are Known as KHAMSIN.
There is a narrow strip of land along the river Nile, which is fertile. The
river has deposited rich mud on both sides during floods. In fact, not more than
one thirtieth of Egypt is populated. People live on both the banks of the Nile in a

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The Gift of The Nile - The Arab Republic of Eygpt

strip of land, which has a maximum width of about 25 kilometres. At places, it is
not more than two or three kilometres wide.
The Nile is the second largest river in the world. Its source lies in Lake
Victoria. This lake is located in the equatorial region, where it rains heavily
throughout the year. It, therefore, collects a large volume of water before entering
Egypt.
At Cairo, the river slits into a number of channels, distributing its water
over a wide tract. Such channels by which river water is distributed are known
as DISTRIBUTARIES.

Resources and their utilization

Crops:
Agricultural land is very limited in Egypt. Only three percent of the total
land is under cultivation. However, nearly three-fourth of the population is engaged
in agriculture, there is a great pressure of population on agricultural land.

Fig 16.1 The Nile Valley

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Even though the Nile Valley and its delta are one of the world’s most fertile
lands, agriculture cannot be carried out without irrigation. The flood waters of
the Nile have been used for irrigation with great skill for the last 5,000 years.
The Egyptian farmer, called FELLAH, has to work very hard on his small field
but he is able to grow at least two crops annually.
The principal crops of Egypt are maize, rice, wheat, millet, and sugarcane.
Dates are an important product, grown especially in oasis.
Cotton is the most important cash crop of Egypt. It is world famous for its
fine quality. Cotton plant needs a fertile soil, high temperature and abundant
sunshine. It grows well here with irrigation water. Its fruit or ball ripens in about
six months, after which it burst open showing the white fluff that is cotton. Rain,
fog, dust and pests can damage cotton crop. That is why the hot, dry and clean
weather of Egypt is very suitable for cotton growing.

Water Resources :
Several high dams have been built on the Nile. The largest among them is at
Aswan. Canals taken from the dams irrigate crops throughout the year.
Hydroelectricity is also produced at these sites.

Minerals and Industries :

Mineral oil is the most important mineral wealth of Egypt. It is found in
Sinai and along the Red Sea coast. Other minerals such as phosphates, sea salt,
manganese and iron ore are also produced.
The cotton textile and food industries are quite important and also the
oldest Engineering industries i.e. manufacture of diffrent kinds of equipment,
chemical industries i,e,
manufacture of fertilizers, glass, soap, etc, and oil refineries are developing
fast.

The people
The inhabitants of Egypt are mostly Arabs and are followers of Islam. The
total population of the country is about 46 million. The average density of
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The Gift of The Nile - The Arab Republic of Eygpt

Fig 16.2 A Pyramid

population is thus 46 persons per square kilometer. The actual distribution, how-
ever is very uneven. In the Nile valley it is more than 900 persons per square
kilometre.
Al Qahira (Cairo), the capital of Egypt is the largest city of Africa.
The famous pyramids of sphinx are located near Cairo. AI Iskandariya
(Alexandria) is the chief sea port and the second largest city of Egypt. But Said
(Port Said) at the Suez Canal is a big trading centre.

Transport :
The roads and railways run along the course of the river Nile. The network
of transport lines is very dense in the delta region. However, there are roads in
all directions. Cairo is the centre of the transport system. Besides, it is also a
very important international airport. But, it is the Suez Canal which has put
Egypt on the world map of intemational trade. The canal was cut across the
isthmus which separates Africa and Asia. It now links the Mediterranean Sea
with the Red Sea. The opening of the Canal in 1869 shortened the voyage from
Bombay to London by more than 7,000 kilometres. The canal is 162 kilometres
long and a ship takes about 10 to 12 hours to pass through it.
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EXERCISES

1. Answer the following questions briefly.

(i) Name the source of the Nile.
(ii) Which is the most important cash crop of Egypt? What percentage of
land is under cultivation?
(iii) Why is irrigation necessary for agriculture in Egypt.
(iv) Which seas are connected by the Suez Canal ?
(v) Which is the biggest dam on the river Nile?
(vi) Which is the longest river in the world?

2. Distinguish between :
(i) A tributary and a distributary.
(ii) A strait and an isthmus.

3. Complete the following statement by choosing the correct ending

from those given below the statement. The Suez Canal is the busiest
international waterway because
(a) it charges nominal toll on the goods passing through it.
(b) it saves the long journey round the Cape of Good Hope.
(c) it is an all sea level canal.
(d) it is the longest sea canal.

4. What are the favourable conditions for the growth of cotton in Egypt?

5. Why is Egypt called the gift of the Nile?

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South Africa - Land of Gold and Dimonds

CHAPTER-17

SOUTH AFRICA-LAND OF GOLD AND

DIAMONDS

Cape : A prominent headland projecting into the sea.

Ocean Current : A general movement of the surface water of the ocean
flowing in a definite direction like a stream.
Pastoral farming : The practice of breeding and rearing animals on pastures
for milk, meat, wool and skin.
Mixed farming: Combination of cultivation of crops and rearing of animals
on the same farm.
Apartheid : Policy of segregating people on the basis of their race or colour
of their skin.
South Africa lies in the southernmost part of the continent. It is a large
country, about three-eighth the size of India, but has only a small population. It
has a variety of natural resources. It is known for its mineral wealth, particularly
gold and diamonds.
It is bounded on three sides by two oceans namely, the Atlantic Ocean and
the Indian Ocean. It occupies an important position on the international trade
route.

Land and Climate

Almost the whole of South Africa is a high plateau sloping towards the
west. The Drakensberg mountains in the east form the edge of this plateau. Some
of its ridges are higher than 3,000 metres. To the east of these mountains, the
land drops down rapidly. To the south, the land drops down in steps.
The Plateau region is covered with grasses. It is called ‘the veld’. It is a
Dutch word which means field.
South Africa lies in the warm temperate zone. It has a moderate climate due
to several reasons. It is surrounded on three sides by oceans. The great height of
the plateau is another reason for its cool climate. It is further cooled by the cold
ocean current along the west coast.
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The Orange and the Vaal river flow from the Drakensberg mountains west
ward to the Atlantic Ocean. The Limpopo river flows along the northern boundary
of the country for some distance.
Except in coastal areas, the rainfall is not much and decreases from south to
north and from east to west. Most of the country has rains in summer but the
southern coast sets rain during winter.

Resources and their utilization Soil and Crops:

Since a large part of the country on the western side does not get sufficient
rain, it is a dry land. The eastern part has a good rainfall but most of it is hilly
and unsuitable for cultivation. It is only in the veld region in the north central
part that the land is fertile and rainfall is moderate. As such only one-eighth of
the total land of South Africa is under cultivation. Maize is the most important
crop. Wheat, oats and barley are also grown.

Animal Rearing:
It is more important than the cultivation of crops. The breeding and rearing
of animals on pastures is known as PASTORAL FARMING. Cattle, goats and
sheep are reared for
their milk, meat,
wool and skin. The
Merino sheep of
South Africa are
famous for their fine
wool. In fact, as an
exporter of wool
South Africa is next
only to Australia. In
some areas
cultivation of crops is
combined with
animal rearing. This
type of agriculture is
known as MIXED
FARMING.. Fig 17 South

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South Africa - Land of Gold and Dimonds

Minerals and Industries:
South Africa is the leading producer of gold and diamonds in the world. It
accounts for nearly half of the world’s production of gold. The gold mines are
near Johannesburg. Rocks containing gold are blasted, crushed, washed and
sorted. Then with the help of chemicals, gold is dissolved and separated from
the ore. The centre of diamond mining is Kimberley Platinum, manganese, uranium,
copper, iron, asbestos and coal are the other important minerals of the country.
Mining is the most important activity of the people.
South Africa is the most industrialized country of Africa. It manufactures a
number of products from its agricultural raw materials. Tinned fruit, processed
food, sugar, cigarettes, meat, dairy products and textiles are the important products.
The iron and steel industry has become a major industry. Metal works and chemical
industries are also developing.

The People:
The total population of South Africa is about 39 million. The density of
population is only 26 persons per square Kilometre. Nearly two- third of the
population consists of the Blacks. Less then one fifth of the population is composed
of the whites. The rest of the population includes the Asians and mixed groups.
South Africa was earlier a colony of England but later on it was given self
government. But government was still run by whites. Although the whites were
in minority but the government was entirely run by them. Non-whites has no part
in the government. They were permitted to live only on lands reserved for them.
They could own land only in their reserves. They were not given higher jobs.
They mostly worked in mines and they were paid less than whites. Thus there
was complete segregation of the non-white people in every sphere of life-
political, economic and social. The policy of segregating the people on the basis
of their race or colour is known as Apartheid. No other country of the world
shows such disregard of human rights as south Africa.
Before 1915 Gandhiji had awakened nonwhites about their human rights.
As a result the non whited had been struggling hard for their rights. Thousands of
people including children’s home lost their lives in this struggle. The nonwhites
finally succeeded in their struggle. In 1994 there was pact-between Nelson
Mandela the leader of non-whites and the Govt. of whites and an interim
Government was formed. Nelson Mandela is the leader of the new Government.
All the countries of the world welcomed this.
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Johannesberg is the largest city of South Africa. It is a commercial and
Industrial centre. Protria is the Captial City of the Country. Cape town is the
legislative Capital. It is also the largest port. The other two important ports are
Durban and port Elizabeth. The country has a good network of railways. This
has enabled it to exploit its mineral wealth and to develop its agriculture and
industries.

EXERCISES

1. Answer the following questions briefly.

(i) What is the area of South Africa as compared to India?
(ii) What is the veld?
(iii) Why does South Africa enjoy a moderate climate.
(iv) What is meant by mixed farming?
(v) What is apartheid?

2. Make correct pairs from the following two columns.

(a) The centre of diamond mining in South Africa
(b) The centre of gold mining in South Africa
(c) The capital city of South Africa
(d) The biggest port of South Africa
(e) The southern most tip of South Africa.

(i) Johannesburg
(ii) Cape of Good Hope
(iii) Cape Town
(iv) Kimberley
(v) Pretoria
(vi) Port Elizabeth.

3. What is meant by pastoral farming? Why is it important in South

Africa?

4. Which are the important minerals of South Africa? How is gold

mined and refined?

5. Why is agriculture less important in South Africa?

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