Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Curs AP 2016
Curs AP 2016
AUTOMATE
PROGRAMABILE
2
Automate programabile
Definitia unui AP
• UN AP/PLC (programmable logic controller)
este un sistem electronic digital, proiectat pentru
utilizarea în mediul industrial. Foloseşte o
memorie programabilă pentru stocarea internă a
instrucţiunilor necesare implementării unor
funcţii specifice (logice, secvenţiale,
temporizare, contorizare, calcul matematic),
pentru a controla prin intrările şi ieşirile sale
digitale şi analogice diferite tipuri de maşini sau
procese;
4
Automate programabile
Locul automatelor programabile in sistemele de fabricatie
5
Automate programabile
Tipuri de automate programabile
• AP monobloc
• AP modulare
• Exemplu de dulapuri de
automatizare – aspect interior
6
Automate programabile
Structura hardware a unui AP
7
Automate programabile
Periferia PLC si Module I/O
• PLC pot fi alimentate
fie direct de la retea
(110-240Vac) fie de la
o sursa (bloc de
alimentare -> 24Vdc).
• Se utilizeaza sigurante
fuzibile si un comutator
general.
8
Automate programabile
Module I/O
• Module de intrare:
• Exemplu de AP cu
intrari neizolate
• Exemplu de AP cu
intrari izolate
9
Automate programabile
Module I/O
• Module de intrare:
• Schema de legare in
cazul intrarilor neizolate
• Schema de legare in
cazul intrarilor izolate
10
Automate programabile
Module I/O
• Module de intrare:
• Senzori NPN
(conecteaza intrarea
AP la 0V)
• Senzori PNP
(conecteaza intrarea
AP la V+)
11
Automate programabile
Module I/O
• Module de intrare:
• Exemplu de legare a
unui senzor NPN
• Exemplu de legare a
unui senzor PNP
12
Automate programabile
Module I/O
• Module de iesire:
• Simboluri pentru
contactele releelor:
• Normal deschis (NO)
• Normal inchis (NC)
• Contacte NC/NO
• Modul de iesire pe
relee, neizolate
13
Automate programabile
Module I/O
• Module de iesire:
• Exemplu de legare
pentru iesiri pe relee
neizolate
• Exemplu de legare
pentru iesiri pe relee
izolate
14
Automate programabile
Module I/O
• Module de iesire:
• Modul de iesire pe
tranzistoare, neizolate
(pentru sarcini/el. de
actionare in c.c.)
• Modul de iesire pe
triace, neizolate (pentru
sarcini in c.a.)
15
Automate programabile
Periferia PLC
16
Automate programabile
Periferia PLC
• Exemplu de
echipamente utilizate
ca intrari in PLC
(senzori/traductoare)
• Exemplu de
echipamente utilizate
ca iesiri (elemente de
executie)
17
Automate programabile
Periferia PLC
• Simbolizarea
elementelor de intrare:
• Comutatoare manuale
• Normal deschise
• Normal inchise
• Comutatoare mecanice
(limitatoare cursa)
• Normal deschise
• Normal inchise
18
Automate programabile
Periferia PLC
• Simbolizarea
elementelor de intrare:
• Comutare electro-
mecanice
• Senzor de debit
• Senzor de nivel
• Senzor de temperatura
• Senzor de presiune
19
Automate programabile
Periferia PLC
• Simbolizarea
elementelor de intrare:
• Senzori de proximitate
• Comutatoare (relee) de
timp
• Temporizator on-delay
• Temporizator off-delay
20
Automate programabile
Periferia PLC
• Constructia
elementelor de intrare:
• Comutator mecanic cu
rola
• Comutator cu lamela
bimetalica
(temperatura)
21
Automate programabile
Periferia PLC
• Constructia
elementelor de intrare:
• Senzor de presiune cu
burduf
22
Automate programabile
Periferia PLC
• Constructia
elementelor de intrare:
• Traductor de debit cu
palete
• Traductor de debit cu
turbina
23
Automate programabile
Periferia PLC
• Constructia
elementelor de intrare:
• Exemplu de traductor
de nivel cu comutator
• Exemplu de traductor
de nivel cu senzor de
proximitate
24
Automate programabile
Periferia PLC
• Constructia
elementelor de intrare:
• Senzor de proximitate
inductiv
25
Automate programabile
Periferia PLC
• Constructia
elementelor de intrare:
• Senzor de proximitate
capacitiv
26
Automate programabile
Periferia PLC
• Constructia
elementelor de intrare:
• Senzor de proximitate
ultrasonic
27
Automate programabile
Periferia PLC
• Constructia
elementelor de intrare:
• Senzori de prezenta
optici (tip bariera, tip
difuz, tip retroreflexiv)
28
Automate programabile
Periferia PLC
• Constructia
elementelor de intrare:
• Traductor de rotatie
incremental
29
Automate programabile
Periferia PLC
• Constructia
elementelor de intrare:
• Traductor de rotatie
absolut pe 4 biti
30
Automate programabile
Proiectarea unui sistem controlat cu PLC
31
Automate programabile
Metode de programare a PLC-urilor
• Documentul care defineste metodele de programare ale PLC-urilor este
standardul Comisiei Internationale pentru Electrotehnica (IEC) IEC 61131
care are urmatoarele parti:
– Informatii generale;
– Cerinte hardware;
– Metode de programare;
– Ghidul utilizatorului;
– Comunicatii.
• Principalele metode de programare cuprinse in standard sunt:
– IL (Instruction List) cu structura asemanatoare cu limbajele de
asamblare ale microprocesoarelor;
– ST (Structured Text) care foloseste instructiunile de atribuire, selectie si
control al subprogramelor cu o structura apropiata de limbajele de
programare de nivel inalt;
– LD (Ladder Diagram) este un limbaj semigrafic, asemanator schemelor
cu circuite cu relee si contacte si opereaza in special cu variabile boole
(logice);
– FBD (Function Block Diagram) este o extensie a limbajului LD care
permite si lucrul cu blocuri complexe.
– SFC (Sequential Function Chart) este un limbaj grafic secvential,
asemanator organigramelor functionale care permite utilizarea de functii
complexe si proceduri.
32
Automate programabile
Metode de programare a PLC-urilor
35
Automate programabile
Moduri de adresare a variabilelor
36
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Provine de la reprezentarea
grafica folosita in schemele
electrice cu relee
38
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
Bobina
Bobine paralele
39
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
40
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
42
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Contactul de sesizare a
frontului crescător:
• Realizează o operație
booleană între starea legăturii
stângi și frontul crescător al
variabilei booleene asociate
43
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Contactul de sesizare a
frontului descrescător:
• Realizează o operație
booleană între starea
legăturii stângi și frontul
descrescător al variabilei
booleene asociate
44
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Bobina directă:
• Realizează o asociere între o
variabila de ieșire booleană și
starea legăturii stângi
• Bobina inversă:
• Realizează o asociere între o
variabilă de ieșire booleană și
starea negată a legăturii stângi
45
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Bobina de setare:
• Realizează o setare a variabilei
de ieșire asociate atunci când
starea legăturii devine true.
• Bobina de resetare:
• Realizează o resetare a
variabilei de ieșire asociate
atunci când starea legăturii
stângi devine true
46
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Exemplu:
• Echivalența între
schema electrică
a aplicației și
programul LD
47
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Exemplu:
• Echivalența între
schema electrică
a aplicației și
programul LD
48
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Exemplu:
• Echivalența între
schema electrică
a aplicației și
programul LD
49
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Exemplu:
• Bobine SET/RESET
50
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
52
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
53
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Temporizatoare:
• IN – intrare de validare
• TP – setarea caracteristicii
(prescaler)
• R – intrare de resetare
• Q – ieșire booleană
• TS – valoarea curentă a timerului
55
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Temporizatoare:
• IN – intrare de validare
• TP – setarea caracteristicii
(prescaler)
• R – intrare de resetare
• Q – iesire booleană
• TS – valoarea curentă a timerului
56
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Temporizatoare:
• TP – timer pulse
• IN – intrare de validare
• TP – setarea caracteristicii
(prescaler)
• R – intrare de resetare
• Q – iesire booleană
• TS – valoarea curentă a timerului
57
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Exemplu:
• Timer on delay
58
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Exemplu:
• Timer cu retinere
59
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Numărătoare:
• CTU – count up
60
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Numărătoare:
61
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Numărătoare:
• Exemplu:
• Numărător cu resetare
externă
63
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Exemplu:
• Controlul nivelului într-un
recipient
64
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Exemplu
• Registru de deplasare
65
Automate programabile
Limbajul Ladder Diagram
• Exemplu:
• Utilizarea variabilei de tip
positive-edge trigger:
(DIFU- DIFferentiate UP)
66
Automate programabile
Limbajul Instruction List
• Un program IL este o lista de instructiuni de diferite tipuri care calculeaza de regula niste termeni
ai unor expresii logice ce se evalueaza cu TRUE sau FALSE;
• Fiecare linie contine o instructiune compusa dintr-un operator, un modificator si unul sau mai
multi operanzi separati prin virgula
• Operanzii sunt variabile de tip intern, intrare sau iesire, referite prin adresele de memorie; daca
se foloseste un singur operand, al doilea este implicit un registru al procesorului numit acumulator
– operatori relationali (GT, GE, EQ, NE, LE, LT) se folosesc pentru compararea
operatorilor si setarea acumulatorului pe rezultatul comparatiei;
LD a
GT b
ST bo1
LD b
GT a
ST bo2 (Se compara a cu b respectiv b cu a si se memoreaza rezultatele comparatiilor in variabilele boole bo1 si bo2)
68
Automate programabile
Operatorii limbajului IL
– Operatori de salt (JMP, CALL, RET);
LD a
GE b
JMPC ET1 (Se efectueaza un salt conditionat la ET1 daca a>b si se calculeaza valoarea a-b. Daca a<b se calculeaza valoarea b-a
Rezultatul scaderii se salveaza in variabila c)
LD b
SUB a
ST c
JMP ETEND
ET1: LD a
SUB b
ST c
ETEND:
69
Automate programabile
Limbajul GRAFCET / SFC
• Convergente si divergente:
71
Automate programabile
Limbajul GRAFCET / SFC
72
Automate programabile
Limbajul GRAFCET / SFC
75
Automate programabile
Limbajul GRAFCET / SFC
77
Automate programabile
Limbajul GRAFCET / SFC
• Macroetape (Subprograme)
• O macroetapa este o reprezentare
unica a unui ansamblu unic de etape si
tranzitii
• Scopul macroetapelor: realizarea de
programe usor de documentat
• Reguli pentru macroetape:
– Are o singura etapa de
intrare
– Etapa de intrare este
activata de parcurgerea
tranzitiei anterioare ei
– Nr. asociat etapei de intrare
este identic cu nr.
Macroetapei
– Etapa de iesire participa la
validarea tranzitiei
urmatoare
– Nu exista alte legaturi
structurale cu restul grafului 78
Automate programabile
Limbajul GRAFCET / SFC
79
Automate programabile
Interconectarea PLC-urilor
• Un set de PLC-uri pot fi interconectate in retea intre ele sau
impreuna cu PC-uri si alte controlere din sistem;
• Retelele de tip LAN (FieldBus) au specificatii proprietare de cele mai
multe ori: Data Haighway (Allen Bradley), Melsec Net (Mitsubishi),
Net Factory Lan (General Electric), Siemens PPI, Siemens MPI;
• Exista si legaturi pe retele neproprietare cum ar fi retelele Ethernet,
Profibus, ASi, Profinet, CAN, IO Link, Modbus;
• Se folosesc pe scara larga porturile de comunicatii seriale, protocol
RS 232, RS 422, RS485.
80
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Transmisia paralela:
– Fiecare bit este plasat individual
pe un fir electric
– Pot exista linii de control H/W
– Av: Bitii unui byte sunt transmisi
toti odata (viteza mare)
– Dv: Cabluri cu multe fire (zgomot
si costuri)
– Ut: Magistrale de legatura intre
modulele PLC (backplane)
• Transmisia seriala:
– Toti bitii sunt transmisi pe un
singur fir, succesiv
– Datele trebuie “serializate”
– Av: Cabluri mai ieftine, costuri
mai mici
– Dv: Viteza mai mica, conexiuni
point-to-point
– Ut: Comunicare intre PLC si
periferice
81
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Scurt istoric
82
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
83
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
84
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• RS-232
– point-to-point
– Single-ended
– Half / full-duplex
– Distanta maxima: 15m
– Viteza maxima: 20(250)kbs
– Tensiunea pe linie, max: ±25V
• RS-422
– multidrop
– Diferentiala (2 fire)
– Half-duplex
– Distanta maxima: 1200m
– Viteza maxima: 10Mbs
– Tensiunea pe linie, max: ±6V
• RS-485
– Multipoint
– Diferentiala
– Half-duplex
– Disanta maxima: 1200m
– Viteza maxima: 10(35) Mbs
– Tensiunea pe linie: -7...12V 85
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• RS-232
– point-to-point
– Single-ended
– Half / full-duplex
– Distanta maxima: 15m
– Viteza maxima: 20(250)kbs
– Tensiunea pe linie, max: ±25V
• RS-422
– multidrop
– Diferentiala (2 fire)
– Half-duplex
– Distanta maxima: 1200m
– Viteza maxima: 10Mbs
– Tensiunea pe linie, max: ±6V
• RS-485
– Multipoint
– Diferentiala
– Half-duplex
– Disanta maxima: 1200m
– Viteza maxima: 10(35) Mbs
– Tensiunea pe linie: -7...12V 86
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• RS232 (recommended
Standard 232)
– Introdus in 1962
pentru comunicare
intre echipamente (un
terminal, DTE si un
echipament de
comunicare, DCE)
– Protocol de
comunicare serial,
asincron, folosind
codul binar
– Datele (caracterele)
transmise sunt
conforme cu codul
ASCII
87
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• CONECTORUL DB-9(M)
• 1 <-- semnal detectat (sau frame gnd)
• 2 <– receptia sirului de biti (intrare)
• 3 –> transmiterea sirului de biti (iesire)
• 4 –> master control; daca e “1” se inhiba
TD si RD
• 5 –- referinta de 0V pentru semnal
• 6 <– Utilizat pentru a determina daca
echipamentul extern este conectat si
pregatit
• 7 –> Utilizat in “hardware handshaking”.
Atunci cand echipamentul vrea sa
transmita date, seteaza pinul pe “0”
• 8 <– Utilizat in “hardware handshaking”.
Atunci cand se pot receptiona date
acest pin este setat pe “0”
• 9 <– Utilizat pentru semnalizarea
apelului pe linia telefonica a unui
modem
88
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
89
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
90
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
91
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Parametrii de comunicare:
– Bitii de date: pot fi 8 (cazul
cel mai comun, se pot
transmite caracterele din
codul ASCII extins) sau 7
(se pot transmite doar
primele 128 de caractere)
– Bitul de paritate: ajuta la
controlul erorilor; poate fi
“none”, “even” sau “odd”.
• “Even”=caracterul
transmis va avea
numar par de “1”
• “Odd”=caracterul
transmis va avea
numar impar de “1”
93
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Parametrii de comunicare:
– Rata de transmitere (baud
rate): numarul de simboluri
transmis pe secunda.
• Valori comune: 1200,
2400, 4800, 9600,
19200, 38400
– Formatul pachetului de setari:
rata de transfer – numar biti de
date – biti de paritate – biti de
stop
• 9600-8-N-1
– Controlul soft al fluxului de
date (Software handshaking):
se transmit caracterele XON si
XOFF pentru a identifica
disponibilitatea de a trimite
sau primi date (in locul
semnalelor RTS si CTS).
94
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Convertoare de nivel
– TTL ↔ RS232 (ex. USB-
RS232)
– Realizeaza conversia
nivelului de tensiune de la 0-
5V (TTL) la ±10V sau ±5V.
– Se utilizeaza pentru
comunicarea cu
echipamentele care au
nivelul semnalului pe pinii de
comunicare seriala de +5V
pentru “1” logic si 0V pentru
“0” logic (μC sau USB).
– Nu utilizeaza control
hardware al fluxului de date
– Folosesc cabluri cu 3 sau 2
fire
– CI: MAX232, FT232R,
PL2303
95
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
96
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• RS-422
– Poate fi considerat ca
extensie pentru RS-232
– Un transmitter si pana la
10 receivere
– Implicit comunicarea este
unidirectionala
– Pentru comunicare
bidirectionala se dubleaza
linia (retea cu patru fire)
– Transmisia este
diferentiala
– Daca firul “A” are potential
negativ raportat la firul “B”
(firul “A”=0V, firul “B”=5V)
linia transmite MARK sau
“1” logic
– Daca firul “A” are potential
pozitiv fata de firul “B”
(firul “A”=5V, firul “B”=0V)
linia transmite SPACE sau 97
“0” logic
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• RS-485
– Retea de tip multipoint, diferentiala, 1200m, 10(35) Mbs
– Transceiverele pot fi setate ca Generator, Receiver sau Tristate (impedanta inalta)
– Retea cu doua fire de semnal si un fir de masa
98
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• RS-485
– Retea de tip multipoint, diferentiala, 1200m, 10(35) Mbs
– Transceiverele pot fi setate ca Generator, Receiver sau Tristate (impedanta inalta)
– Retea cu patru fire de semnal si un fir de masa
99
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• RS-485 utilizeaza cablu cu fire
torsadate, in perechi (twisted pair cable)
– Aceasta metoda reduce
substantial zgomotul electric in
fire si permite o rata mai mare
de transfer
– Pe langa perechea (sau
perechile) de fire pentru date se
poate utiliza si un fir de masa a
semnalului (GND) separat de
masa de sasiu
– Deasemenea pentru zone cu
multi paraziti electrici sau pentru
lungimi mari a magistralei se
utilizeaza cablu ecranat. Tresa
(folia) de ecranare se leaga la
masa doar la un singur capat al
magistralei
100
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Terminarea magistralei
– Ambele capete ale magistralei se termina
cu rezistente de 100 (120) ohm
– Nodurile nu se termina cu rezistente 102
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Conversia semnalului
• RS-232 ↔ RS-485
• Tx si Rx devin, alternativ, A si B sau Bus+ si Bus-
• DTR si RTS se utilizeaza pentru comutarea driverului 485
in Generator sau Receiver.
• Alimentarea convertorului poate fi separata sau din alti
pini de control ai portului serial
103
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Exemplu de aplicatie
reala pe o retea RS-485
– Semnalul RS-232 de la
PC (±15v) trebuie
convertit la nivel TTL (0-
5V)
– Semnalul TTL trebuie
convertit in semnal
diferential RS485.
Starea transceiverului
este controlata de RTS
(convertit)
– Semnalul RS485 este
reconvertit la nivel TTL
pentru MC (AP/PLC).
Transceiverul este
controlat de un bit al
unui port de iesire
104
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Exemplu de retea RS-485
– Magistrala este terminata cu rezistente de 120 ohm,
– Masa semnalului este decuplata cu rezistente de 100 ohm
– Pentru ca starea “idle” sa fie bine definita se utilizeaza cate o rezistenta de pull-up, respectiv
pull-down de 560 ohm pe fiecare linie
105
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
106
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Protocolul MODBUS
• Publicat de Modicon in 1979 pentru
comunicarea cu AP
• Este un protocol utilizat pentru
echipamente industriale de masura
si control
• Foarte raspandit din urmatoarele
motive:
– Este “open”, nu se
plateste licenta pentru
utilizarea sa
– Transporta biti si cuvinte
in format “brut” fara a
restrictiona implementarea
– Realizeaza o retea
industriala relativ simpla
– Este protocol serial, usor
de implementat pe RS-485
107
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Protocolul este de tip “Master-
Slave”
• Pe o retea poate exista:
– Un singur echipament
Master
– Pana la 247 de
echipamente Slave,
adresabile
• Toate echipamentele Slave
receptioneaza o cerere
(query) dar numai unul singur
raspunde la un moment dat
• Echipamentul master
interogheaza pe rand toate
echipamentele Slave de pe
bus
108
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
109
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
110
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
111
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
112
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Adresele echipamentelor
Slave pot fi de la 1 la
247. Adresa 0 este
adresa de broadcast
(interpretata de toate
echipamentele Slave)
• Registrii de I/O au
adresa functie de tipul de
date continut
– Se adreseaza cu 2
bytes, 0000-270E
– Fiecare bloc are definiti
9999 de registri
113
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Functiile de interogare
acceseaza anumiti
registri fie in mod read-
only fie in mod read-write
– Functii read-only: 01,
02, 03, 04, 07,17
– Functii read-write: 05,
06, 15,16
• Numarul maxim de
functii posibile este 127
• Nu toate echipamentele
recunosc acelasi set de
functii
114
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Exemplu functie 02
• Comanda cere starea ON/OFF a intrarilor
discrete 10197-10218 de la adresa 17
119
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
Exemplu functia 05 (Force Single Coil)
Comanda modifica valoarea unei singure bobine, nr. 173 in ON
la echipamentul slave 17.
Cerere 11 05 00AC FF00 4E8B
11: Adresa Slave (17 = 11 hex)
05: Functia (Force Single Coil)
00AC: Adresa bobinei. (173 - 1 = 172 = AC hex)
FF00: Starea viitoare a bobinei ( FF00 = ON, 0000 = OFF )
4E8B: CRC.
Raspuns (Raspunsul normal este un ecou al cererii, returnat dupa
ce valoarea bobinei a fost scrisa.)
11 05 00AC FF00 4E8B
11: AdresaSlave (17 = 11 hex)
05: Functia (Force Single Coil)
00AC: Adresa bobinei. (173 - 1 = 172 = AC hex)
FF00: Starea viitoare a bobinei ( FF00 = ON, 0000 = OFF )
4E8B: CRC.
120
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
Exemplu functia 06 (Preset Single Register)
Comanda scrie o valoare in registrul de iesire 40002
al echipamentului slave 17.
Cerere 11 06 0001 0003 9A9B
11: Adresa Slave (17 = 11 hex)
06: Functia (Preset Single Register)
0001: Adresa registrului. ( 40002 - 40001 = 1 )
0003: Valoarea de scris
9A9B: CRC.
Raspuns (Raspunsul normal este un ecou al cererii, returnat
dupa ce registrul a fost scris)
11 06 0001 0003 9A9B
11: Adresa Slave (17 = 11 hex)
06: Functia (Preset Single Register)
0001: Adresa registrului. ( 40002 - 40001 = 1 )
0003: Valoarea de scris
9A9B: CRC.
121
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
Exemplu functia 15 (Force Multiple Coils)
Comanda modifica valorile a 10 bobine, de la nr. 20 la nr. 29 de la
echipamentul slave 17.
Cerere 11 0F 0013 000A 02 CD01 BF0B
11: Adresa Slave (17 = 11 hex)
0F: Functia (Force Multiple Coil, 15 = 0F hex)
0013: Adresa primei bobine. (20 - 1 = 19 = 13 hex)
000A: Nr. de bobine (10 = 0A hex)
02: Nr. de bytes ce urmeaza (10 Bobine / 8 biti per byte = 2
bytes)
CD: Bobinele 20 - 27 (1100 1101)
01: Bobinele 27 - 29 (0000 0001)
BF0B: CRC.
Bitul MSB contine bobina cu nr. cel mai mare. Bobina 20 este ON (1)
iar bobina 21 is OFF (0). Bitii neutilizati in ultimul byte sunt
automat setati pe 0.
Raspuns 11 0F 0013 000A 2699
11: Adresa Slave (17 = 11 hex)
0F: Functia (Force Multiple Coil, 15 = 0F hex)
0013: Adresa primei bobine. (20 - 1 = 19 = 13 hex)
000A: Nr. Bobinelor scrise (10 = 0A hex)
2699: CRC.
122
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
Exemplu functia 16 (Preset Multiple Registers)
Comanda scrie continutul a doi registri de iesire, 40002 & 40003
de la echipamentul slave 17.
Cerere 11 10 0001 0002 04 000A 0102 C6F0
11: Adresa Slave (17 = 11 hex)
10: Functia (Preset Multiple Registers 16 = 10 hex)
0001: Adresa primului registru. (40002 - 40001 = 1)
0002: Numarul de registri de scris
04: Nr. de bytes ce urmeaza (2 registri x 2 bytes = 4 bytes)
000A: Valoarea de scris in registrul 40002
0102: Valoarea de scris in registrul 40003
C6F0: CRC.
Raspuns 11 10 0001 0002 1298
11: Adresa Slave (17 = 11 hex)
10: Functia (Preset Multiple Registers 16 = 10 hex)
0001: Adresa primului registru. (40002 - 40001 = 1 )
0002: Nr. de registri scrisi.
1298: CRC.
123
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
Exemplu ASCII vs RTU:
Comanda solicita valoarea registrilor 40108 - 40110 de la
echipamentul slave 17:
Cerere: 11 03 006B 0003
Cererea ASCII completa adauga si caracterele de
separare. Simbolul “:” se adauga la inceput, CR si LF se
adauga la sfarsit:
: 1 1 0 3 0 0 6 B 0 0 0 3 7 E CR LF
Fiecare caracter este tratat acum ca un caracter ASCII si este
inlocuit de valoarea sa hexazecimala:
3A 3131 3033 3030 3642 3030 3033 3745 0D 0A
Aceasta cerere in format ASCII are lungimea 17 bytes (170 bits)
Cererea echivalenta in format RTU ar fi (vezi img.):
11 03 006B 0003 7687
Lungimea cererii in format RTU este de 8 bytes (80 bits)
124
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
125
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• PROFIBUS = Process Field Bus
• Introdus in 1989 ca un standard de
comunicare pentru automatizari (IEC
61158);
• Este cel mai popular tip de fieldbus, cu
50,9 mil. noduri in lucru in intreaga
lume pana in 2015; 53,7 mil. noduri
pana in 2016;
• Initial a fost specificat un singur
protocol complex de comunicare,
Profibus-FMS (Field bus Message
Specification), ca un protocol universal
pentru sarcini de comunicare
solicitante
• In 1993 a aparut varianta Profibus-DP
(Decentralized Peripherals), ca un
protocol mult mai simplu si mai rapid.
A inlocuit varianta FMS, si actualmente
este cea ma raspandita varianta a
protocolului.
• In 1995 este finalizata si varianta
Profibus-PA (Process Automation),
asigura siguranta intriseca, precum si
alimentarea aparatelor conectate in
retea.
126
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Profibus-FMS (Field bus Message
Specification), furnizeaza utilizatorului o
arie larga de functii pentru comunicatii
intre sistemele de automatizare (PLC-
uri, PC-uri, statii de automatizare),
precum si pentru schimbul de informatii
cu echipamentele din camp, la viteze
moderate;
• Profibus-DP (Decentralized
Peripherals), reprezinta solutia de
comunicare cu viteza ridicata. Construit
si optimizat special pentru comunicarea
intre sistemele de automatizare (PLC-
uri) si perifericele descentralizate din
camp;
• Profibus-PA (Process Automation),
orientat spre transferul de date
provenite din masurare (senzori,
traductoare) si indeplineste cerinte
speciale privind securitatea impotriva
exploziilor si alimentarea prin
magistrala. Utilizat in special in
industria chimica.
• A – Nivel control
• B – Nivel automatizare 127
• C – Nivel camp
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Caracteristici PROFIBUS
• Protocol de comunicare seriala;
• Este un protocol “open technology”;
• Este implementat pe standardul
RS485, cablu cu perechi torsadate
(mai rar pe fibra optica sau unde
radio);
• Rata de transfer este de max. 12Mb/s
(lungime cablu – 100m)
• Lungimea maxima a unui segment de
cablu: 1200m;
• Magistrala trebuie terminata conform
specificatiilor RS485;
• Nr. maxim de noduri adresabile: 126
(maxim 32 noduri per segment; se pot
utiliza pana la 4 repeatere);
128
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Este o retea de tip
Master/Slave cu interogare
• Pe o magistrala poate fi un
singur echipament master sau
mai multe. Poarta denumirea de
statii active.
• Echipamentele slave poarta
denumirea de statii pasive.
• O retea Profibus-DP poate fi
cuplata cu un segment de tip
Profibus-PA prin intermediul
unui nod de cuplare (segment
coupler) sau prin intermediul
unui echipament de legatura
(link).
– Nodul de cuplare este
transparent din punct de
vedere al comunicarii
– Echipamentul de
legatura se comporta ca
un slave adresabil
129
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Accesul magistralei poate fi impartit de mai
multe echipamente master (statii active);
• Accesarea se face cu ajutorul unui jeton
transferabil intr-un inel logic (logical token
ring);
• Comunicatia dintre statiile active (PLC-uri
sau PC-uri) trebuie sa permita ca fiecare
statie (nod) conectata la magistrala sa
poata procesa toate sarcinile sale legate de
comunicatie intr-o perioada definita de timp;
• Atunci cand un nod activ are jetonul, preia
functia de master pe magistrala pentru a
comunica cu toate nodurile (active sau
pasive). Schimbul de mesaje pe magistrala
se realizeaza organizat prin adresarea
nodurilor.
• Fiecare master mentine o lista cu statiile
active (LAS) ce contine adresa statiei
curente (this station, TS), adresa statiei
urmatoare (next station, NS) si adresa
statiei anterioare (previous station PS).
• Daca dupa o anumita statie lipsesc una sau
mai multe adrese atunci statia respectiva
mentine si o lista cu statiile lipsa (GAP).
130
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• O retea in care exista mai multe noduri
pasive (slave), dar al carei inel logic are doar
un nod activ (master), este un sistem master-
slave.
• Daca pe magistrala este un singur master,
jetonul este trimis catre el insusi.
• Acest sistem mono-master este ideal pentru
comunicarea rapida cu dispozitive
descentralizate periferice, si o transmitere
ciclica uniforma a mesajelor.
• Oricand un master de pe magistrala are
jetonul, are optiunea de a trimite mesaje
catre echipamentele slave sau poate
receptiona mesaje. Statiile pasive nu pot
trimite mesaje fara acordul prealabil.
• Un master poate trimite mesaje adresate
unui singur dispozitiv, sau unui grup, sau
tuturor dispozitivelor. Numai la transmisiile
catre un singur dispozitiv se asteapta
confirmarea mesajului, prin trimiterea
imediata a confirmarii de catre receptor.
• Statiile slave nu primesc autorizatie de acces
la magistrala, ele pot trimite confirmare de
mesaj primit (ack), sau pot transmite mesaje
la cererea master-ului. Fiecare slave este 131
asignat unui master.
Automate programabile
Protocoale de comunicare
• Formatul telegramei PROFIBUS
• Sunt utilizate mai multe tipuri de
telegrame identificabile prin delimitatorul
de start
• SD1 = 0x10; lungime fixa, fara date
utilizator
• SD2 = 0x68; lungime variabila functie de
datele vehiculate
• SD3 = 0xA2; lungime fixa, contine date
• SD4 = 0xDC; transport jeton
• SC = 0xE5; scurta confirmare
– DA=adresa destinatar (destination address)
– SA=adresa sursa (source address)
– FC=codul functiei (function code sau frame
control)
– FCS=controlul integritatii datelor (frame
check sequence)
– ED=delimitator sfarsit (end delimiter)
– PDU=datele vehiculate (Profibus data unit)
– LE/LEr=lungimea datelor vehiculate-nr de
octeti / lungimea repetata-pentru siguranta
(length/length repeat)
132
Automate programabile
Profibus
Actuator-Sensor Interface
- 2 fire
- alimentare si date
- half-duplex
- potrivit pt. disp. de siguranta
- cablare simpla
Automate programabile
Profinet
The following are some fables associated with the first ten years of the programmable controller
business. These Fables may or may not have a basis of truth, but in general, they are the best that my
Alzheimer-plagued memory can do at the moment. As has been often in other articles and reports, the
startup of Modicon and the programmable controller industry as a whole is well documented. The
programmable controller was detailed on New Year's Day, 1968, and from hence till now, a slow
steady growth has allowed the manufacturing and process control industries to take advantage of
applications-oriented software.
The early days however, were not as straightforward nor as simple. We had some real problems in the
early days of convincing people that a box of software, albeit cased in cast iron, could do the same
thing as 50 feet of cabinets, associated relays and wiring. The process was indeed difficult, and
deserves some of the stories that I hope the reader will be regaled with as he proceeds onward through
the tortuous swamp of my mind.
One of my earliest recommendations was that the programmable controller, according to my own
system architecture specification, did not need to go fast because I felt as though speed was not a
criteria because it would go as fast as we needed it to. The initial machine, which was never delivered,
only had 125 words of memory, and speed was not a criteria as mentioned earlier. You can imagine
what happened! First, we immediately ran out of memory, and second, the machine was much too
slow to perform any function anywhere near the relay response time. Relay response times exist on
the order of 1/60th of a second, and the topology formed by many cabinets full of relays transformed
to code is significantly more than 125 words. We expanded the memory to 1K and thence to 4K. At
4K, it stood the test of time for quite a while. Initially, marketing and memory sizes were sold in 1K,
2K, 3K, (?) and 4K. the 3K was obviously the 4K version with constrained address so that field
expansion to 4K could easily be done.
The question of speed, in part, was part of the early designs. No interrupts were necessary because the
external signal conditions were directly written onto memory without any supervisory requirements or
"operating system of the conventional type. This allowed the processor to pay attention to solving
logic rather than housekeeping the I/O. As a result, of course, the processor had to have significantly
more processing power than normally associated with this size computer; and secondly, the system
had to be made to run fast.
We increased the memory size, as mentioned above, but to get it to run fast, we had to break up the
machine into three distinct components. Initially, the programmable controller was conceived of a
processor board and a memory, and that the algorithmic and logical manipulation would be done in
software. This approach was painfully slow, both on the generic "store bought computers, and other
items.
We did, however, manage to substantially speed up the machine by making a third major component.
This was called the logic solver. A logic solver board solved the dominant algorithms associated with
solving ladder logic without the intervention and classical software approach of general-purpose
processing. This meant that we ended up with three boards; memory, logic solver and processor. This
single step allowed us to get the speed we needed in this application-specific computer to solve the
perceptually simple problem of several cabinets full of relay wiring.
We had also assumed a modular approach to the programmable controller. In act, the name Modicon
means MOdular DIgital CONtroller. The modularity, however, was soon abandoned because, as
everyone knows, open architectures are no good. We instead had the marketing premise that a large
footprint would contain within it the sets of problems we wished to solve. This meant that a buyer of
programmable controllers could buy large numbers of the same units, and the software and hardware
would be identical across a broad spectrum of applications in his factory. Service, maintenance and
total life cost would be substantially lower than the perceived lower cost of an open architecture and
modular expansion. Although at first, a supporter of the open architecture modular expansion, I soon
became convinced by the marketplace, but this was folly.
We took one of our early units which was aimed at the machine tool industry because of my Bedford
Associates consulting background, up to one of the early requesters of this equipment. This particular
early requester was Byrant Chuck and Grinder in Springfield, Vermont. We took the machine up
there, and it was heavy. This was the 084. The 084 was in the trunk of my old Pontiac, and since we
needed help carrying it in, requested some of the people at Bryant to help us. We went out and opened
the hood, and the first comment made by an outside viewer of the programmable controller said,
"Thank God it,s not another pastel colored piece of sheet metal.
We can hypothesize from this particular comment that the ruggedness of the visual design was
pleasing to him, and being human (as opposed to Martian), assumed that this same attitude went deep
inside the construction of the machine in both the hardware and software. Indeed, this was the case,
and the machine as a result, was built rugged, had no ON/OFF switch, had no fans, did not make any
noise and had no wear out system.
To reminisce for a moment---in selecting the cores for the first memories, which in itself was a
revolutionary step, we selected these cores and we applied Shannon,s Law. Shannon,s Law assumes
that the signal-to-noise ratio is what makes signals good or bad. There are several ways to get the
power from the signal-to-noise ratio; one is to code heavily, be triply redundant, and use lots and lots
of error checking. There is another way, which is perfectly compatible with theory, which is to use
lots of signal power in another domain. A nice switch, a car battery and a D-rated light bulb will work
fairly well over a long time period.
Therefore, what we did was rather than going error checking, triply redundant and stuff, we got, and
searched for and found high energy, large ferrite core memories that had lots on energy per bit. We
still make the same assumption today. The energy per bit is extremely important---as Shannon,s
theory said in his most famous 1948 paper, that the signal noise to power noise is what gives you
transmission. the way we got signal power was to increase the energy per bit. This we felt was far
more important than getting the energy per bit increased by means of doubly transmitting it. But I
digress. Bryant Chuck and Grinder put it in, and liked the equipment so much that they never bought
one. They in turn thought it was a good idea, and as many did at that time, tried to evolve their own.
One of our first major customers, however, was Landis in Landis, PA. We flew the equipment down
in a private aircraft, and with apprehension because we were late (as usual), brought the equipment
into Landis. In doing so, we tripped over the threshold. The equipment went KA-RASH onto the
floor! Without much chagrin, we picked the equipment up, trundled it in. hooked it up, and low and
behold, it worked quite well.
Now, Landis was pleased and surprised. They were pleased because it worked, but they were most
pleasantly surprised---not because the equipment worked---but because the guys from Modicon fully
expected the equipment to work in spite of it being dropped. In other words, the people from Modicon
weren,t nervous about the fact that it fell on the floor over the threshold.
Landis subsequently took and wrapped welding coils of wire around the machine to induce electro-
magnetic noise to see if they could make it fail. We had them there! We used to test the
programmable controllers with a Teslar coil that struck a quarter inch to half-inch arch anywhere on
the system, and the programmable controller still had to continue to run. There was significant
strangeness with respect to the programmable controller. For example, it had no ON/OFF switch. It
had no means to load software. It had no fans. It ran cool. It could survive bad, physical and thermal
environments. It was not computer industry standard. There were many things that were most difficult
in the acceptance of the programmable controller, and early acceptance was most difficult indeed.
Our sales in the first four years were abysmal. Early innovators such as Landers and General Motors
were, of course, heroes to our eyes, but they would buy small numbers of units and then test them in
the field before they committed themselves later on. We had one customer in the utilities business that
took them approximately six to seven years to make a decision to but the first one.
We never really sold any programmable controllers into the intended market which was machine tool
control such as lathes, grinders and stuff, but we did, as luck would have it, stumble across the
transfer line market which was and still is the mainstay, long-term market for the application of
programmable controllers. Discreet parts manufacturing in an automatic environment, i.e., mass
production, continues to be, and probably will be for the future, the mainstay of the programmable
controller industry.
Some of the more interesting stories center around the personalities and experiences as opposed to the
programmable controller. Modicon,s third president (or fourth, if you count my two-week stint) was
Don Kramer. When Don Kramer was chosen as president, we decided to go out and celebrate at the
Lanum Club in Andover. At the time, we felt we should celebrate over both martinis and food. As we
were leaving the shop for the Lanum Club, Don made the aside comment that "the place is dingy and
needs a paint job. As we were leaving, I mentioned to Don that as president you have to change what
you say, and not be very open---you have to be a little careful about what you say because employees,
customers, and boards of directors tend to take what you say as truth. Rather than listen to the
meaning, they listen to the literal statements, and one must be careful. We went over to the Lanum
Club and had a nice glowing two hours of discussion, food, and drink. Coming back, as we entered
the Modicon lobby, we noticed that there was scaffolding about and people were painting. We went
over and asked Lou as to why these people are painting since, at the time, we don,t have any money.
Who ordered this paint job? And Lou looked Don Kramer straight in the eye, and said, "Why you did,
Mr. Kramer. Nuff said.
As has been mentioned many times, your author, that,s me---Dick Morley---is supposed to be the
inventor of the programmable controller. This is at best, partially true. The thing that made the
Modicon company and the programmable controller really take off was not the 084, but the 184. The
184 was done in design cycle by Michael Greenberg, one of the best engineers I have ever met. He,
and Lee Rousseau, president and marketeer, came up with a specification and a design that
revolutionized the automation business. they built the 184 over the objections of yours truly. I was a
purist and felt that all those bells and whistles and stuff weren,t "pure, and somehow they were
contaminating my "glorious design, Dead wrong again, Morley! they were specifically right on! the
184 was a walloping success, and it---not the 084, not the invention of the programmable controller---
but a product designed to meet the needs of the marketplace and the customer, called the 184, took off
and made Modicon and the programmable controller the company and industry it is today. My
compliments to the two chefs---Lee Rousseau and Mike Greenberg.
The issue of quality in programmable controllers is a story that is normally taken for granted. The
gentle reader must remember that our engineering people came from the computer industry where
reliability in those days was a phantom---a phantom of design, a phantom of cost. People felt that
reliability was something other people did, and that if we only could deliver faster computers, even if
they didn,t work, everything would be fine.
When the programmable controller was designed, it was designed in to be reliable. We used lots of
energy per information bit by utilizing D-rated components, large memory ferrite cores, relatively
stable and large etchings on printed circuit boards, totally enclosed systems and conductive cooling.
No fans were used, and outside air was not allowed to enter the system for fear of contamination and
corrosion. Mentally, we had imagined the programmable controller being underneath a truck, in the
open, and being driven around---driven around in Texas, driven around in Alaska. Under those
circumstances, we anted it to survive. The other requirement was that it stood on a pole helping run an
utility or a microwave station which was not climate controlled, and not serviced at all. Under those
circumstances, would it work for the years that it was intended to be? Could it be walled in? Could it
be bolted in a system that was expected to last 20 years?
The humorous side of this is though we did all those designs and very carefully tried to make this
system as intrinsically reliable as we could, not by redundancy, but by building well. In other words,
it was designed to be built, it was designed to be designed, and it was designed to be reliable. We,
however, as engineers, didn,t understand the accountants and manufacturing. those two have their
grail, shipments by the end of the month. As far as we could ascertain at the time, shipments were
made independent of quality and independent of whether or not the system ran.
In the early days of the programmable controller and Modicon, even though I wasn,t a direct
employee and an owner, I would give out my home phone number to many of our critical customers
so that if they had a problem, they could call me directly. Several calls indicated that when we
shipped near the end of the month, let's say October 34th, that the equipment would not run; and
secondly, when they opened the box and took the machine apart, cards were missing, bolts were on
the bottom of the cabinetry, and some of the cards were not fully inserted. In other words, to make the
end of the month was much more important than to deliver equipment that ran. to put it mildly, we
were pissed! How do we as engineers maintain quality without continual surveillance which is most
difficult for the design and entrepreneurial mind set. What we did was specify and design "blue boxes.
These were cabinetries that the system had to operate in and run continuously for a minimum of 24
hours, under load, and under varying conditions. The box was built out of plywood, but its primary
intention was to heat cycle the programmable controller under various input/output loads. We also
ran, as a specification, that a Tesla coil was to be used on the programmable controller, and that
vibration and thumping with a hammer (rubber) would be part of the specification.
This may seem unscientific to many of you, but let us assume that you try to get your equipment to
run while somebody purposely tries to destroy it with a rubber hammer or spark coil that he can put
anywhere on the system. Remember, your intention is to make the processor stop. That combination
significantly depressed those monthly shipments during the first period. As a result of that, however,
the message got through. Not only did we build ovens and tests, and pay attention to heat and spark
and RF emissions, we would run the system continuously even in the shipping crate to get the
maximum number of pre-custom hours we could. It was important to us that we found the mistakes
and not the customer and his secondary customer.
The language itself, ladder lister, bears some discussion. This particular language was not the
invention of Modicon. We hypothesize that the language is very old, and originated in Germany to
describe relay circuitry. If one looks at ladder lister, it has been our technical community for so long,
we somehow think those little symboligies actually look like relays. In fact, it,s a mnemonic form of
rule-based language, very modern and very high level, but designed in a Darwinian fashion over a
period of many decades.
The ladder logic construct, "If... Then... is a very powerful construct used today in expert systems and
other rule-based languages. The symbology, allowing normally open and normally closed situations
as well as parallel and serial representation, was used for many decades before the invention of the
programmable controller. I have worked on machines where the number of C-size and D-size prints
were hung in special racks, and would be up to three feet thick worth of documentation on those
drawing sets.
The name ladder comes from the fact that on the right-hand of the drawing is one power rail and the
left-hand side is the other power rail; and in between in a horizontal fashion, is the statement or
sequential connection of logical elements which we call relays or relay logic. The initial 084 had only
logic in its functionality, and as a result, was marginal. In other words, all we did was replace relays
rather than enhance the functionality by a factor of ten which is the entrepreneurial rule. Immediately,
of course, based on customer response and our own frustrations, we put thing in the ladder listing
language such as addition, multiplication, subtraction, and other functionalities that went far beyond
relay capability and entered the realm of mathematics and set theory. This was still not sufficient,
however, and we needed some way to make a "call to a "subroutine using ladder lister symbology and
representation.
A software engineer, Chuck Schelberg, and myself were in the conference room one day trying to
ascertain how we could make a generic call to functionalities that far exceeded the relay symbology
and representation, and came up with the "DX function. This function was a block function that
would be an element on the ladder logic representation that could perform many functionalities
including arrays, motor drive functions, servo functions, extended mathematical functions, PID loops,
ad nauseam. We felt there would be an occasional representation and use of these functionalities, and
that not much had to be done to the programmable controller other than to modify the software.
Wrong again!
The first customer that took delivery of a programmable controller utilizing the DX function, had a
capability to be predictable and operate in real time. The RUN light went out, and the time to execute
a scan or complete transformation of the ladder logic went far beyond the time allowable. Every
single line had a DX function on it. Again we learned that when you enhance functionality, people use
it all. I have never designed a computer that had too much memory. I,ve only designed computers that
have too little memory. The same thing applies to any other functionality. Conventional wisdom
seems to think that price/performance depends on only one thing---price---when, in fact, my
experience has been that the customer cares little about price.
This price/performance tirade being over, one of the lessons we learned is that the customer wants
functionality over the entire life cycle cost installation of the job. the customer also wants ease of
installation, to have some fun, and to be proud of the work he does. After he,s finished, he never
wants to come back.. The equipment should work as installed and as based. At one time, the
programmable controller meantime before failure in the field was 50,000 hours. This is far in excess
of almost any other type of electronic or control equipment.
The concept of languages and high-level languages is important. The programmable controller, as it
evolved, began to request more and more power, and more and more memory. The memories
continually went up as well as power. It is estimated that at one time, in the mid-1970s, that the
programmable controller had the equivalent of two MIPS processor and 128 kilobytes of memory,
which at that time was a significantly powered minicomputer capability. Why? High-level languages
require power to run them. If we take the equivalent of the ladder lister statement "If... Then..., the
high-level language as represented here, requires a substantial amount of interpretive compiler, if you
will, generation of underlying code. In other words, this statement spawns significant underlying code
that must be run quickly, reliably, and contain within it, all aspects of resource allocation and
operations resource. The higher level the language, the more powerful the processor apparently has to
be in order to run the language. Ladder lister is a high-level rule-based language which, until now, we
haven,t talked much about in these terms. Our customers treated the programmable controller as a box
of relays, and well they should. Language theory is neither necessary not desirable for most of the
customers to know. The customers, instead, understand their problem, and are indeed much smarter
than the design engineers because the dimensions of their problem far exceed the relatively simple
problem of designing a computer software system and language. Ladder lister requires high
performance which is one of the reasons it has difficulty running on the personal computer even of
today.
References
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