Isabela State University

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION – GRADUATE

SCHOOL
Echague, Isabela

Course Code : SS 201

Course Title : Philippine Historical Development
Course Unit : 3 Units
Term : First Semester, School Year 2019-2020
Subject Professor : Dr. Catalina M. Rodrigo

CONFLICTS AND
CONFLICTS
RESOLUTION
1. Evolution of Conflicts - SINFROSA S. MARFIL
2. Avoiding Conflicts - KATHLEEN M. GALABAY
3. Witchcraft and Rituals in Conflict Resolutions - RICHARD D.
PASCUAL JR.
4. Patterns of Conflicts - JESSIE A. BALINGAO
4.1 Family
4.2 Community
4.3 Groups
 I. EVOLUTION OF CONFLICTS
Sinfrosa S. Marfil

Why conflicts arise?

Conflicts arise when people think only of their own interests and fail to
acknowledge the rights of others.

All societies, communities and even families have the potential for
conflicts over issues of daily life, household responsibilities, or role
within communities.
Such conflicts may arise in any family and be settled quickly and
amicably.

About interpersonal issues

Right to property
Other resources

These problems also be settled amicably, but their resolutions may

involve more complex negotiations and mediation.

Societies differ about what causes conflicts and in how they settle
disputes reestablish peace or harmonious relationships.
Societies also differ in their mechanisms for applying sanctions that
influence or control people’s behavior.

are recognition or rewards, either as material benefits or social prestige

granted to people who behave according to social norms.

POSITIVE SANCTIONS
are recognition or rewards, either as material benefits or social prestige
granted to people who behave according to social norms.

NEGATIVE SANCTIONS
are formal or informal methods of discouraging people from behaving
improperly.

INFORMAL SANCTIONS
include teasing, ostracizing, or gossiping about wrongdoers.

FORMAL SANCTIONS
consist of fines and other punishments meted out by leaders or other
legal authorities or systems of adjudication, such as village councils,
juries, and judges.
Thus, norms and sanctions establish the basis of social order.

Evolutionary perspectives on conflict

Evolutionary perspectives on conflict

Evolutionary biologists and psychologists have recognized the origins of
behaviors that help animals avoid conflicts and restore peace after
incidents of open aggression

In primate groups, social hierarchies are established, usually along lines

of sex and age

Males and females learn their place through socialization into their
groups

However,these dominance hierarchies are inherently unstable.

One of the ways that conflicts can be avoided is for subordinate animals
to demonstrate acceptance of their position in the hierarchy through the
display of submissive gestures and actions

Primate gestures of dominance and subordinations have certain

similarities to human behavior.

Studies of nonverbal communications demonstrate that, in encounters

between two socially unequal people.

The subordinate person smiles more, averts the eyes when looked at the
dominant person and attempts to take up less space by contracting the
body and lowering the head

In almost all species, specially primates, baring one’s teeth is a treat or a

show of potential force

Showing the teeth, especially teeth held together, is almost always a sign
of submission

Subordinate people also get out of the path of the dominant people,
giving way to them on the street or any enclosed space.
All of these behaviors seek to avoid conflicts by signaling one’s
acceptance of subordinate status

Postconflict reconciliation

Study made by Frans de Waal

Patterned behavior that occurs immediately after conflicts has erupted

and taken its course, to restore some measures of social harmony.

Kiss, hold out a hand, or embrace, accompanied by submissive

vocalizations.

De Waal suggests that some common primates behaviors, such as mutual

grooming and body contact, functions to reduce aggression and promote
interpersonal and group stability

Conflict avoidance

Prosocial behavior, such as reconciliation, consolation, politeness, or

apology, to repair social relationships without aggression

The positive value of maintaining social harmony

II. Avoiding Conflicts

Kathleen M. Galabay

REVIEW

Social norms and sanctions- informal and formal, positive and negative--
- establish the basis of social order, but conflicts arises in all primate
groups and societies.

AVOIDING CONFLICTS

Conflict avoidance is a method of reacting to conflict, which attempts to

avoid directly confronting the issue at hand. Methods of doing this can
include changing the subject, putting off a discussion until later, or
simply not bringing up the subject of contention.

In human societies, people develop ways to express disagreements while

avoiding open conflict. In some societies, the emphasis on deferring to
others, not stating one’s opinions directly, and generally shunning people
who are angry are efficient means of lessening the possibilities of
conflict and creating a social harmony within families or small
communities.
CONFLICT AVOIDANCE

Prosocial behaviors, such as reconciliation, consolation, politeness, or

apology to repair social relationships without aggression.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES( DOUGLAS FRY 2000)

1. SELF CONTROL
2. RESTRAIN IN THE EXPRESSION OF ANGER
3. PEACEMAKERS
4. ATTENTION TO THE SATISFACTION AND NEEDS IF OTHERS.

SELF CONTROL
Among many groups living in small settelements, people learn to control
the espression of strong negative feelings.

Negative sanctions confront people about their disruptive behaviour and

encourage them to act according to social norms. These informal
sanctions are especially effective in small communities where people
interact frequently.

RESTRAIN FROM THE EXPRESSION OF ANGER

PEACEMAKERS
Individuals with a specialized social role of preventing conflict from
erupting into dangerous combat.

ATTENTION TO SATISFACTION AND NEEDS OF OTHERS

In many societies, people develop personalities that exhibit values

emphasizing the importance of keeping other people happy and satisfied.

Tolerance of other people’s behavior, even if unpleasant or provocative

also contributes to maintaining peaceful, if not entirely harmonious,
relationships.

DEFERENCE
Nonthreatening verbal and nonverbal behaviors that convey respect or
subordination to others.
POLITENESS
Consists of a constellation of words and actions that demonstrate
people’s consideration of the feelings of others and deference to their
wishes and needs.

Every language has polite words or expressions and polite ways of

phrasing ones’ thoughts.

“Every culture also has its norms about how politeness is shown and
about who deserves to be recipient of polite behavior.”
( Brown and Levinson 1987)

POLITENESS STRATEGY

Behaviors designed to mute antagonisms and avoid overt hostility by

affirming common bonds and recognizing another person’s rights and
feeilings.

Apologies function to maintain or reestablish rapport between

participants. They are occasioned that are perceived to have negative
effects on others and for which speakers take responsibility.

CHANNELED AGGRESSION

In some societies, specific social mechanism help prevent conflict or

channel aggressive behavior in socially acceptable forms.

SONG DUEL
Inuit contests which conflict is expressed and resolve through public
response music.

According to Iranian cultural norms, parent-children relationships are

imbued with special expectations whose violation, articularly if
perpetuated by the child, lead to practices called qahr and ashti (behzadi
1994)

The parents who feels hurt or somehow slighted by the child conveys
qahr, an intention to withdraw from further interaction until the rift is
mended. Qahr, indirectly expresses a consetellation of complex feelings
of hate, anger, dislike and hurt at the same time evokes in the other
person complex set of feelings of guilt, shame, regret, compassion and
love.
Recipients of qhar are prompted to correct their behavior and seek
reconciliation. They may do this directly to the person offended or
through intermediaries.

The cultural practice of Ashti is the stage of meditation and

reconcilitation. The word itself can be used to mean “ to end a war”, “to
compromise with someone”, and “ to forget disappointment and
resentment about someone.”
-(Behzadi 1994, 322)

The successful use of qhar and ashti depends on people’s sensitivity to

interpersonal signals that are not directly stated, especially in the family
relationships or close friendships where people expect others to respond
appropriately without overt cues.

Conflicts Avoidance Strategies in Japan

In the words of Erving Goffman,apologizing splits in to 2 parts; the
part that is guilty in an offense and the part that dissociates itself from
delicts. (offense) and affirms a belief in the offended rule. Naturally,
what counts as a deed or intent necessiting an apology depends entirely
on offensive regrettable behavior.

Require apologies in more situations that would be expected in western

societies.

Japanese people are highly conscious of their effects on others and are
concerned not to infringe other’s rights and needs.

They strive not to embarrass themeselves or those who are listening .

Japanese norms require explicit recognition of people’s effect on one

another in the form of apology for actual implicated intrusions,
disturbances and infringements.

Apologies are perceived as polite, considerate and deferential according

to Japanese model of social rights.

CONFLICTS RESOLUTION AMONG SEMAI OF MALAYSIA

The semai perception of human relations is mirrored in the dichotomies

they impose on the universe as a whole. The known and familir are
considered helpful and supportive, but the unknown is fraught with
danger.
Semai also make a distinction between protective spirits that are
considered to be kin and malevolent spirits that are source of misfortune,
illness and death.

According to Semai ethics, “goodness”, is characterized by helping,

giving and sharing, “badness” is anger, quarelling, and fighting (
Robarchek 1997,53).

SEMAI’S FORMAL MECHANISM TO LIMIT CONFLICTS

The entire community attends a meeting called becharaa; to air

grievances and allow all parties to voice their concerns and opinions.
People congregate in the headman’s house and discuss mundane events
but not the dispute itself. And elder member of one of the disputants’ kin
groups delivers a long oration of the importance of community
interdependence and harmony

The headman delivers a summary and consensus and discuss the guilt
one or both of the disputants, offer alternatives to how they should
behaved, and admonishes them to never repeat their offending actions or
words.

Fines maybe imposed on one or both the principals. Finally, elders of

both kin groups admonished their relatives against improper behavior
and again stress the importance of community cohesion and harmony.

ROLE OF RECIPROCITY IN CONFLICT AVOIDANCE

In some societies, it is expected that an antagonisms and conflicts will

surface in the context of specific occasions, giving people opportunities
to vent feelings of anger, rivalry, and envy in culturally controlled
manner.

The overt expression of anger is considered dangerous and threatening to

community stability. When disputes over other issue arises, they are
handled through a number of intersecting cultural norms that are aimed
to avoiding or at least limiting the intensity and scope of conflict.

Reciprocity refers to expectation that people can depend on one another

for material and emotional support
To counteract conflict and limit community damage, Toraja culture
transmits critical values and patterns of behavior. People learn to avoid
others with whom they have disputes or even potential conflicts.
Confronting another individual directly is highly inappropriate.

According to Douglas Hollan, “a person who publicly berates someone

for being a thief is criticized more than the act of thief itsel” (1997,64).

Finally, if disputes arise, village elders act as mediators to resolve

conflicts. They lecture the parties about proper behavior and restore at
least the appearance of social harmony.

III. WITCHCRAFT AND RITUALS IN CONFLICT

RESOLUTION

Richard D. Pascual Jr.

WITCHCRAFT
A belief system that functions as a mechanism of social control by
channeling anger toward others.

RITUAL
It is done in accordance with social custom or normal protocol.

Taitas (Kenya)
Anger is dealt with in a complex ceremony that links anger with illness.
Negative emotions, especially anger, are thought to be one of the
common causes of illness.the angry person is not the one who become ill
but the person at whom the anger is directed suffers misfotune or illness.

when a persons become ill, a diviner ask for those who feel they might
be the cause of the patients illness to come forward because of the anger
the the person harbor toward the patientit is no shame to come forward
because an admission of responsibility helps solidify community values
and restore individual and social harmony .

Finally a person admission anger towards the patient and agrees to

participate in a ritual cure.

during the cure, the angry person “cast out anger”. The person ritually
takes in a mouthful water and then spit it out while calling blessings and
good fortune upon the sick person.
Through this dramatic enactment of anger, and its expulsion, the patient
and the other person causing illness are reunited and reconciled.
the ritual takes place publicly. it also enacts and dramatizes the
importance of understanding and forgiveness.
The Taita ritual emphasizes the importance of restoring community and
interpersonal harmony.

Witchcraft belief includes the notion that people that use spirit powers to
cause harm to others, leading to illness, misfortune and death.

Control anger in a complex interplay of fears of being both a target of

witches and a target of accusation of witchcraft.

Most societies with witchcraft practices and belief, people attemp to

control angry outburst and demonstrations of interpersonal antagonisms
because they fear that they might offend, knowingly or unknowingly, a
person who practices witchcraft .

The witch has the power to retaliate and cause misfotune, illness, or
death. But people also attempt to control their anger and jealousies b

Because an angry, jealous person is likely to be accused of being witch.

These are informal sanctions controlling or responding to people's

behavior.

People who become ill later being after being the target of someones
angry outburst often accuse the latter of being witch and having cause
them harm. Such an accuusation is difficult to shake off unless the
accused person an excuse the behavior by claiming drunkenness and
therefore lack of control or responsibility for words spoken.
Cibecue, Western Apache, Arizona, Keith Basso (1989)

in addition, accusation sometimes come from men directed at their

mothers-in-law. Apache societies matrilineal, and postmarital residence
is frequently matrilocal.
whether married or not, the couple lives with the wife's family, a womans
mother continues to have influence over her daughters actions
in the current context of changing norms about household structure Aand
gender roles, men sometimes resent what they consider to be
interference from their mother-in-law in their conjugal relationship.
Cibecue, Western Apache, Arizona, Keith Basso (1989)
Acknowledging the strong ties between mother and daughter, however
married men often feel that they cannot directly challenge mother-in-
law's authority.
Accusing the woman of witchcraft accomplishes the goal of criticizing
her in a traditional way of witchraft.
The elder woman counter the accusations by stressing her kindness,
responsibility, and adherence to sound ethical principles, noting her
generosity and helpfulness to the couple and their children as well
asgood character.
Cibecue, Western Apache, Arizona, Keith Basso (1989)

Through religous of spiritual beliefs and practices, people ritualy treat

feelings of anger and agression that underlie conflict.
Whichcraft is a powerful mechanism to social control because people
fear being accused of iit as much as they fear being the victims.

IV. PATTERNS OF CONFLICTS

Jessie A. Balingao

PATTERNS OF FAMILY CONFLICT

FAMILY CONFLICT arise from

 Personal preferences and styles of interaction

 Tensions in marital
 Polygynous or polyandrous marriages
 Co-wife and co-husband relationship
 Family violence in in-law-relationship

FAMILY CONFLICT

Example:
A jealous husband or rejected suitor in Pakistan may seek revenge
against a woman by throwing acid on her face and body, disfiguring her
and making her ineligible for either infidelity or marriage.

Example:
In India, in a phenomenon known as “dowry death” young bride may
be murdered, set ablazed by their husbands or in-laws, who then arrange
for another marriage with another dowry
 Inheritance of properties
Example:
In India, brothers may try to stike repeatedly a favor with the father,
hoping to inherit the largest or best-located section of family
landholdings. Because conflict among brothers violates the ethics of
family solidarity, their wives are often blamed for causing friction in the
household. The women are used as scapegoats.

Family Conflict Resolution Strategies

 Personal preferences and styles of interaction

 Tensions in marital

Can be worked out through the giv-and-take of conversation,

deference to others, and respect due certain family members because of
their status and authority.

 Polygynous or polyandrous marriages

Co-spouses often get along well, finding friendship and mutual

support with work and emotional stress, particularly in patrilineal,
patrilocal households, co wives may become allies, aiding one another
with housework, child care and emotional support.

 Family violence in in-law-relationship

Reform movements that modernize legal codes address these

domestic violence and other traditional crimes against women.

 Inheritance of properties

The heads of families and the heads of lineages or clans are aware of
conflicts among their members and have the authority to mediate and
resolve disputes.

Family and Community Conflict Resolution Strategies

PATTERNS OF COMMUNITY CONFLICT

CONFLICT IN FORAGING BAND SOCIETIES

 Conflicts over property are unlikely to emerge.
 Conflicts that do arise tend to be caused by jealousies, often of a
sexual nature.

CONFLICT IN TRIBAL SOCIETIES

 Conflicts with personal motivation.
 Blood Vengeance - aggression against others based on the principle
of revenge.
 Blood Feud - ongoing conflict between kin groups or communities,
based on vengeance.

FORAGING BAND CONFLICT Resolution Strategies

 Conflicts caused by jealousies, often of a sexual nature.
 People attempt to use magical means such as witchcraft and harmful
spells.

TRIBAL SOCIETIES CONFLICT Resolution Strategies

 Conflicts with personal motivation.
Social etiquette regulates the behavior of neighbors and even of
strangers in other people's territories.

 Blood Vengeance and Blood Feud.

Ritual practitioners institute a process to forestall the escalation of a
conflict to murder and blood feuds. They control spirit powers that
couldbe used against any person who failed to comply with their advice
in a conflict.

PATTERNS OF GROUP CONFLICT

1. GROUP CONFLICT Raiding and Warfare - armed aggression and

hostilities between groups.
Warfare is least likely destructive in bands than in any other kind of
society. People in nomadic bands usually do not have the strong sense of
territorial ownership and control.

In tribal societies, raiding and warfare may exact a deadlier toll on the
population and be more disruptive.

2.PEACEFUL

TRIBAL SOCIETIES CONFLICT Resolution Strategies

COMMUNITY ACTION
Village leaders help mediate disputes by appealing to all parties
concerned and and stressing the importance of community harmony and
stability.

INFORMAL AJUDICATION WITHOUT POWER

Community leaders have no coercive powers; they could not enforce
their opinions or decisions on people. Rather, they were skilled orators
with powers of persuation and personal charisma.

RITUAL RECONCILLIATION - APOLOGY

The desire to restore a harmonious relationship may also explain
ceremonial apologies. An apology is based on deference - the guilty
party shows obeisance and asks for forgiveness.

OATHS AND ORDEALS

An oath is the act of calling upon a deity to bear witness to the truth of
what one says.
An ordeal is used to determine guilt o innocense by submitting the
accused to dangerous or painful tests believed to be under supernatural
control.

CODIFIED LAW AND THE COURTS

The use of codified laws and courts to resolve disputes peacefully exists
in society

3.VIOLENT

TRIBAL SOCIETIES CONFLICT Resolution Strategies

FEUDING
State of recurring hostilities between families or groups of kin, usually
apparently motivated by a desire to avenge an offense - whether insult,
injury, deprivation, or death- against a member of the group.

RAIDING
Short term use of force, generally carefully planned and organized for the
acquisition of goods, animals or other forms of wealth belonging to
another community.
LARGE-SCALE CONFRONTATIONS
Both feuding and raiding usually involve relatively small numbers of
persons and almost always an element of surprise.

TRIBAL SOCIETIES CONFLICT Resolution Strategies