Gen biology • most time is spent here

• synthesizes needed materils

reviewer (protein, lipids and other
biologically important
CELL DIVISION AND MITOSIS molecules.
• Made up of three stages - G1,
• Split into 2 parts, the S and G2.
interphase and the m -phase.
• Cell division
o Mitosis (somatic/body
cells)
o Meiosis (gametes/sex
cells)
• Rapid cell growth=formation of
cancer cells

Concept of genetics
• Karyotype – diagram of a
complete set of chromosomes
(46: 23+23).
G1 (Gap Phase)
• Growth and normal
metabolism
• Enzymes needed for
DNA to become more
active (to initiate cell
division.)

S Phase (Synthesis Phase)

• Genes – sequence of DNA that
codes for a protein and
therefore determines a trait.
Interphase
• DNA will start to
replicate here, proteins
are also synthesized.
G2 Phase
• Increased protein
synthesis.
• Final step in
preparation for cell
division.

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 M-phase
• M itosis – produces two nuclei
containing chromosomes
identical to the parent nucleus.
Mitosis – PMAT
2.) M etaphase (M IDDLE)
• Chromosomes align at
the cell’s metaphase
plate.
• One sister chromatid
of each chromosome
is attached by its
kinetochore to one
pole.

• Prophase, Metaphase,
Anaphase and Telophase
• 2N = 4

1.) Prophase (PREPARE)

• Begins with chromatin
compaction, a coiling
process (with
chromatin) is done to
make them shorter
and thicker. 3.) Anaphase (AW AY)
• Chromatin is
distributed to the
daughter cells, while
chromosomes are
duplicated and are put
together to form sister
chromatids (double
stranded DNA
sequence.
• Sister chromatids
separate, create
daughter
chromosomes.
• Once chromatids are
no longer attached
to their duplicates,
each chromatid
becomes a
chromosome.
• Sister chromatids
separate at their
centromeres.
• Two groups move
towards their own
pole of the cell.

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4.) Telophase (TW O )
• Two separate nuclei
form.
• Everything uncoils,
returning to an
interphase like state.
• The cleavage furrow is
present in this stage
Cytokinesis
• Begins before mitosis is
complete
• Division of the cell cytoplasm
to form two daughter cells.
O THER DETAILS:
• Before each phase, the cell
goes through a “break”, use of
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the protein cyclin which
regulates the cell division.
• If the human lacks this, cancer
cells develop.
• CDK (Cyclin Dependent
Kinesis) binds with cyclin and
creates a “gas”
TYPES OF
REPRODUCTION
ASEXUAL REPRO DUCTIO N
• Single parent splits buds or
fragments to produce two or
more individuals.
• All the cells are the result of
mitotic divisions, their genes
and inherited traits are like
those of their parent.
• Genetically identical = clone
• Occurs rapidly and efficiently
because the organism does
not need to find a mate.
TYPES O F ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
• Binary fission - produces
genetically identical unicellular
prokaryotes, DNA & other
contents are duplicated then
split
• Budding - new organism
develop from an outgrowth or
bud from the parent organism
• Fragm entation - parent is cut
into pieces, part regenerates
and becomes a new organism
(ex. starfish)
• Sporulation - spore contains
gametophyte, parent
organisms form spores
 • Parthenogenesis -
unfertilized birth ex.
Immaculate Concepcion ???
• Apom ixis - mechanism of
seed production without
involving the process of
meiosis and syngamy
• M etagenesis - occur in
organisms that show
alternation of generations,
depends on environment
• Sperm atogenesis -
formation of 4 viable
sperm cells, starts as an
undifferentiated cell (2n)
• O ogenesis - formation
of an egg cell ( 3 polar
bodies become
discarded, only one
matures into a secondary
oocyte produced in
ovulation)

SEXUAL REPRO DUCTIO N M EIO SIS VS M ITO SIS

• Involves union of two sex 1.) Meiosis produces up to FOUR
cells or gametes to form a individual cells (cytoplasmic
single cell called a zygote. and successive.)
• The offspring produced 2.) DNA and other chromosome
through sexual reproduction components duplicate only
is not genetically once.
reproduction is not 3.) Each of the four cells
genetically identical to their produced by meiosis contains
problems. one set of each homologous
pair (haploid).
HO M O LO GO US 4.) Homologous chromosomes
CHRO M O SO M ES are shuffled (each have a
• Two partners similar in size, unique combination)
shape, position of
centromere. M EIO SIS 1
• 46 chromosomes constitute • Homologous
23 homologous pairs. chromosomes pair
• Carry information about with each other
similar identical traits (may (physically) then
contrast). separate from each
• HAPLOID – 23 other and are
• DIPLOID – 46 distributed to two
• POLYPOID – 46> different nuclei.
• In PROPHASE I,
chromosomes are
MEIOSIS overlapping and
• To make smaller create HYBRID
CHRO M O SO M ES.
• N=2
Spindle fibers are

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 attached in
preparation for
METAPHASE I.
• Before MEIOSIS II,
the cell goes through
a state of rest called
INTERKINESIS.

modes of giving
birth
1.) Oviparous – laying of eggs
2.) Viviparous – give birth to live
young
3.) Ovoviviparous – egg grows
inside parent and hatches
inside (Ex. Snake)

MEIOSIS 2 REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEMS
• Sister chromatids that makeup
each duplicated chromosome
separate from each other and
are distributed to two different
nuclei.

1.) Testes – male gonad

2.) Scrotum – sac of skin that holds
and protects the testes

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 3.) Epididymis – stores and carries hormones to catch a
sperm from testes to vas released egg.
deferens 7.) Ovary – produces eggs
4.) Vas deferens- carries sperm
from epididymis to ejaculatory Menstrual phase
duct o 21-34 days, 28
5.) Ejaculatory duct- semen is (middle)/2 =14
ejaculated (ovulation)
6.) Prostate gland- secretes
prostate fluid
7.) Bulbourethral glad-neutralizes
any residual in the urethra
8.) Seminal vesicle – secretes fluid
that composes semen
9.) Urethra – a tube that urine
comes out of
10.) Penis- male sexual organ

1.) Menstrual Phase –

endometrium sheds
2.) Follicular Phase – eggs develop
3.) Ovulation Phase – thickening of
endometrium, triggered by
progesterone
4.) Luteal Phase – eggs are
released if not fertilized

HUMAN
1.) Vagina –birth canal EMBRYONIC
2.) Cervix – allows flow of DEVELOPMENT
menstrual blood from
uterus to vagina 1.) Zygote
3.) Endometrium – tissue lining 2.) Embryo (4 cells)
the inner cavity of the uterus 3.) Morula (8 cells)
4.) Uterus – houses fetus 4.) Blastocyst (8 cells and
5.) Fallopian tube – above)
passageway for egg cells, o IDENTICAL TWINS – one
fertilization occurs here egg splits into two.
6.) Fimbriae- fingerlike
projections activated by

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 o FRATERNAL TWINS –
two eggs are brought
down
Sexually
transmitted
diseases
(Bacterial/Viral)
1.) Genital warts
o Human papilloma virus
o CURE: OINTMENTS
o Vaccines/Immune
modifiers are for
prevention
o Small bumps are formed
2.) Cervical Cancer
o HPV
o CURE: OINTMENTS
o Mass is formed inside
the cervix
3.) Chlamydia
o Abnormal genital
discharge and burning
sensation during
urination
o PID (Pelvic Inflammatory
Disease)
o CURE: ANTIBIOTICS
4.) Genital Herpes
o Painful blisters in the
genital area, oral sex
o CURE: OINTMENTS
5.) AIDS (Acquired
Immunodeficiency
Syndrome)
o Influenza, causes
swollen lymph glands
o No cure
o HIV kills off white blood
cells, weakens immune
system.
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STAGE 1 – acute
injection/influenza
STAGE 2-
dormant/clinical latency
STAGE 3- AIDS/lethal
6.) Trichomoniasis
o Caused by dirty toilet
seats, itching and
discharge in the genital
area.
o CURE:
METRONIDAZOLE
7.) Yeast Infection
o Causes irritation and
soreness in the genital
area, discharge
(common in females)
o CURE: ANTIFUNGAL
DRUGS
8.) Gonorrhea
o Bacteria causes redness
and swelling at the
infection site.
o Asymptomatic in
females
o You cannot have
children
o CURE: ANTIBIOTICS
9.) Syphilis
o Enters the body through
defect in skin – wide
spread rash
o May be passed onto
babies
o CURE: PENICILIN
GRAM Staining
• Common technique
to differentiate x and
y bacteria
• Created by Hans
Christian Gram
 • Peptidoglycan cell
wall
G+
• Stains violet
• Thicker peptidoglycan layer
• Retains crystal violet on the
layer
G-
• Stains red
• Thinner peptidoglycan layer,
and contains Closed circulatory system
lipopolysaccharides • Present in humans
• Specific pathways of blood
PRO CESS • Tissues and fluids are not mixed
1.) Place bacteria on the slide in with the blood
2.) Add crystal violet • Flows in one direction J
3.) Wash off with distilled water
4.) Add gram’s iodine (promotes O xygen Poor – body back to the
retention of the first stain on the heart
cell) O xygen Rich – heart to the body
5.) Rinse with ethanol (shrinks
peptidoglycan layer and traps Pulm onary circulation
the CV into G+ cells, pores are • Carries oxygen poor blood
not as big in G- cells which is away from the right ventricle of
why CV will not stay in them) the heart, to the lungs, and
6.) Add counterstain (safranin) returns oxygen rich blood to
the left atrium and ventricle of
CIRCULATORY the heart.
SYSTEM
• Transports oxygen, nutrients, System ic circulation
and materials in the body • carries oxygen rich blood from
the left ventricle, through the
• Removes metabolic waste from
arteries, to the capillaries in the
the cells of the body
tissues of the body. From the
• Regulates body temperature tissue capillaries, the oxygen
• Helps fight infection and poor blood returns through a
disease system of veins to the right
atrium of the heart.
O pen circulatory system
• Present in cockroaches, and
other insects

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CHAM BERS O F THE HEART
• Two upper chambers (left and
right atria)
• Two lower chambers (left and
right ventricles)
• A muscle called a septum
separates the chambers.
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BLO O D VESSELS
• Arteries (AWAY) – carries
oxygen rich blood away from
the heart (except the
pulmonary artery)
• Veins (VACK) – carries oxygen
poor blood back to the heart
(except the pulmonary vein)
• Capilliaries – oxygen and
nutrients are exchanged,
connects arteries and veins
HUM AN BLOO D COM PO NENTS
• Plasma - liquid component of
the blood
• Red Blood Cells (RBC) –
contains hemoglobin,
transports oxygen
• White Blood Cells (WBC) –
responsible for defending body
from infectious agents
• Platelets – responsible for blood
clotting so we don’t suffer
hemorrhage (internal bleeding)
GOOD LUCK! J