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Planning for Analysis

Analysis, Interpretation &
Presentation of Data Type of Type of
Data Formatting

Type of
Analysis

Planning for Analysis Type of Data & Formatting Technique

 A sound research plan successfully matches  Quantitative Data
these elements with the proper techniques  Must “quantify” the data
 Convert (“data reduce”) from collection format into
 Collect the type of data that is most appropriate numeric database
to answering your question and fits the other  Qualitative Data
parameters of your project (budget, personnel,  Must process the data (type/enter/describe)
etc.)  Convert from audio/video to text
 Combination
 Process each element as appropriate

Type of Data & Analysis Quantifying Data

 Coding
 Quantitative Data
 Counts, frequencies, tallies  Processing
 Statistical analyses (as appropriate)
 Qualitative Data
 Coding
 Patterns, themes, theory building
 Combination
 Process each element as appropriate

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Quantifying Data
 Before we can do any kind of analysis, we need
to quantify our data
 “Quantification” is the process of converting
data to a numeric format
 Convert social science data into a “machine-
readable” form, a form that can be read &
manipulated by computer programs
Developing Code Categories
Some data are more challenging. Open-ended
responses must be coded.
 Two basic approaches:
 Begin with a coding scheme derived from the
research purpose.
 Generate codes from the data.
Coding Quantitative Data
 Points to remember:
 If the data are coded to maintain a good amount
of detail, they can always be combined (reduced)
later
 However, if you start off with too little detail, you
can‟t get it back
 If you‟re using a survey / questionnaire, it‟s a good
idea to do your coding on the form so that it can
be entered properly (i.e. create a “codebook”)
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Quantifying Data
Some transformations are simple:
 Assign numeric representations to nominal or
ordinal variables:
 Turning male into “1” and female into “2”
 Assigning “3” to Very Interested, “2” to Somewhat
Interested, “1” to Not Interested
 Assign numeric values to continuous variables:
 Turning born in 1973 to “35”
 Number of children = “02”
Coding Quantitative Data
 Goal – reduce a wide variety of information to a
more limited set of variable attributes:
 “What is your occupation?”
 Use pre-established scheme: Professional, Managerial,
Clerical, Semi-skilled, etc.
 Create a scheme after reviewing the data
 Assign value to each category in the scheme: Professional
= 1, Managerial = 2, etc.
 Classify the response: “Secretary” is “clerical” and is
coded as “3”
Codebook Construction
Purposes:
 Primary guide used in the coding process.
 Should note the value assigned to each variable
attribute (response)
 Guide for locating variables and interpreting
codes in the data file during analysis.
 If you‟re doing your own input, this will also
guide data set construction
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Entering Data
 Data entry specialists enter the data into an SPSS
data matrix, Excel spreadsheet, or ASCII file.
 Typically, work off a coded questionnaire
Quantitative Levels of Analysis
 Univariate – simplest form, describe a case in
terms of a single variable
 Bivariate – subgroup comparisons, describe a
case in terms of two variables simultaneously.
 Multivariate – analysis of two or more variables
simultaneously
Univariate Analysis
 Frequency distributions
 Measures of central tendency
 Mean, Median, Mode
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Quantitative Analysis
 You should choose a level of analysis that is
appropriate for your research question
 You should choose the type of statistical analysis
appropriate for the variables you have
 Nominal/Categorical, Ordinal, or Continuous
Univariate Analysis
 Describing a case in terms of the distribution of
attributes that comprise it
Example:
 Gender - number of women, number of men
 You should ALWAYS begin your analysis by running
the basic univariate frequencies and checking to
be sure data were entered properly
Presenting Univariate Data
Goals:
 Provide reader with the fullest degree of detail
regarding the data
 Present data in a manageable from
 Simple and straightforward
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Subgroup Comparisons
 Describe subsets of cases, subjects or
respondents
Examples
 “Collapsing” response categories:
 Age categories, Open responses, etc
 Handling “don't knows”
 Code separately, make missing if appropriate
Constructing Bivariate Tables
 Divide cases into groups according to the
attributes of the independent variable.
 Describe each subgroup in terms of attributes of
the dependent variable.
 Read the table by comparing the independent
variable subgroups in terms of a given attribute of
the dependent variable.
 DV goes in the rows, IV goes in the columns
Appropriate Types of Analysis
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Bivariate Analysis
 Describe a case in terms of two variables
simultaneously
 Example:
 Gender
 Attitudes toward equality for men and women
 How does a respondent‟s gender affect his or her attitude
toward equality for men and women?
 Crosstabulations/Correlations
Bivariate Analysis
 Bivariate Tables / Crosstabs are appropriate for
all types of variables, but the proper inferential
statistic will vary by variable type
 Continuous variables are typically made into
categorical variables for this type of analysis
 Recode variables
 Example: Create “Age” (18-34, 35-50, 51-65, 66+)
Bivariate Analysis: Correlations
 Bivariate correlation analysis is appropriate for
continuous variables (interval, ratio)
 Other types of variables are often recoded into
„Dummy‟ variables (value 0 or 1) for these
purposes
 Example: Gender becomes two variables „Male‟
(1=yes) & „Female‟ (1=yes)
 Present in Correlation Matrix
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Multivariate Analysis Multivariate Analysis

 Analysis of more than two variables
simultaneously
 Can be used to understand the relationship
between multiple variables more fully
 Most typical: Regression analysis
 Ordinal (technically inappropriate but it
happens), continuous, dummy variables
 Type of regression analysis will depend on the
type of variables
 OLS (continuous)
 Logistic (other types)

Planning Your Analysis Planning your analysis

 Leave enough time for data entry and data  If your research question requires a level of
formatting analysis your variables won‟t allow, you‟ll need
 Can take much longer than you expect to transform them
 In your codebook – note the TYPE of variable for  Create „dummy‟ variables
each measurement/question  Collapse categories

 This will allow you to plan the proper levels and  Determine the level of significance acceptable &
types of analysis apply proper tests

Planning your analysis

 Proper planning will make things easier later  Data Presentation
 Take good notes on any transformations, etc.
that you do
 Save all the elements of your analysis programs

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Summarizing Data Basic guidelines

 Tables  Ensure graphic has a title
 Simplest way to summarize data  Label the components of your graphic
 Data are presented as absolute numbers or  Indicate source of data with date
percentages
 Provide number of observations (n=xx) as a
 Charts and graphs
reference point
 Visual representation of data
 Add footnote if more information is needed
 Data are presented as absolute numbers or
percentages

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Tables Tables
 Frequency distribution: set of categories with  Relative Frequencies
numerical counts
number of values within an interval x 100
total number of values in the table
Year Number of births
1900 61
Year # births (n) Relative frequency
1901 58
(%)
1902 75
1900–1909 35 27
1910–1919 46 34
1920–1929 51 39
Total 132 100.0
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Tables Charts and Graphs

 Percentage of births by decade between 1900
 Charts and graphs are used to portray:
and 1929
 trends,
 relationships, and
Year Number of births Relative frequency  comparisons
(n) (%)
 The most informative are simple and self-
1900–1909 35 27 explanatory
1910–1919 46 34
1920–1929 51 39
Total 132 100.0

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Use right type of graphics Bar chart

 Comparing categories
 Charts and graphs
 Bar chart: comparisons, categories of data 6

 Line graph: display trends over time 5

 Pie chart: show percentages or proportional 4
share
Site 1
3
Site 2
2 Site 3

0
Quarter 1 Quarter 2 Quarter 3 Quarter 4
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Has the program met its goal?

Percentage of new enrollees tested for HIV at each
site, by quarter Percentage of new enrollees tested for HIV at each
site, by quarter
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% o f new enrollees tested for

60%
% of new enrollees tested

5
50%
4
40%
for HIV

3
HIV

30% Site 1
2 20% Site 2
Site 1
1 Site 3
Site 2 10%
0 Site 3 0%
Q1 Quarter
Jan–March 1 Q2Quarter
Apr–June 2 Q3 July–Sept3
Quarter Q4 Oct–Dec4
Quarter Quarter 1 Quarter 2 Quarter 3 Quarter 4
Months

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Stacked bar chart

 Represent components of whole & compare wholes  Displays trends over time
 Number of months patients have been enrolled in
HIV care Number of Clinicians Working in Each Clinic During
Years 1–4* (* includes doctors & nurses)
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Females 4 10
5
Number of clinicians

0-14 years 4
15+ years Clinic 1
3
Males 3 6 Clinic 2
2 Clinic 3
1
0 5 10 15
0
41 Number of months patients have been enrolled in HIV care 42
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4

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Number of Clinicians Working in Each Clinic During

Years 1–4* Pie chart
(* includes doctors & nurses)
Contribution to the total = 100%
6

5 Percentage of All Patients Enrolled by Quarter

Number of clinicians

8%
4
Clinic 1 10%
3
Clinic 2
1st Qtr
2 Clinic 3
2nd Qtr

1 3rd Qtr
23% 59% 4th Qtr
0
Y1 1995
Year 1 Y2Year
19962 Y3Year
19973 Y4 1998
Year 4

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(Source: NHRC, 2015)

Interpretation Interpretation: Relevance of finding

 Adding meaning to information by making  Adding meaning to information by making
connections and comparisons and exploring connections and comparisons and exploring
causes and consequences causes and consequences

Conduct
Relevance of Reasons for Consider
further
finding finding other data Conduct
research Relevance of Reasons for Consider
further
finding finding other data
research

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Interpretation: Relevance of finding Interpretation: Possible causes?

 Does the indicator meet the target? • Supplement with expert opinion
 How far from the target is it? • Others with knowledge of the program or target
 How does it compare (to other time periods, population
other facilities)?
 Are there any extreme highs and lows in the
data?

Conduct
Relevance of Reasons for Consider
further
finding finding other data
research

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Interpretation: conduct further

Interpretation: consider other data research
 Use routine data to clarify questions  Data gap conduct further research
 Methodology depends on questions being asked
 Use other data sources
and resources available
 Situation analyses
 Performance improvement data

Conduct
Relevance of Reasons for Consider
further
finding finding other data
Conduct research
Relevance of Reasons for Consider
further
finding finding other data
research

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Key Messages
 Use the right graph for the right data
 Tables – can display a large amount of data
 Graphs/charts – visual, easier to detect patterns
 Label the components of your graphic
 Interpreting data adds meaning by making
connections and comparisons to program
 Service data are good at tracking progress &
identifying concerns – do not show causality

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