ASTM001/MTH724U

SOLAR SYSTEM

Lecture 7: Tides
 Introduction
Real bodies in the solar system are not point masses.
The finite dimensions of a body mean that, in the
presence of another mass, there will be a gravitational
gradient across the body. This gives rise to a tidal
bulge.
Measurements of the amplitude of the bulge provide
information about the internal structure of the body.
Rotational distortion can give similar information.
The response of a satellite to the tidal bulge it raises
on a planet can lead to orbital evolution of the
satellite.
 The Tidal Bulge (1)
The magnitude of the mean force between a planet
and a satellite is:
 The Tidal Bulge (2)
Consider the paths of particles inside the planet,
ignoring the rotation of the planet.

All particles within the planet experience the same

centrifugal force (in magnitude and direction) but a
different gravitational force, F, because of their
different distances from the satellite.
 The Tidal Bulge (3)
Hence:

The tide generating force is then:

Rotational forces also deform a body but if tidal and

rotational deformations are small then they can be
treated separately and added.

We are actually more concerned with the

gravitational potential that gives rise to the tidal
bulge. This is because if a body is in hydrostatic
equilibrium then its surface is equipotential.
 The Tidal Bulge (4)
Consider the potential, V, at some point, P, on the
surface of the planet. We have:
 The Tidal Bulge (5)
We can write Δ as:

In most cases:

For example, the Earth’s radius is 6,378km and the

Moon’s semi-major axis is 384,400km.

Expanding:
 The Tidal Bulge (6)
Hence:

Consider the effect of each term in the potential:

This is a constant term and does not give rise to a

force.

This gives rise to the force on the particle needed for

motion in a circle.
The Tidal Bulge (7)
The force arising at any point
from a potential is in the
direction of the potential
gradient and perpendicular to
the equipotential surface that
passes through that point.
 The Tidal Bulge (8)

where,

is the Legendre polynomial of degree 2.

 The Tidal Bulge (9)
Since,

this is the tide raising part of the potential.

We can also write this potential as:

where
 The Tidal Bulge (10)
Here the quantity,

is the amplitude of the equilibrium tide.

A plot of as a function of ψ,

shows that there are two maxima and two minima

per cycle. This is why there are two tides per day.
 The Tidal Bulge (11)
The ratio of the amplitudes of the solar and lunar
tides is

For the tide raised on the Earth by the Moon,

For the tide raised on the Earth by the Sun,

Just as satellites raise tides on planets, so planets

raise tides on satellites. The most dramatic result of a
tide raised on a satellite occurs on the jovian moon Io
…
 Io (1)
On 2 March 1979 Peale, Cassen & Reynolds published a
paper in Science entitled “Melting of Io by Tidal
Dissipation”. They argued that Io “might currently be the
most intensely heated terrestrial-type body in the solar
system” and that “widespread and recurrent vulcanism
would occur.” They were correct.
On 8 March 1979 the Voyager 1 cameras showed active
volcanoes on Io. Io is the most volcanically active body in
the solar system. The resurfacing rate is estimated to be
1 to 10 cm per year. Over the age of the solar system Io
has recycled 100 to 1000 times its own mass through its
volcanic vents.
 Io (2)

Images from Galileo

Images from Cassini

 Tidal Torques (1)
Tidal oscillations always generate friction and this results
in energy loss and a phase shift in the tidal response of the
planet.
The specific or tidal dissipation function Q is a measure of
how much dissipation is produced:

Here ΔE is the energy lost over one cycle and E0 is the

peak energy stored during the cycle.
The tidal bulge will be carried ahead or lag behind the
satellite by an amount, ε, related to the phase shift, δ,
and Q by
 Tidal Torques (2)
The response of the satellite to the tidal bulge it has
raised depends on whether the satellite is (a) outside
synchronous orbit or (b) inside synchronous orbit. The
resulting asymmetry exerts a torque on the satellite.
 Tidal Torques (3)
The torque, Γ, is determined by the cross product of the
radius with the force exerted on the satellite by the
external potential of the deformed planet. Hence:
where

Only the component of the force perpendicular to the

line joining the planet-satellite centres contributes to the
torque.

Furthermore, only the non-central, external

component contributes, such that the magnitude of
the torque is

Note that an equal and opposite torque acts on the planet.

 Tidal Torques (4)
If the satellite orbits above
synchronous, the bulge is ahead of
the satellite and the work done by
the torque acts to increase the
orbital energy at a rate Γn. An equal
and opposite torque works at a rate
ΓΩ to decrease the rotational energy
of the planet. These rates are not
equal and the total mechanical
energy decreases at a rate:
If the satellite orbits below
synchronous, the bulge lags behind
the satellite and the work done by
the torque acts to decrease the
orbital energy at a rate Γn. An equal
and opposite torque works at a rate
ΓΩ to increase the rotational energy
of the planet. These rates are not
equal and the total mechanical
energy decreases at a rate:
 Tidal Torques (5)
In both cases the energy is dissipated as heat in the
planet. The rate of energy dissipation determines the
rate of orbital evolution.
The total mechanical energy of the system changes at
a rate:

rotational
+ orbital
energy energy

But, Kepler’s Third Law gives:

Hence:

This must be negative because some mechanical

energy is dissipated as heat.
 Tidal Torques (6)
However, the total angular momentum of the system
is conserved.

rotational orbital
+
ang.mom. ang.mom.

and hence
 Tidal Torques (7)
Hence, the rate of change of mechanical energy is:

Because this must be negative we have:

Therefore:
Satellites in prograde orbits beyond the synchronous
orbit will move outwards.
Satellites in prograde orbits inside the synchronous
orbit will move inwards.
(Satellites in retrograde orbits will move inwards.)
We can also determine the rate of orbital evolution …
 Tidal Torques (8)
The tidal potential is:
However, the reaction of the satellite to the distorted
potential that it has created gives rise to additional
terms in the potential:

mean
This can also be written as: radius effective
rigidity

The quantities,

are called Love numbers.

 Tidal Torques (9)
Now,

Hence:

and we know that:

 Tidal Torques (10)
For the Moon,
This corresponds to a change of about 3cm per year.
This rate is measurable (by lunar laser ranging) and is
consistent with measured increase in the length of the
day.
 Tidal Evolution (1)
Integration of the orbital evolution equation gives:

Here the subscript 0 denotes current value and the

subscript i denotes initial value.
If we ignore the second term on the LHS then:

and we can write:

for tidally evolved systems.

 Tidal Evolution (2)
Saturn System Uranus System

In both systems there seems to be evidence for tidal

evolution, with the more massive satellites lying
further away from the planet.
 Tidal Evolution (3)
Saturn System Uranus System

Tidal evolution provides a natural mechanism to

change the semi-major axes of satellites and it is
probably responsible for the preference for
commensurability seen in the Solar System. The
problem is we do not know Q.
Tidal Evolution (4)
 Tidal Evolution (5)
Evolution of the Moon’s orbit and Earth’s spin:
 The Roche Zone (1)
P S

Consider the stability of a particle lying both on the equator

of a satellite and the line connecting the satellite to the
planet.
If the particle was at the centre of the satellite then there is
an equilibrium between the gravitational and centrifugal
forces such that
However, the particle experiences: (i) an excess
gravitational or centrifugal force due to tidal sheer, (ii) a
centrifugal force due to the satellite’s rotation and (iii) a
force due to the gravitational attraction of the satellite.
 The Roche Zone (2)
When these are in balance we have:

Hence, at the equilibrium location,

or,

(for object in hydrostatic equilibrium filling

its Roche lobe)

These limits define the Roche zone around a planet

and all planetary ring systems lie in this zone.
The Roche Zone (3)