Journal of Cultural Geography

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Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras

Amita Sinha

To cite this article: Amita Sinha (1998) Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras, Journal of
Cultural Geography, 17:2, 27-41, DOI: 10.1080/08873639809478319

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Published online: 07 Mar 2011.

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 Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras
Amita Sinha
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Abstract. The architectural treatises of medieval India, the vaastu shastras,

are based upon a metaphysical design philosophy which underlies the con­
struction of furniture, vehicles, building details, buildings, and settlements.
Design geometry is an abstraction of an anthropomorphic form called
purusha which is also a symbol of self. The vaastu shastras outline a theory
of environmental design based upon person-place identity. Both sacred and
secular structures are governed by its design principles. Design of settle­
ments is an elaboration of architectural design at an enhanced scale, using a
similar vocabulary of forms, their symbolic meaning, and design expertise.

In various texts on the history of urban design, mandala cities of

India are mentioned, but receive cursory treatment. For example,
A.E.J. Morris's History of Urban Form (1974) has a one-page appendix
on Indian mandalas, and Spiro Kostof's The City Shaped (1991) has a
short section on holy cities. It is difficult to get a clear grasp of the
design philosophy behind these highly ordered urban settlements,
which reach their apogee in temple cities of South India. This article
traces the antecedents of settlement design in the sacred treatises of
medieval India. The genesis of urban form lies in a well-articulated
concept of design. Uniquely Hindu because of its metaphysical basis,
it is applied to architecture at various scales. The design of settle-
ments is an elaboration of architectural design at an enhanced scale,
using the same vocabulary of forms, their symbolic meaning, and
design expertise.

Vaastu Shastras
Vaastu shastra, the art and science of architecture, is covered in
dozens of treatises on architecture and sculpture. These compilations,
collectively known as shilpa shastra {shilpa meaning art), form one of
the 64 branches of divinely revealed arts. The term vastu, defined as
"where immortals and mortals live" means the site; vaastu what is
designed, ranging from ornaments, furniture, vehicles, architectural
details, gateways, drains, water tanks, gardens, buildings, streets,
27
 28 ■ journal of Cultural Geography

and settlements of all sizes and types. In this concept, architectural

d e s i g n is n o t limited to buildings—it is a comprehensive category
e n c o m p a s s i n g artifacts m a d e at various scales which also may be
considered dwellings. Vaastu vidya (study of vaastu) is considered to
be an upaveda, a lesser v e d a (Kramrisch 1946).
Found in all the regions of the country and written in Sanskrit,
shilpa shastras reflect oral and textual traditions dating back to antiq-
uity. T h o u g h varying in details, their themes are quite consistent. The
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later texts rely heavily on earlier ones. Their subject matter is also
covered in texts on rituals—grihya sutras, and mythologies—puranas
and agamas. The shilpa shastras were written over a period of at least
a thousand years. Manasara w a s compiled between 500 and 700 C.E.
according to Acharya (1927), while Tantrasamuccaya of N a r a y a n a n
N a m b u d r i of Kerala belongs to the fifteenth c e n t u r y (Kramrisch
1946). Sammaranganasutradhara by Bhoja is attributed to the eleventh
c e n t u r y C.E. It influenced the composition of Aparajitaprccha more
t h a n a c e n t u r y later. Aparajitaprccha is a d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n Vis-
v a k a r m a a n d his son Aparajita e x p o u n d i n g o n the principles of
v a a s t u shastra and committed to text by Bhuvandeva, perhaps an
architect himself (Dubey 1987). Similarly Prasada-mandana vastu shas­
tra is ascribed to an architect employed by the king of Mewar in the
fifteenth century C.E. (Acharya 1927).

The Architect
The shilpa shastras throw some light on the qualifications of the
architect. His is a crucial role in the link between design at various
scales—from building details to cities. The architect is k n o w n as the
sthapati (stha, that which is fixed and pati, master), one w h o presides
over construction of a n edifice (Ram Raz 1972). H e is the master-
builder. H o w e v e r he operates as the head of a team consisting of
sutragrahin, takshaka, and vardhakin. The sutragrahin is the draftsman,
w h o uses his knowledge of proportionate measurement by the cord
(sutra) to lay o u t the b u i l d i n g . The takshaka carves (taksh) stone,
wood, a n d clay while the vardhakin increases (vrdh) or a d d s to his
w o r k b y joining parts and finishing their surfaces. Since each role is
crucial in architecture from conception to overseeing the building
operation, the four contribute to the profile of a composite architect.
The roles are considered unequal—sutragrahin is the disciple of stha-
pati a n d frequently his son and successor w h o is considered capable
of c o m p l e t i n g the project s h o u l d the s t h a p a t i die. The v a r d h a k i
w o r k s with the takshaka closely and is subordinate to him. The two
obey the orders of sutragrahin. In addition to this team of four, there
 Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras • 29

is also a priest-architect, always a Brahmin, called sthapaka who acts

on behalf of his patron or client, yajamana and directs the sthapati
(Kramrisch 1946). The architectural team itself may consist of mem-
bers of lower castes who belong to guilds called shilpi-sangha. They
are trained in their respective trades as apprentices.
The sthahpati is required to be well-versed in more than one
branch of learning including mathematics, astrology, and the vedas.
Visvakarma, creator of the universe and architect of the gods, is con-
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sidered to be the mythological ancestor of every sthapati and shilpi.

The sthapati's knowledge is divinely revealed by Brahma, Vishnu, or
Shiva, depending upon the Puranic tradition.
The divine ordination of the architect elevated him and his craft
to a high status in society and imbued his actions with profound sig-
nificance. In his work he mimics the primordial act of creating the
universe. He has vaastu shastra as codified knowledge to guide him,
yet he applies his own intuitive judgment when the occasion
demands (Kramrisch 1946). He is called upon when a new settlement
is founded or an old one extended. He selects the site, marks the
boundaries, designs the fortifications including the city walls and
gates, and lays out the various quarters of the city (Dutt 1925).

Design
To design is to bring form into existence by measuring and
ordering space. Texts like Manasara and Mayamatam begin with the
system of measurement used in sculpture, architecture, and design of
settlements. The length or height is called mana, breadth is prana or
pramana and parimana is the circumference (Acharya 1927). In sculp-
ture, talamana is the unit of measurement based upon the length of
the face. These measures derive from the root ma which means to
measure as well as to build (Dagens 1994). These measures are based
upon the human body.
The act of measurement is the first step in bringing an object
into existence (vaastu). This order or measurement is based upon the
human body spatially and temporally since prana is also the smallest
unit of time needed for taking a breath (Kramrisch 1946). To measure
is to bound or to limit space and create a place where none existed
before. Measurement is also the division of the whole into parts and
differentiation of the spatial continuum.
This organic theory of design provides a metaphysical explana-
tion as to why the human body is coterminous with designed space.
In architecture and settlement design ideal diagrams are used in
laying out spaces. These diagrams can be traced to the earliest struc-
 30 ■ journal of Cultural Geography

tures for performing sacrifices in Vedic India, dating from the first
millennium B.C.E. (Kramrisch 1954). The sulva-sutras contain the mea-
surement and the description of these structures (vedis or agnis), built
of bricks. Their plans are based upon certain diagrams—square,
circle, triangle, wheel with spokes, swastika, or a bird with two
wings. Their area is equal to seven and a half squares, the side of
each square being equal to the height of a human figure with uplifted
arms called purusha. The unit is called purusha-vyama.
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The purusha is the cosmos. When he is sacrificed by the gods,

the universe with its social order is created anew.

The Brahmana was his mouth; his arms were made into the Rajanya; his
thighs were the Vaisya; and from his feet the Sudra was born.

The Moon was born from his mind; from his eyes was born the Sun; from
his mouth Indra and Agni; from his breath Vayu was born.

From his navel was the atmosphere; from his head the sky was evolved;
from his feet the earth; the directions from his ear. Thus they fashioned the
regions (Brown 1931,118).

Every sacrifice becomes the repetition of the primordial act. The

sacrificer identifies himself with the purusha or the cosmos whose
disintegration and re-creation occurs in the sacrifice. The sacrificer,
by building a shrine and performing a sacrifice, is also creating him-
self anew. Every act of design that creates space and form is based on
this archetypal act. The shape of the vedi becomes the perfect form,
the prototypical plan. It signifies a microcosm, symbol of the cosmos
and is called a mandala.
The purusha's symbolic significance is not lost sight of in archi-
tectural design and site planning. In the vastu purusha mandala, which
dictates temple architecture, he is present as an anthropomorphic
form fitted into a square with his head facing east or northeast (Fig.
1). The organic form and geometric shape are coterminous. Here
purusha lies with face downwards, pressed into the earth by 32 gods
who settle on various parts of his body. Is the figure a local spirit of
the site, a genius loci who has to be subdued so that the site can be
made auspicious by the presence of gods? The consecration rituals
transform him into Purusha, the principle behind all existence that
assumes form in the diagram of vastu mandala and in the building.
That which was beyond name and form, the infinite, is now delimited
and manifested in concrete existence (Kramrisch 1946; Vatsayan 1983).
 Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras 31

north
kubera (wealth)
vayu(wind) isana (water)
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varuna (rain) indra (sun)

niruti (earth) agni (fire)

yama (death)
south
Fig. 1. Vaastu purusha mandala.

The vaastu shastras describe types of mandalas that can be used

as building and town plans. The mandala of 49 squares which
underlies the multiple enclosures in South Indian temples is divided
into four zones—the innermost sacred zone occupied by Brahma,
surrounded by eight squares of gods, 16 squares of men and the out-
ermost 24 squares occupied by goblins (Kramrisch 1946). This hierar-
chy is reflected in caste quarters assigned to various sectors of a set-
tlement. Usually the center is occupied by a temple complex. Built
next to it are the royal palace complex and the neighborhood of
Brahmins. All the other castes are located with respect to the center
in accordance with their position in the social hierarchy. Another
principle for location is directionality—higher castes are located in
the east and north or face those directions. The vaastu-shastras give
varying locations to caste quarters in settlements. Whatever their
exact location, the homology between spatial organization and the
form of the purusha is clear.

Categories of Settlements
The vaastu shastras contain one or more chapters on designing
settlements. No distinction is made between the layouts of villages,
towns, and cities. Towns and cities are considered simply to be much
 32 Journal of Cultural Geography

larger versions of villages. Villages are called gramas a n d the oldest

Sanskrit w o r d for city is pur, derived from the Dravidian ur (Ray
1964). The s e t t l e m e n t categories e m p l o y e d b y the ancient texts—
Manasara, Mayamatam, Aparajitaprccha, and Kautilya's Arthashastra—
cited earlier are worth examining because they reflect the continuity
between architectural and urban design. At least four criteria under-
lie the settlement typologies—form, size, natural features of the site,
a n d i n h a b i t a n t s . Manasara describes eight kinds of villages based
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u p o n form (Acharya 1927). These are the staff (dandaka), the quadran-
g u l a r grid (sarvatobhadra), q u a d r a n g u l a r concentric (nandyavarta),
lotus (padmaka), swastika, conch (prastara), bow (karmuka), and four-
faced chaturmukka (Figs. 2-4). M a y a m a t a m also describes eight kinds
of villages (Dagens 1994). The five in c o m m o n with Manasara are
d a n d a k a , swastika, prastara, p a d m a k a , and nandyavarata.
The street patterns in each type of village determine the shapes.
They d i v i d e the basically q u a d r a n g u l a r , circular, or semi-circular
s h a p e into blocks. The scheme followed here is called padavinyasa,
division into squares. The n a n d y a v a r t a settlement clearly displays
the 49 square, 64 square and 81 square mandalas in its layouts (Ram
Raz 1972; Dutt 1925). The lotus and bow types of settlements have a
radial-concentric organization described by radial streets converging
u p o n the center. In the other settlements, the center is emphasized b y
the intersection of cross streets. The prominence in form is buttressed
b y use, the center is called brahmasthana and is occupied by a temple.
Other squares, particularly those facing the cardinal directions are
presided over by different gods with temples dedicated to them. This
typology is further articulated by the n u m b e r of streets and gates
(Dagens 1994; Dutt 1925). In addition to this typology based upon
the n u m b e r of streets w i t h i n a n y given pattern, streets are them-
selves classified by location and use. The width of streets varies with
their use—those meant for chariots and elephants being wider than
the cattle p a t h s a n d footpaths (Rangarajan 1992). The d i a g r a m s
a p p e a r to be based u p o n the archetype of the four quarters, symbol-
ized b y the cross within a square (Lobell 1983). The forms are a phys-
ical expression of a four-fold stratified social structure. The social
order reflects the cosmos as a quartered universe, emanating from
the p o w e r at the center.
Another w a y to categorize settlements is by location, function,
a n d n u m b e r of inhabitants. Kautilyais Arthashastra, dating back to
f o u r t h c e n t u r y B.C.E., c o n t a i n s a clearly f o r m u l a t e d hierarchical
system of the organization of a kingdom. The smallest unit is the vil-
lage; a g r o u p of ten villages is under a local administration; two hun-
 Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras • 33
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I.IS
c ^
Fig. 2. Village Mandalas: a, Sarvatobhadra; b, Nandy-
avarta; c, Nandyavarta.
 34 Journal of Cultural Geography

r >
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I
Fig. 3. Village Mandalas: a, Dandaka; b, Prastara;
c, Chaturmukka.
 Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras • 35

lllll=l
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Fig. 4. Village Mandalas: a, Swastika; b, Karmuka; c, Padmaka.

 36 Journal of Cultural Geography

d r e d villages are governed by the district headquarters; four hun-

d r e d villages b y a divisional headquarters; and eight hundred vil-
lages by a provincial headquarters (Rangarajan 1992).

Design of Settlements
Settlement design is an extension of architectural design. Vaastu
shastras employ similar design principles regardless of the scale of
vaastu. A building, village, town, and city use the same conceptual
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division of space, vocabulary of shapes, and units of measurement.

The differences a m o n g them are quantitative rather than qualitative.
Architectural details, building types, and settlement types follow a
similar nomenclature. For example, terms used for timber joinery are
based u p o n their shapes. Similar patterns are also found in perfo-
rated w i n d o w screens. Mandapas (pavilions) are named d e p e n d i n g
u p o n the n u m b e r of openings. Rooms called shalas are also divided
into similar types (Acharya 1927). The nomenclature extends to tem-
ples and palaces—the padma type of temple is in the form of a lotus
a n d is only o n e - s t o r i e d , w h e r e a s the sarvatobhadra t y p e has four
entrances a n d is five-storied (Bose 1978).
Another point of convergence between different forms of vaastu
at various scales is the use of modules. The basic unit, the square, is
congruent with the h u m a n b o d y and other shapes, particularly the
circle. The recursive division of the square in the vaastumandala deter-
mines the location of spaces whether they are rooms in a building or
buildings in a city. The system of measurement used is based upon
the h u m a n body.
The m o d u l a r conception e x t e n d s to s c u l p t u r e . Talamana (the
length of face) is the unit for anthropomorphic deities and for repre-
sentation of the h u m a n b o d y in sculpture. In temple architecture, the
w i d t h of the sanctum and the height of the door to the main shrine
are d e t e r m i n e d b y the height of the deity. In turn the width of the
shrine determines the size of temple enclosures (Dagens 1994). The
architecture of the theater is another example of modular construc-
tion. A c c o r d i n g to N a t y a s h a s t r a , the unit is the stage area ( 8 x 8
cubits). Other spaces are multiples of this unit (8 x 16; 8 x 32; 16 x 32).
The system of division based upon square units can be traced back to
Vedic altars (Vatsyayan 1983).
That settlement planning is an extension of architectural design
is further reinforced by the absence of a designated city planner. The
architect (sthapati) plans settlements as he does religious and secular
buildings. His capabilities in site selection, knowledge of surveying,
a n d drafting skills can be extended to the planning of cities as well
 Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras 37

(Dutt 1925). His m a i n expertise is, of course, his u n i q u e ability to

create order. The vaastumandala is the prototype for the ideal dia-
g r a m s suggested for settlements in the vastu shastras. Cities built
accordingly become centers by virtue of their symbolic significance.

The Self and the City

In U p a n i s h a d i c t h o u g h t the m e a n i n g of t h e S a n s k r i t w o r d
p u r u s h a signifies attnan or self. The Upanishads also refer to Purusha
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or Brahman, the omnipresent self and source of the universe (Harzer

1987). The m e r g i n g of individual w i t h universal self, a t m a n w i t h
Brahman, occurs psychologically with self-realization. In later think-
ing, t h e Vedic sacrifice s u r v i v e s as a m e t a p h o r for a c t i o n s a n d
thoughts leading to this disappearance of ego and birth of individu-
ated self (Gupta 1988). The ego has to die for the self to b e born. This
occurs t h r o u g h sacrifice of s e n s o r y i m p r e s s i o n s , t h o u g h t s , a n d
desires, l e a d i n g to t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e archaic c o n t e n t s of t h e
unconscious including its collective component. Purusha remains the
key element—self realization occurs in the s u b t l e b o d y a c h i e v e d
through yogic discipline. A yantra is a symbol of this subtle body—as
a concentration tool, it enables the yogin to reach his center (Eliade
1969). Similar to the yantra, vaastu, or the built edifice is the symbol
of self, a projection of the o w n e r ' s psychic core. The projection of self
into the building is facilitated by designing with the vaastu p u r u s h a
mandala.

The p u r u s h a of v a a s t u p u r u s h a m a n d a l a is d e s c r i b e d as a
demon-like spirit of the site to b e s u b d u e d and transformed, through
consecration rituals and the act of design, into inhabitable spaces
blessed by the presence of the gods and protected from the evil of
c h a o s . This m a g i c a l - m a t e r i a l p r o c e s s of t r a n s u b s t a n t i a t i o n from
body to form is akin to the psychological process of transformation
of self. The transformation of the demonic spirit of the site into cre-
ative i m p u l s e t o w a r d s form is a n a l o g o u s to the lower self of the
client being sacrificed. This leads to the integration of the ego with
its unresolved conflicts, into a higher self. The mandala is its symbol,
a projection of inner h a r m o n y into space. The landscape in mytholo-
gies of pilgrim cities is a n example of h o w vaastu at the settlement
scale is a projection of cosmic self. The sacred land is always a man-
dala and a microcosm. The Vayupurana reads the holy landscape of
G a y a a s t h e b o d y of the d e m o n G a y a A s u r w h o w a s killed b y
Vishnu. Similar to v a a s t u p u r u s h a , v a r i o u s g o d s a n d g o d d e s s e s
reside on the b o d y s y n m o r p h o u s with topography, making it sacred
land (Vidyarthi 1960).
 38 ■ Journal of Cultural Geography

The G o v a r d h a n a legend offers another example of a local spirit

s u b d u e d b y Krishna. The hill Govardhan in the village b y the same
n a m e w a s once inhabited by the Naga deity, Vasuki. Krishna, the
c o w h e r d e r lifts the hill to protect his pastoral community from the
w r a t h of Indra. The occasion is celebrated in the Annakut festival in
which the hill is w o r s h i p p e d . The Govardhan hill and Krishna are
one and the s a m e in the mind of the devotee, so much so that a stone
from that hill represents the body of Krishna (Vaudeville 1980).
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Yet another example of p u r u s h a in the landscape is Varanasi. A

prone h u m a n b o d y between the rivers Asi and Varuna, that of Shiva
himself, is e q u a t e d w i t h the cosmos. The t w o rivers along with a
mythical rivulet joining the Ganges at Manikarnika ghat are con-
ceived as the three veins of the yogic body. The central vein, termi-
nates at the cremation ghat where occurs physical death and moksha
(Parry 1994).
This metaphysical design philosophy is based upon a complex
series of analogies and correspondences between actions and form.
Design, or any creative act that results in material expression of mea-
sured order, is mimetic of the primordial act of creation. The proto-
typical edifice is the Vedic altar where occurs symbolically the disin-
tegration a n d recreation of p u r u s h a / c o s m o s . Its plan governs the
b u i l d i n g of temples that are also expressions of p u r u s h a / c o s m o s .
Because the vocabulary of forms is shared between sacred and secu-
lar structures, the essence of all design lies in the order first created
b y the geometry of Vedic altars. Design is the result of not only cos-
m o g o n i c a c t s , b u t also of i n n e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s of the
client/builder. The p u r u s h a / c o s m o s with w h o m the sacrificer identi-
fies himself, becomes the m e t a p h o r for self of the client identified
w i t h the building. Thereby the material act of creating a physical
center corresponds to psychological discovery of one's center.
The vaastu p u r u s h a mandala regulates the plan of temples. The
center of the plan is occupied by the garbha-griha, the womb-house or
the inner s a n c t u m of the temple complex. Small shrines to the 32
gods are built around the garbha-griha, becoming nodes in the cir-
c u m a m b u l a t o r y rites of the worshipper. Adherence to cardinal direc-
tions is necessary in the location of doors a n d g a t e w a y s . Temple
architecture has influenced secular buildings. The vaastu p u r u s h a
mandala is not explicitly used in designing a house, but its influence
is clear in c o u r t y a r d h o u s i n g w h e r e the center is usually a n o p e n
courtyard s u r r o u n d e d by rooms on all four sides. Directionality is
significant in the location of rooms and entrances.
The influence of the vaastu p u r u s h a mandala on diagrams pre-
 Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras 39

scribed for urban form can be seen in the recursive division of the
plot into squares for the allocation of blocks to four caste groupings
{varnas) a n d t e m p l e s to v a r i o u s g o d s , the e m p h a s i s given to the
center by the location of a temple and the adjacent royal complex.
The entire city becomes a center. Its significance is derived from the
ordering space as w a s d o n e b y Visvakarma, the archetypal divine
architect, w h e n he created the Vedic altar. Every act of b u i l d i n g
accompanied by rituals is mimetic of the primordial sacrifice, gather-
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ing the energy of cosmogony. The built edifice becomes a microcosm,

a condensed containment in a miniature replica of the whole. This
constitutes cosmological order ensuring moral order in this world as
well (Eck 1987).

Cities
In capital cities, the nexus of royal p o w e r and a sacred temple in
the city center implies moral and physical order. The Arthashastra
prescribes that the royal buildings, occupying one-ninth of the city,
should be built to the north or east of the temples in the center of the
city (Rangarajan 1992). Nearly two millennia later, in the eighteenth
century, Jaipur w a s designed by a Bengali architect well versed in
Manasara shilpa shastra. The city w a s the capital of Sawai Jai Singh, a
dedicated astronomer and the governor of Amber, a territory in the
State of Rajasthan. The plan of Jaipur is a version of the prastara dia-
gram. Instead of four divisions of a quadrangular space by t w o cross-
axial streets, there are nine squares (one displaced towards the south-
east as a result of a hilly outcrop) with the palace complex and the
temple containing the royal patron deity occupying the center (Roy
1977). This w a s a fortified city with hills protecting it on the north
and east. While there is no d o c u m e n t e d evidence that the v a a s t u
s h a s t r a s w e r e c o n s u l t e d in laying o u t the city, their influence is
u n m i s t a k a b l y clear. The foundations of the city w e r e laid o u t by
Sawai Jai S i n g h ' s Brahmin g u r u in 1727 c.E. The m a i n e a s t - w e s t
street, the axis of the city, w a s built over a ridge a n d is therefore off
by 15 degrees from the cardinal directions. The use of m o d u l a r pro-
portions can be seen in the side of each of the nine squares being
2,640 feet a n d in the hierarchy of street widths—108 feet, 54 feet, 27
feet, 13 feet, and 6 feet. The modular system in site planning extends
to the architecture of buildings—in their heights related to street
widths and proportional arches in their elevations (Davar 1977).
The cohesive u r b a n fabric of J a i p u r has s u r v i v e d 250 y e a r s .
Indeed the quality of its civic spaces and the architectural subordina-
tion of individual buildings to an overall urban aesthetic have brought
 40 Journal of Cultural Geography

it m u c h acclaim. In the secular times of today, the codified design

principles of vaastu shastras have not lost their relevance. They out-
line a theory of environmental design, comprehensive in its scope and
leading to a unified built environment. Architecture is conceived of as
the m o t h e r of all arts. Both architecture a n d its extension, u r b a n
design, d e m a r c a t e place from space, e m p h a s i z e centrality within a
modular grid, and through building rituals, enable the identification
of the user/client with the structure to the highest possible degree.
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Clarity in city structure, presence of an imageable center or cen-

ters, and clearly demarcated b o u n d a r i e s are essential attributes of
any memorable city. Clare Cooper Marcus (1995) shows how homes
chart the journey of the individual self towards psychic wholeness
a n d i n d i v i d u a t i o n . Cities are expressions of the collective self and
their d e s i g n can be a projection of beliefs a b o u t social and moral
order. A city's quest for meaning, of becoming a symbol of past tradi-
tion and future aspirations, can be eased by physical order compre-
hensible to her citizens.

Acknowledgments

I gratefully acknowledge the support of Research Board of University

of Illinois at Urbana Champaign in the form of William and Flora Hewlett
International Research Grant in Summer 1996 and another research grant in
Spring 1997. I would also like to thank Nilay Deshmukh and Bharat Mehra
for their research assistance.

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Amita Sinha is Associate Professor of Landscape Architecture at the Univer-

sity of Illinois, Champaign, IL 61820.