Project Report

on

HOME Safety System for FIRE & LPG Gas Leakage Detection
using Arduino Uno

Submitted in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for

the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
By

Gomedhikam Rahul 16311A0422

Shaik Tahirr 16311A0444

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Dr. T. RAMA SWAMY (Associate Professor, Dept of ECE)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SREENIDHI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
Yamnampet (V), Ghatkesar (M), Hyderabad – 501 301.
December 2019
 SREENIDHI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad)
Yamnampet (V), Ghatkesar (M), Hyderabad – 501 301

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “HOME SAFETY SYSTEM for FIRE &
LPG Gas Leakage Detection using Arduino Uno” is being submitted by

Gomedhikam Rahul 16311A0422

Shaik Tahirr 16311A0444
in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of Technology degree in
Electronics and Communication Engineering to Sreenidhi Institute of Science &
Technology affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad
(Telangana). This record is a bona fide work carried out by them under our guidance and
supervision. The results embodied in the report have not been submitted to any other
University or Institution for the award of any degree or diploma.

Internal Guide Project Coordinator

Mr. V. Kumara Swamy Dr . T. Rama Swamy

Associate HOD, Dept of ECE Associate Professor, Dept of ECE

Head of the Department

Dr. S.P.V. SUBBA RAO
Professor, Department of ECE
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the work described in this thesis titled “HOME SAFETY SYSTEM for
FIRE & LPG Gas Leakage Detection using Arduino Uno” which is being submitted by
us in partial fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of Technology in the Department of Electronics
and Communication Engineering, Sreenidhi Institute Of Science & Technology is the result of
investigations carried out by us under the guidance of Mr. V. Kumara Swamy Associate HOD,
Department of ECE, Sreenidhi Institute of Science & Technology, Hyderabad.

No part of the thesis is copied from books/ journals/ internet and whenever the portion is taken,
the same has been duly referred. The report is based on the project work done entirely by us and
not copied from any other source. The work is original and has not been submitted for any
Degree/Diploma of this or any other university.

Place: Hyderabad
Date:06/12/2019

Gomedhikam Rahul 16311A0422

Shaik Tahirr 16311A0444

3|Page
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Acknowledgement to Internal guide

Acknowledgement to Project Coordinator
Acknowledgement to HoD
Acknowledgement to Principal
Acknowledgement to Executive Director
Acknowledgement to some other person(s)

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page

No.
INDEX --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- No.
IV
-
LIST OF FIGURES ------------------------------------------------------------------------ VI
----------------
LIST OF TABLES -------------------------------------------------------------------------- VIII
--------------
ABBREVIATIONS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ X
----------------
ABSTRACT --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- XII
CHAPTER-------………
1: INTRODUCTION -------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
--------------------
1.0 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.1 ------ History -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Brief
1.2 Problem Statement --------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.3 Motivation
----- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.4 Objectives of the Project -------------------------------------------------------------------
1.5 Existing
------------Method -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.6 Proposed
-- Method ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.7 Organization
--- of the Project Report -------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER------------------------
2: LITERATURE SURVEY -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------
2.0 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.1 ------
Literature Review ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER-------------
3: PROPER TITLE OF THE CHAPTER
3.0 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.1 ------
Sub-Chapter 1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.2 -------------
Sub Chapter 2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.3 -------------
Sub Chapter 3 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER-------------
4: PROPER TITLE OF THE CHAPTER
4.0 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.1 ------
Sub-Chapter 1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.2 -------------
Sub Chapter 2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.3 -------------
Sub Chapter 3 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER-------------
4: DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PROPOSED
5.0 Introduction
METHODOLOGY----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.1 ------
Sub-Chapter 1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.2 -------------
Sub Chapter 2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------
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 5.3 Sub Chapter 3 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER-------------
5: EXPERIMENTAL/SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
6.0 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.1 ------
Sub-Chapter 1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.2 -------------
Sub Chapter 2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------
Sub Chapter 3 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER-------------
6: CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE
9.0 Conclusions ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.1 __
Future Scope ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------
REFERENCES -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-

6|Page
 LIST OF FIGURES

S. No. Figure No. Figure Name Page No.

LIST OF TABLES
S.No. Table No. Table Name Page No.

ABBREVIATIONS

7|Page
ABSTRACT

LPG leakages are a mutual hindrance in household and manufacturing nowadays. It is

very life threatening if you will not distinguish and modified right away. The idea behind
our project is to give a solution by power cut the gas provision as soon as a gas leakage
is perceived apart from activating the sounding alarm.

Today in this present era where technological advances are at its vertex, there is not
even a single sector which remains untouched by technology. Technology has not
merely established our lives simpler, but also offers a high level of safety and security
wherever required. Technological devices are available which provides refuge for all the
mankind. In our day to day lives, we all use cooking fuel for cooking our daily meals, but
if this fuel gets leaked due to some or the other way, and then there is a large possibility
of a calamity to occur around. Hazards due to gas leakage are dangerous and can
become uncontrollable if timely actions are not taken. But this gas leak mostly remains
unnoticed and there should be some means to observe them so that a quick action can
be brought. The gas leak sensor is such a device which detects the gas leaks at initial
levels and warns the people of the same. This project basically deals with the
development of a simple gas leak detector at the initial stage and then transforming this
simple device into a most advanced gas detector system in the future.

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Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 OUTLINE OF THE PROJECT:

Liquefied Petroleum Gas[LPG]is the most common cooking fuel used throughout India.
Besides being cheap and easily available, LPG serves as an ideal fuel for cooking purposes. With
the increase in the number of people using this fuel, it is the need of the hour to provide some
safety standards which are required to be implemented to lead an accident free life. The major
accident related to the usage of LPG happens due to the leakage of the gas which is dangerous.
Gas leaks can occur from the gas cylinders which are used in almost all the household of India.
The other possibility of gas leakage is from the gas pipeline as the old pipelines often get
corroded and thus may rupture, giving way to the leakage of the gas. If LPG leaks, the chances
of fire hazards are at its peak as LPG is a flammable gas. Physically LPG is an odorless gas, but
Ethane is added as a powerful odorant so that its leakage can be noticed easily .LPG Gas leaks
have been increased from 0.72% of all kitchen accidents to 10.74%of all the kitchen accidents
.The small LPG cylinder of weight 5kg in which the burner is located immediately over the
cylinder without using a rubber tube is seen to be safer than the one which uses a rubber pipe as
this subway has the hazards of getting cracked which in turn can make way to leakage .A
computer program to run online to detect the leakage locations has been originated and it
functions as the automatic supervisor of the pipelines in remote areas .Simple Gas leak Detector
is a simple device which is used to detect the leakage of gas and if the gas leak occurs, an
equivalent message is conveyed by the means of an LCD screen and a buzzer and with the help
of the GSM module it is capable to broadcast messages to the stakeholders about the LPG leak.
This device is at its initial level of development and with modification in future this device will
also trip off the mains supply to ensure better safety and surety. The Gas Leak detector device
can find application not only at residential homes but also it is applicable to hotels, restaurants
and even in industries where LPG gas is used for some or the other purposes.

“Gas leak Detection & monitoring system using Arduino” is a project based on a
wireless communication to enhance man and machine safety in a petrochemical industry. In

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today’s world petrochemical industry although being the largest process control industry it is
also highly prone to major fire and gas disasters. A petrochemical industry has excessively high
amount of crude oil stored within a confined area. Therefore presence of any external source
which can cause heat or fire would lead to a major disaster. Even the gas that are present in
petroleum refineries are hazardous.

The Bhopal gas tragedy, which claimed lives of nearly 3,787 people is one of the major
accidents due to gas leakage. And another instance, the Vishakhapatnam, HPCL refinery tragedy
claimed lives of 30 people. Though a gas and fire detection system was present which is
connected to the sensors using large number of wires that run from the control room to various
plant areas, during the fire the wire itself got damaged, so the information did not reach the
control room.

So in order to avoid any hazard due fire and gas leakage in a petrochemical industry we
have designed an integrated system which will monitor timely gas leakage in any area around the
plant using Arduino which is a wireless communication device. We have also proposed a new
system which monitors human density within the plant area. Therefore Integrated plant safety
monitor system based on arduino can realize workers attendance registration, Real-time precise
positioning, Dynamic gas concentration monitoring, Real-time data transmission & Danger
alarm..

Pipeline systems deteriorate progressively over time. Corrosion accelerates

progressively and long term deterioration increases the probability of failure (fatigue cracking).
Limiting regular inspecting activities to the "scrap" part of the pipelines only, results ultimately
into a pipeline system with questionable integrity. The confidence level in integrity will drop
below acceptance levels. Inspection of presently uninspected sections of the pipeline system
becomes a must. This project provides information on the "Gas leak detection".

Pipelines are proven to be the safest way to transport and distribute Gases and
Liquids. Regular inspection is required to maintain that reputation. The larger part of the
pipelines system is accessible by In-Line Inspection Tools but this access is limited to the section
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in between the launching and receiving traps only. Unfortunately, corrosion does not have this
limitation. The industry looks for means of inspecting these in-accessible pressure holding piping
systems, preferably, without interrupting the operations. It is a fact that sufficiently reliable and
accurate inspection results can only be obtained by direct pipe wall contact/access. If that is not
feasible from the outside, we have to go inside. Since modifying pipeline systems for In-Line
Inspection is mainly not practical,

A gas leak refers to a leak of natural gas or other gaseous product from
a pipeline or other containment into any area where the gas should not be present. Because a
small leak may gradually build up an explosive concentration of gas, leaks are very dangerous.
In addition to causing fire and explosion hazards, leaks can kill vegetation, including large trees,
and may release powerful greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Robotics is one of the fastest
growing engineering fields of today. Robots are designed to remove the human factor from labor
intensive or dangerous work and also to act in inaccessible environment. The use of robots is
more common today than ever before and it is no longer exclusively used by the heavy
production industries. The inspection of pipes may be relevant for improving security and
efficiency in industrial plants. These specific operations as inspection, maintenance, cleaning etc.
are expensive, thus the application of the robots appears to be one of the most attractive
solutions. Pipelines which are tools for transporting oils, gases and other fluids such as
chemicals, have been employed as major utilities in a number of countries for long time.
Recently, many troubles occur in pipelines, and most of them are caused by aging, corrosion,
cracks, and mechanical damages from the third parties. So, continuous activities for inspection,
maintenance and repair are strongly demanded.

1.2 PROBLEM DEFINITION:

Security at home has been a major issue where gas leakage can cause dangerous
consequences which will further lead to dangerous situations. The Gas leak can cause fire
explosion and suffocation. The Water leak can cause the short circuit at our places and
can also cause the flood or water overflow at home. If water comes in contact with a live

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wire then it may lead to the fire. Our system will detect water and gas leakage so we can
save many homes from such situations.

Increase in the complexity of process industry leads to increase in the number of

instruments to detect fire and leak. This increases the number of cables that run from
industrial sensors to the control station which leads to messy wiring. This also increases the
size of the duct. Troubleshooting the reduced insulation or any wire open is difficult
because it is a messy wiring and identifying the individual ca very difficult along the duct.
This also increases the project cost in terms of cable cost.

The fire and gas system is generally required to be independent of the control system. This is
consistent with the fire and gas system normally having a higher integrity requirement than the
control system. Some fire and gas systems have been integrated with emergency shut-down
systems. This remains a contentious point.

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Chapter 2:

EXISTING SYSTEM

2.1 DEFINITION

The existing system only detects the fire and gas leakage in certain important areas only.
In existing system, the fire and gas leaks are measured and the communication is through wires
to the control station. In case of faults like discontinuity in cables, damage to cable due to
environmental conditions may lead to loosing of vital information related to plant safety.

Increase in the complexity of process industry leads to increase in the number of

instruments to detect fire and leak. This increases the number of cables that run from industrial
sensors to the control station which leads to messy wiring. This also increases the size of the
duct. Troubleshooting the reduced insulation or any wire open is difficult because it is a messy
wiring and identifying the individual cable is very difficult along the duct. This also increases the
project cost in terms of cable cost.

2.2 FIELD VISIT

An F&G safety system continuously monitors for abnormal situations such as a fire, or
combustible or toxic gas release within the plant; and provides early warning and mitigation
actions to prevent escalation of the incident and protect the process or environment. By
implementing an integrated fire and gas strategy based on the latest automation technology,
plants can meet their plant safety and critical infrastructure protection requirements while
ensuring operational and business readiness at project start-up. Throughout the process
industries, plant operators are faced with risks. For example, a chemical facility normally has

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potential hazards ranging from raw material and intermediate toxicity and reactivity, to energy
release from chemical reactions, high temperatures, high pressures, etc.

According to international standards, safety implementation is organized under a series of

protection layers, which include, at the base levels, plant design, process control systems, work
procedures, alarm systems and mechanical protection systems. The safety shutdown system is a
prevention safety layer, which takes automatic and independent action to prevent a hazardous
incident from occurring, and to protect personnel and plant equipment against potentially serious
harm. Conversely, the fire and gas system is a mitigation safety layer tasked with taking action to
reduce the consequences of a hazardous event after it has occurred. The F&G system is used for
automating emergency actions with a high-integrity safety and control solution to mitigate
further escalation. It is also important for recovering from abnormal situations quickly to resume
full production.

An industrial safety system is a countermeasure crucial in any hazardous plants such as

oil and gas plants and nuclear plants. They are used to protect human, plant, and environment in
case the process goes beyond the control margins. As the name suggests, these systems are not
intended for controlling the process itself but rather protection. Process control is performed by
means of process control systems (PCS) and is interlocked by the safety systems so that
immediate actions are taken should the process control systems fail.

2.3 ICSS

Process control and safety systems are usually merged under one system, called
Integrated Control and Safety System (ICSS). Industrial safety systems typically use dedicated
systems that are SIL 2 certified at minimum; whereas control systems can start with SIL 1. SIL
applies to both hardware and software requirements such as cards, processors redundancy and
voting functions. Fire and gas detection systems are designed to mitigate unexpected events.
Designers need to know what is available in order to choose the correct systems for their plants.

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The main objectives of the fire and gas system are to protect personnel, environment, and plant
(including equipment and structures). The FGS shall achieve these objectives by:

Detecting at an early stage, the presence of flammable gas,

Detecting at an early stage, the liquid spill (LPG and LNG),

Detecting incipient fire and the presence of fire,

Providing automatic and/or facilities for manual activation of the fire protection system
as required,

Initiating environmental changes to keep liquids below their flash point.

Initiating signals, both audible and visible as required, to warn of the detected hazards,

Initiating automatic shutdown of equipment and ventilation if 2 out of 2 or 2 out of 3

detectors are triggered, and the exhausting system.

2.4 LIMITATIONS OF EXISTING SYSTEM :

The fire and gas system is generally required to be independent of the control system.
This is consistent with the fire and gas system normally having a higher integrity requirement
than the control system. Some fire and gas systems have been integrated with emergency shut-
down systems. This remains a contentious point.

As already mentioned, no single company can supply all the ‘best in show’ products for all
the items described in this paper. There are therefore normally interfaces between different
suppliers. Minimizing interfaces, document sets and inspections can be achieved by procuring all
products from one source at the cost of reducing choice of initiating devices and possibly
increasing the initial purchase cost.

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 4-20mA interfaced devices are common, enabling standard or modified process control
interfaces to be used. Field interfaces for smoke detectors, heat detectors and manual call-points
are generally two wires with modifying components in the control system or marshalling
cabinets to allow a 4-20ma interface to be used. Any failure in the loop causes the system to fail.
Presently, the location of the personals working in the site is uncertain. In case of a dangerous
event, the Control station officers have to personally check the positions of the workers in the
particular sites. This calls for more effort and time.

2.5 FEASIBLE SOLUTION:

To overcome these difficulties we implemented a portable device. This device can be

fixed in their helmet or jacket. To measure various parameters this device consists of sensors.
They are Gas sensor, Temperature sensor, Heart beat sensor, Pressure sensor.

These sensors in the portables device sense various parameters (gas, temperature,
pressure) continuously. And if the value exceeds the reference value, immediately it activates the
relay driver and produces an alarming sound. So it will be useful for the person to know about
hazardous situation.

Heart beat sensor, senses the workers heart beat continuously. If the person loses
his/her consciousness then this information is sensed by the sensor and it will be passed to the
control room.

All the communications are done by wireless zigbee protocols, so that the informations
will be transmitted without any obstructions. The main advantage of zigbee is that it is a
multimode communication, so that the data’s are transmitted node by node.
..

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Chapter 3

LEAKAGE DETECTON

3.1 TYPES:
Gas detectors can be classified according to the operation mechanism (semiconductors, oxidation,
catalytic, photoionization, infrared, etc.). Gas detectors come packaged into two main form factors:
portable devices and fixed gas detectors.
Portable detectors are used to monitor the atmosphere around personnel and are either hand-held
or worn on clothing or on a belt/harness. These gas detectors are usually battery operated. They
transmit warnings via audible and visible signals, such as alarms and flashing lights, when
dangerous levels of gas vapors are detected.
Fixed type gas detectors may be used for detection of one or more gas types. Fixed type detectors
are generally mounted near the process area of a plant or control room, or an area to be protected,
such as a residential bedroom. Generally, industrial sensors are installed on fixed type mild steel
structures and a cable connects the detectors to a SCADA system for continuous monitoring. A
tripping interlock can be activated for an emergency situation.

3.1.1 ELECTROCHEMICAL:
Electrochemical gas detectors work by allowing gases to diffuse through a porous membrane to
an electrode where it is either chemically oxidized or reduced. The amount of current produced is
determined by how much of the gas is oxidized at the electrode indicating the concentration of the
gas. Manufactures can customize electrochemical gas detectors by changing the porous barrier to
allow for the detection of a certain gas concentration range. Also, since the diffusion barrier is a
physical/mechanical barrier, the detector tended to be more stable and reliable over the sensor's
duration and thus required less maintenance than other early detector technologies.
However, the sensors are subject to corrosive elements or chemical contamination and may last
only 1–2 years before a replacement is required. Electrochemical gas detectors are used in a wide
variety of environments such as refineries, gas turbines, chemical plants, underground gas storage
facilities, and more.

3.1.2 CATALYTIC BEAD (PELLISTOR)

Catalytic bead sensors are commonly used to measure combustible gases that present an explosion
hazard when concentrations are between the lower explosion limit (LEL) and upper explosion
limit (UEL). Active and reference beads containing platinum wire coils are situated on opposite
arms of a Wheatstone bridge circuit and electrically heated, up to a few hundred degrees C. The
active bead contains a catalyst that allows combustible compounds to oxidize, thereby heating the
bead even further and changing its electrical resistance. The resulting voltage difference between
the active and passive beads is proportional to the concentration of all combustible gases and

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vapors present. The sampled gas enters the sensor through a sintered metal frit, which provides a
barrier to prevent an explosion when the instrument is carried into an atmosphere containing
combustible gases. Pellistors measure essentially all combustible gases, but they are more sensitive
to smaller molecules that diffuse through the sinter more quickly. The measureable concentration
ranges are typically from a few hundred ppm to a few volume percent. Such sensors are
inexpensive and robust, but require a minimum of a few percent oxygen in the atmosphere to be
tested and they can be poisoned or inhibited by compounds such as silicones, mineral acids,
chlorinated organic compounds, and sulfur compounds.

3.1.3 PHOTOIONIZATION:
Photoionization detectors (PIDs) use a high-photon-energy UV lamp to ionize chemicals in the
sampled gas. If the compound has an ionization energy below that of the lamp photons, an electron
will be ejected, and the resulting current is proportional to the concentration of the compound.
Common lamp photon energies include 10.0 eV, 10.6 eV and 11.7 eV; the standard 10.6 eV lamp
lasts for years, while the 11.7 eV lamp typically last only a few months and is used only when no
other option is available. A broad range of compounds can be detected at levels ranging from a
few ppb to several thousand ppm. Detectable compound classes in order of decreasing sensitivity
include: aromatics and alkyl iodides; olefins, sulfur compounds, amines, ketones, ethers, alkyl
bromides and silicate esters; organic esters, alcohols, aldehydes and alkanes; H2S, NH3, PH3 and
organic acids. There is no response to standard components of air or to mineral acids. Major
advantages of PIDs are their excellent sensitivity and simplicity of use; the main limitation is that
measurements are not compound-specific. Recently PIDs with pre-filter tubes have been
introduced that enhance the specificity for such compounds as benzene or butadiene. Fixed, hand-
held and miniature clothing-clipped PIDs are widely used for industrial hygiene, hazmat, and
environmental monitoring.

3.1.4 INFRARED POINT

Infrared (IR) point sensors use radiation passing through a known volume of gas; energy from the
sensor beam is absorbed at certain wavelengths, depending on the properties of the specific gas.
For example, carbon monoxide absorbs wavelengths of about 4.2-4.5 μm.The energy in this
wavelength is compared to a wavelength outside of the absorption range; the difference in energy
between these two wavelengths is proportional to the concentration of gas present
This type of sensor is advantageous because it does not have to be placed into the gas to detect it
and can be used for remote sensing. Infrared point sensors can be used to detect hydrocarbons and
other infrared active gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide. IR sensors are commonly
found in waste-water treatment facilities, refineries, gas turbines, chemical plants, and other
facilities where flammable gases are present and the possibility of an explosion exists. The remote
sensing capability allows large volumes of space to be monitored.
Engine emissions are another area where IR sensors are being researched. The sensor would detect
high levels of carbon monoxide or other abnormal gases in vehicle exhaust and even be integrated
with vehicle electronic systems to notify drivers.

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3.1.5 INFRARED IMAGING:
Infrared image sensors include active and passive systems. For active sensing, IR imaging sensors
typically scan a laser across the field of view of a scene and look for backscattered light at the
absorption line wavelength of a specific target gas. Passive IR imaging sensors measure spectral
changes at each pixel in an image and look for specific spectral signatures that indicate the
presence of target gases The types of compounds that can be imaged are the same as those that can
be detected with infrared point detectors, but the images may be helpful in identifying the source
of a gas.

3.1.6 SEMICONDUCTOR:
Semiconductor sensors detect gases by a chemical reaction that takes place when the gas comes in direct
contact with the sensor. Tin dioxide is the most common material used in semiconductor sensors, and the
electrical resistance in the sensor is decreased when it comes in contact with the monitored gas. The
resistance of the tin dioxide is typically around 50 kΩ in air but can drop to around 3.5 kΩ in the presence of
1% methane.This change in resistance is used to calculate the gas concentration. Semiconductor sensors are
commonly used to detect hydrogen, oxygen, alcohol vapor, and harmful gases such as carbon monoxide. One
of the most common uses for semiconductor sensors is in carbon monoxide sensors. They are also used
in breathalyzers.Because the sensor must come in contact with the gas to detect it, semiconductor sensors
work over a smaller distance than infrared point or ultrasonic detectors.

3.1.7 ULTRASONIC
Ultrasonic gas leak detectors are not gas detectors per se. They detect the acoustic emission created
when a pressured gas expands in a low pressure area through a small orifice (the leak). They use
acoustic sensors to detect changes in the background noise of its environment. Since most high-
pressure gas leaks generate sound in the ultrasonic range of 25 kHz to 10 MHz, the sensors are
able to easily distinguish these frequencies from background acoustic noise which occurs in the
audible range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz The ultrasonic gas leak detector then produces an alarm when
there is an ultrasonic deviation from the normal condition of background noise. Ultrasonic gas leak
detectors cannot measure gas concentration, but the device is able to determine the leak rate of an
escaping gas because the ultrasonic sound level depends on the gas pressure and size of the leak.
Ultrasonic gas detectors are mainly used for remote sensing in outdoor environments where
weather conditions can easily dissipate escaping gas before allowing it to reach leak detectors that
require contact with the gas to detect it and sound an alarm. These detectors are commonly found
on offshore and onshore oil/gas platforms, gas compressor and metering stations, gas turbine
power plants, and other facilities that house a lot of outdoor pipeline.

3.1.8 HOLOGRAPHIC
Holographic gas sensors use light reflection to detect changes in a polymer film matrix containing
a hologram. Since holograms reflect light at certain wavelengths, a change in their composition
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can generate a colorful reflection indicating the presence of a gas molecule However, holographic
sensors require illumination sources such as white light or lasers, and an observer or CCD detector.

3.2 Hydrocarbons and VOCs:

Detection of hydrocarbons can be based on the mixing properties of gaseous hydrocarbons – or
other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) – and the sensing material incorporated in the sensor.
The selectivity and sensitivity depends on the molecular structure of the VOC and the
concentration; however, it is difficult to design a selective sensor for a single VOC. Many VOC
sensors detect using a fuel-cell method.
VOCs in the environment or certain atmospheres can be detected based on different principles and
interactions between the organic compounds and the sensor components. There are electronic
devices that can detect ppm concentrations despite not being particularly selective. Others can
predict with reasonable accuracy the molecular structure of the volatile organic compounds in the
environment or enclosed atmospheres and could be used as accurate monitors of the chemical
fingerprint and further as health monitoring devices.
Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) techniques are used to collect VOCs at low concentrations
for analysis.
Direct injection mass spectrometry techniques are frequently utilized for the rapid detection and
accurate quantification of VOCs. PTR-MS is among the methods that have been used most
extensively for the on-line analysis of biogenic and antropogenic VOCs. Recent PTR-MS
instruments based on time-of-flight mass spectrometry have been reported to reach detection
limits of 20 pptv after 100 ms and 750 ppqv after 1 min measurement (signal integration) time.
The mass resolution of these devices is between 7000 and 10,500 m/Δm, thus it is possible to
separate most common isobaric VOCs and quantify them independently.

3.3CONSIDERATIONS FOR DETECTION OF HYDROCARBON

GASES/RISK CONTROL

 Methane is lighter than air (possibility of accumulation under roofs)

 Ethane is slightly heavier than air (possibility of pooling at ground levels/pits)
 Propane is heavier than air (possibility of pooling at ground levels/pits)
 Butane is heavier than air (possibility of pooling at ground levels/pits)

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 CHAPTER 4
PROPOSED SYSTEM

We have used a LPG gas sensor module to detect LPG Gas. When LPG gas leakage occurs, it
gives a HIGH pulse on its DO pin and Arduino continuously reads its DO pin. When Arduino
gets a HIGH pulse from LPG Gas module it shows “LPG Gas Leakage Alert” message on 16x2
LCD and activates buzzer which beeps again and again until the gas detector module doesn't
sense the gas in environment. When LPG gas detector module gives LOW pulse to Arduino,
then LCD shows “No LPG Gas Leakage” message.

Components Used

1. Arduino UNO R3
2. LPG Gas sensor Module
3. Buzzer
4. BC 547 Transistor
5. 16x2 LCD
6. 1K resistor
7. Bread board
8. 9 volt battery
9. Connecting wires

LPG Gas Sensor Module

This module contains a MQ3 sensor which actually detects LPG gas, a comparator (LM393)
for comparing MQ3 output voltage with reference voltage. It gives a HIGH output when LPG
gas is sensed. A potentiometer is also used for controlling sensitivity of gas sensing. This
module is very easy to interface with microcontrollers and arduino and easily available in

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market by name “LPG Gas Sensor Module”. We can also build it by using LM358 or LM393
and MQ3

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND DESCRIPTION:

As shown in the schematic diagram above, it contains Arduino board, LPG GAS Sensor
Module, buzzer and 16x2 LCD module. Arduino controls the whole process of this system like
reading LPG Gas sensor module output, sending message to LCD and activating buzzer. We
can set sensitivity of this sensor module by inbuilt potentiometer placed on it.

LPG gas sensor module's DO pin is directly connected to pin 18 (A4) of Arduino and Vcc and
GND are connected to Vcc and GND of arduino. LPG gas sensor module consist a MQ3
sensor which detects LPG gas. This MQ3 sensor has a heater inside which needs some heater
supply to heat up and it may takes up to 15 minute to get ready for detecting LPG gas. And a
comparator circuit is used for converting Analog output of MQ3 in digital. A 16x2 LCD is
connected with arduino in 4-bit mode. Control pin RS, RW and En are directly connected to
arduino pin 2, GND and 3. And data pin D0-D7 are connected to 4, 5, 6, 7 of arduino. A
buzzer is connected with arduino pin number 13 through a NPN BC547 transistor having a 1 k
resistor at its base.

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PROGRAM DESCRIPTION:

In programming we have used digital read function to read output of LPG gas sensor module
and then performed operation according to input.

For testing this project we have used a cigarette lighter which contains LPG gas.
Code:

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
LiquidCrystal lcd(3, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7);
#define lpg_sensor 18
#define buzzer 13
void setup()
{
pinMode(lpg_sensor, INPUT);
pinMode(buzzer, OUTPUT);
lcd.begin(16, 2);
lcd.print("LPG Gas Detector");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("Circuit Digest");
delay(2000);
}
void loop()
{
if(digitalRead(lpg_sensor))
{
digitalWrite(buzzer, HIGH);
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("LPG Gas Leakage");
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print(" Alert ");
delay(400);
digitalWrite(buzzer, LOW);
delay(500);
}

else
{
digitalWrite(buzzer, LOW);
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 lcd.clear();
lcd.print(" No LPG Gas ");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print(" Leakage ");
delay(1000);
}
}

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WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:
The functioning of the circuit when the device is powered ON. First the microcontroller initializes
the LCD display and starts reading the analog voltage from the MQ-6 sensor. The MQ5 sensor gas
module has 4 pins. Two pins are used for interfacing with development board and other two pins
are VCC and ground. Out of two interfacing pins one pin is analog output and other is digital pin.
The analog output pin of the module is used for detecting concentration level of gas leakage and
interfaced with the A0 analog input pin of the Arduino board. The analog voltage from the sensor
is digitized using the in-built ADC channel and stored in a variable as a 10-bit value. The 16X2
LCD display is used to display the value of gas concentration. lt is connected to the Arduino board
by connecting its data pins to pins 4to7 of the Arduino board. The RS and E pins of the LCD are
connected to D2 and D3 pins of the Arduino UNO respectively. The RW pin of the LCD is
connected to the ground. The sensor value is compared with a calibrated threshold and if the sensor
value exceeds that value, the buzzer gets activated. The buzzer is connected to the Dg pin of the
Arduino. A 10k potentiometer is also connected to the LCD pin VD, the battery and the ground.
This is used for the contrast on the LCD display of the written alphabets or digits.

When the leakage of the gas is within a limit or there is no leakage of LPG , the circuit detects and
it displays the ADC value or the numerical value which is less than 100. A message showing
"LO\[/" keeps on displaying on the LCD screen .The buzzer is kept off for the condition.

lf the leakage level is fatal or if the level is at initial stage i.e. there is medium leakage of LPG, the
circuit detects and it displays the ADC value, a numerical value greater than 100 and less than 300
on the display. A message showing "MEDIUM" keeps on displaying on the LCD screen. The
buzzer starts alerting by producing a low frequency sound in this condition.

lf the leakage level is higher i.e. in the danger level, the circuit detects and it displays the ADC
value or the numerical value greater than 300 on the displ?V, ? message showing "HIGH' keeps
on displaying on the LCD screen. The buzzer alerts the surrounding by producing a high frequency
sound which is audible to all. This is how LpG Gas Leakage Detection circuit works and it alerts
when there is high leakage of LPG which is really very dangerous for us.

On the LCD screen at that condition we can also see the humidity and temperature. For displaying
of H (humidity) and T (temperature) on the LCD display we are using a temperature sensor known
as DHT11. The DHT11 humidity and temperature sensor makes it really easy to add humidity and
temperature in our projects. it’s perfect for remote weather stations, home environmental control
systems, and farm or garden monitoring systems. DHT11 Humidity Sensor consists of 4 pins:
VCC, Data Out, Not Connected (NC) and GND. The range of voltage for VCC pin is 3.5V to 5.5V.
A 5V supply would do fine. The data from the Data Out pin is a serial digital data . This sensor is
connected to the 8th pin of the Arduino.

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 CHAPTER 5:

5.1 COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION:

1. Arduino UNO
2. LPG Gas sensor Module
3. Buzzer
4. BC 547 Transistor
5. 16x2 LCD
6. 1K resistor
7. Bread board
8. 9 volt battery
9. Connecting wires
10. Potentiometer

5.1.1 ARDUINO UNO

The Arduino Uno is an open-source microcontroller board based on

the Microchip ATmega328P microcontroller and developed by Arduino.cc. The board is
equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced to
various expansion boards (shields) and other circuits. The board has 14 digital I/O pins (six
capable of PWM output), 6 analog I/O pins, and is programmable with the Arduino
IDE (Integrated Development Environment), via a type B USB cable. It can be powered by the
USB cable or by an external 9-volt battery, though it accepts voltages between 7 and 20 volts. It
is also similar to the Arduino Nano and Leonardo. The hardware reference design is distributed
under a Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and is available on the Arduino
website. Layout and production files for some versions of the hardware are also available.
The word "uno" means "one" in Italian and was chosen to mark the initial release of Arduino
Software. The Uno board is the first in a series of USB-based Arduino boards; it and version 1.0
of the Arduino IDE were the reference versions of Arduino, which have now evolved to newer
releases. The ATmega328 on the board comes preprogrammed with a bootloader that allows
uploading new code to it without the use of an external hardware programmer.

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While the Uno communicates using the original STK500 protocol, it differs from all preceding
boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it uses the
Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as a USB-to-serial converter.

5.1.2 BACKGROUND:

The Arduino project started at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea (IDII) in Ivrea, Italy. At that
time, the students used a BASIC Stamp microcontroller, at a cost that was a considerable
expense for many students. In 2003, Hernando Barragán created the development platform
wiring as a Master's thesis project at IDII, under the supervision of Massimo Banzi and Casey
Reas, who are known for work on the Processing language. The project goal was to create
simple, low-cost tools for creating digital projects by non-engineers. The Wiring platform
consisted of a printed circuit board (PCB) with an ATmega168 microcontroller, an IDE based on
Processing, and library functions to easily program the microcontroller. In 2003, Massimo Banzi,
with David Mellis, another IDII student, and David Cuartielles, added support for the cheaper
ATmega8 microcontroller to Wiring. But instead of continuing the work on Wiring,
they forked the project and renamed it Arduino. Early arduino boards used the FTDI USB-to-
serial driver chip and an ATmega168. The Uno differed from all preceding boards by featuring
the ATmega328P microcontroller and an ATmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2)
programmed as a USB-to-serial converter.

5.1.3 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS:

 Microcontroller: Microchip ATmega328P

 Operating Voltage: 5 Volts
 Input Voltage: 7 to 20 Volts
 Digital I/O Pins: 14 (of which 6 can provide PWM output)
 Analog Input Pins: 6
 DC Current per I/O Pin: 20 mA
 DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA
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 Flash Memory: 32 KB of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader
 SRAM: 2 KB
 EEPROM: 1 KB
 Clock Speed: 16 MHz
 Length: 68.6 mm
 Width: 53.4 mm
 Weight: 25 g

5.1.4 PINS:

5.1.5 GENERAL PIN FUNCTIONS:

 LED: There is a built-in LED driven by digital pin 13. When the pin is high value, the LED
is on, when the pin is low, it is off.
 VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino/Genuino board when it is using an external power
source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source).
You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it
through this pin.
 5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be
supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 20V), the USB connector (5V), or
the VIN pin of the board (7-20V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the
regulator, and can damage the board.
 3V3: A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50
mA.
 GND: Ground pins.
 IOREF: This pin on the Arduino/Genuino board provides the voltage reference with which
the microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the IOREF pin voltage
and select the appropriate power source, or enable voltage translators on the outputs to work
with the 5V or 3.3V.
 Reset: Typically used to add a reset button to shields that block the one on the board.[7]

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5.1.6 SPECIAL PIN FUNCTIONS:
Each of the 14 digital pins and 6 analog pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output, under
software control (using pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions). They operate at
5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive 20 mA as the recommended operating condition and has
an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of 20-50K ohm. A maximum of 40mA must
not be exceeded on any I/O pin to avoid permanent damage to the microcontroller. The Uno has
6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5; each provides 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different
values). By default, they measure from ground to 5 volts, though it is possible to change the
upper end of the range using the AREF pin and the analogReference() function.
In addition, some pins have specialized functions:

 Serial / UART: pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial
data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL
serial chip.
 External interrupts: pins 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a
low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
 PWM (pulse-width modulation): pins 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Can provide 8-bit PWM output
with the analogWrite() function.
 SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface): pins 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), and 13 (SCK). These
pins support SPI communication using the SPI library.
 TWI (two-wire interface) : pin SDA (A4) and pin SCL (A5). Support TWI communication
using the Wire library.
 AREF (analog reference): Reference voltage for the analog inputs.

5.1.7 COMMUNICATION:
The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer, another
Arduino board, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART TTL (5V) serial
communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on the
board channels this serial communication over USB and appears as a virtual com port to
software on the computer. The 16U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no
external driver is needed. However, on Windows, a .information file is required. Arduino
Software (IDE) includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from
the board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the
USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on
pins 0 and 1). A Software Serial library allows serial communication on any of the Uno's digital
pins.

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5.2 LPG GAS SENSOR MODULE:

MQ3 Alcohol Gas Sensor detects the concentrations of alcohol gas in the air and ouputs its
reading as an analog voltage. The sensor can measure concentrations of 0.04mg/L to 4mg/L. The
concentration sensing range is suitable for breathalyzers. The sensor can operate at temperatures
from -10 to 50°C and consumes less than 150 mA at 5 V.
Connecting five volts across the heating (H) pins keeps the sensor hot enough to function
correctly. Connecting five volts at either the A or B pins causes the sensor to emit an analog
voltage on the other pins. A resistive load between the output pins and ground sets the sensitivity
of the detector. The resistive load should be calibrated for your particular application using the
equations in the datasheet, but a good starting value for the resistor is 200 kΩ.

MQ ALCOHOL GAS SENSOR - GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS

 High sensitivity to Alcohol Gas

 Long life and low cost
 Simple drive circuit

MQ3 ALCOHOL GAS SENSOR - TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

 Detection Gas: Alcohol Gas

 Concentration: 0.4mg/L – 4mg/L
 Supply Voltage: <24V
 Heater Voltage: 5.0V ± 0.2V (High), 1.5V ± 0.1V (Low)
 Load Resistance: Adjustable
 Heater Resistance: 31Ω ± 3Ω
 Heater Consumption: <900mW

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5.3 BUZZER:

BUZZER PIN CONFIGURATION:

Pin Number Pin Name Description

1 Positive Identified by (+) symbol or longer terminal lead. Can be powered by 6V

DC

2 Negative Identified by short terminal lead. Typically connected to the ground of the
circuit

BUZZER FEATURES AND SPECIFICATIONS:

 Rated Voltage: 6V DC
 Operating Voltage: 4-8V DC
 Rated current: <30mA
 Sound Type: Continuous Beep
 Resonant Frequency: ~2300 Hz
 Small and neat sealed package
 Breadboard and Perf board friendly

EQUIVALENTS FOR PASSIVE BUZZER

Piezo Electric buzzer, Speaker, Active Passive Buzzer with Module

How to use a Buzzer

A buzzer is a small yet efficient component to add sound features to our project/system. It is
very small and compact 2-pin structure hence can be easily used on breadboard, Perf Board and
even on PCBs which makes this a widely used component in most electronic applications.
There are two types are buzzers that are commonly available. The one shown here is a simple
buzzer which when powered will make a Continuous Beeeeeeppp.... sound, the other type is
called a readymade buzzer which will look bulkier than this and will produce a Beep. Beep.
Beep. Sound due to the internal oscillating circuit present inside it. But, the one shown here is
31 | P a g e
most widely used because it can be customised with help of other circuits to fit easily in our
application.
This buzzer can be used by simply powering it using a DC power supply ranging from 4V to 9V.
A simple 9V battery can also be used, but it is recommended to use a regulated +5V or +6V DC
supply. The buzzer is normally associated with a switching circuit to turn ON or turn OFF the
buzzer at required time and require interval.

APPLICATIONS OF BUZZER

 Alarming Circuits, where the user has to be alarmed about something

 Communication equipments
 Automobile electronics
 Portable equipments, due to its compact size

2D MODEL OF BUZZER

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BC 547 TRANSISTOR:

PIN CONFIGURATION

Pin Pin Name Description

Number

1 Collector Current flows in through collector

2 Base Controls the biasing of transistor

3 Emitter Current Drains out through emitter

BC547 TRANSISTOR FEATURES:

 Bi-Polar NPN Transistor

 DC Current Gain (hFE) is 800 maximum
 Continuous Collector current (IC) is 100mA
 Emitter Base Voltage (VBE) is 6V
 Base Current(IB) is 5mA maximum
 Available in To-92 Package

Note: Complete Technical Details can be found at the datasheet give at the end of this page.

BC547 EQUIVALENT TRANSISTORS:

BC549, BC636, BC639, 2N2222 TO-92, 2N2222 TO-18, 2N2369, 2N3055, 2N3904, 2N3906,
2SC5200

BRIEF DESCRIPTION ON BC547:

BC547 is a NPN transistor hence the collector and emitter will be left open (Reverse biased)
when the base pin is held at ground and will be closed (Forward biased) when a signal is
provided to base pin. BC547 has a gain value of 110 to 800, this value determines the
amplification capacity of the transistor. The maximum amount of current that could flow through

33 | P a g e
the Collector pin is 100mA, hence we cannot connect loads that consume more than 100mA
using this transistor. To bias a transistor we have to supply current to base pin, this current (IB)
should be limited to 5mA.

When this transistor is fully biased then it can allow a maximum of 100mA to flow across the
collector and emitter. This stage is called Saturation Region and the typical voltage allowed
across the Collector-Emitter (VCE) or Base-Emitter (VBE) could be 200 and 900 mV respectively.
When base current is removed the transistor becomes fully off, this stage is called as the Cut-off
Region and the Base Emitter voltage could be around 660 mV.

BC547 AS SWITCH:
When a transistor is used as a switch it is operated in the Saturation and Cut-Off Region as
explained above. As discussed a transistor will act as an Open switch during Forward Bias and as
a Closed switch during Reverse Bias, this biasing can be achieved by supplying the required
amount of current to the base pin. As mentioned the biasing current should maximum of 5mA.
Anything more than 5mA will kill the Transistor; hence a resistor is always added in series with
base pin. The value of this resistor (RB) can be calculated using below formulae.
RB = VBE / IB
Where, the value of VBE should be 5V for BC547 and the Base current (IB depends on the
Collector current (IC). The value of IB should not exceed mA.

BC547 AS AMPLIFIER:
A Transistors acts as an Amplifier when operating in Active Region. It can amplify power,
voltage and current at different configurations.
Some of the configurations used in amplifier circuits are

1. Common emitter amplifier

2. Common collector amplifier
3. Common base amplifier

Of the above types common emitter type is the popular and mostly used configuration. When
uses as an Amplifier the DC current gain of the Transistor can be calculated by using the below
formulae
DC Current Gain = Collector Current (IC) / Base Current (IB)

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APPLICATIONS:

 Driver Modules like Relay Driver, LED driver etc..

 Amplifier modules like Audio amplifiers, signal Amplifier etc..
 Darlington pair

2D MODEL OF THE COMPONENT:

If you are designing a PCD or Perf board with this component then the following picture from
the Datasheet will be useful to know its package type and dimensions.

35 | P a g e
5.4.1 LCD DISPLAY:

A liquid crystal display or LCD draws its definition from its name itself. It is combination of two
states of matter, the solid and the liquid. LCD uses a liquid crystal to produce a visible image.
Liquid crystal displays are super-thin technology display screen that are generally used in laptop
computer screen, TVs, cell phones and portable video games. LCD’s technologies allow displays
to be much thinner when compared to cathode ray tube (CRT) technology.
Liquid crystal display is composed of several layers which include two polarized panel filters
and electrodes. LCD technology is used for displaying the image in notebook or some other
electronic devices like mini computers. Light is projected from a lens on a layer of liquid crystal.
This combination of colored light with the grayscale image of the crystal (formed as electric
current flows through the crystal) forms the colored image. This image is then displayed on the
screen.

An LCD is either made up of an active matrix display grid or a passive display grid. Most of the
Smartphone’s with LCD display technology uses active matrix display, but some of the older
displays still make use of the passive display grid designs. Most of the electronic devices mainly
depend on liquid crystal display technology for their display. The liquid has a unique advantage
of having low power consumption than the LED or cathode ray tube.

Liquid crystal display screen works on the principle of blocking light rather than emitting light.
LCD’s requires backlight as they do not emits light by them. We always use devices which are

36 | P a g e
made up of LCD’s displays which are replacing the use of cathode ray tube. Cathode ray tube
draws more power compared to LCD’s and are also heavier and bigger.

HOW LCDS ARE CONSTRUCTED?

Simple facts that should be considered while making an LCD:

1. The basic structure of LCD should be controlled by changing the applied current.
2. We must use a polarized light.
3. Liquid crystal should able be to control both of the operation to transmit or can also able to
change the polarized light.
As mentioned above that we need to take two polarized glass pieces filter in the making of the
liquid crystal. The glass which does not have a polarized film on the surface of it must be rubbed
with a special polymer which will create microscopic grooves on the surface of the polarized
glass filter. The grooves must be in the same direction of the polarized film. Now we have to add
a coating of pneumatic liquid phase crystal on one of the polarized filter of the polarized glass.
The microscopic channel cause the first layer molecule to align with filter orientation. When the
right angle appears at the first layer piece, we should add a second piece of glass with the
polarized film. The first filter will be naturally polarized as the light strikes it at the starting
stage.

Thus the light travels through each layer and guided on the next with the help of molecule. The
molecule tends to change its plane of vibration of the light in order to match their angle. When
the light reaches to the far end of the liquid crystal substance, it vibrates at the same angle as that

37 | P a g e
of the final layer of the molecule vibrates. The light is allowed to enter into the device only if the
second layer of the polarized glass matches with the final layer of the molecule.

HOW LCDS WORK?

The principle behind the LCD’s is that when an electrical current is applied to the liquid crystal
molecule, the molecule tends to untwist. This causes the angle of light which is passing through
the molecule of the polarized glass and also cause a change in the angle of the top polarizing
filter. As a result a little light is allowed to pass the polarized glass through a particular area of
the LCD. Thus that particular area will become dark compared to other. The LCD works on the
principle of blocking light. While constructing the LCD’s, a reflected mirror is arranged at the
back. An electrode plane is made of indium-tin oxide which is kept on top and a polarized glass
with a polarizing film is also added on the bottom of the device. The complete region of the LCD
has to be enclosed by a common electrode and above it should be the liquid crystal matter.

Next comes to the second piece of glass with an electrode in the form of the rectangle on the
bottom and, on top, another polarizing film. It must be considered that both the pieces are kept at
right angles. When there is no current, the light passes through the front of the LCD it will be
reflected by the mirror and bounced back. As the electrode is connected to a battery the current
from it will cause the liquid crystals between the common-plane electrode and the electrode
shaped like a rectangle to untwist. Thus the light is blocked from passing through. That particular
rectangular area appears blank.

ADVANTAGES OF AN LCD’S:
 LCD’s consumes less amount of power compared to CRT and LED
 LCD’s are consist of some microwatts for display in comparison to some mill watts for
LED’s
 LCDs are of low cost
 Provides excellent contrast
 LCD’s are thinner and lighter when compared to cathode ray tube and LED
DISADVANTAGES OF AN LCD’S:
 Require additional light sources
 Range of temperature is limited for operation
 Low reliability
 Speed is very low
 LCD’s need an AC drive
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APPLICATIONS OF LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY:

Liquid crystal technology has major applications in the field of science and engineering as well
on electronic devices.
 Liquid crystal thermometer
 Optical imaging
 The liquid crystal display technique is also applicable in visualization of the radio frequency
waves in the waveguide
 Used in the medical applications
FEW LCD BASED DISPLAYS:

5.4.2 16x2 LCD DISPLAY

LCD modules are very commonly used in most embedded projects, the reason being its
cheapprice, availability and programmer friendly. Most of us would have come across these
displays in our day to day life, at calculators. The appearance and the pin outs have already been
visualized above now let us get a bit technical. A liquid crystal display or LCD draws its
definition from its name itself. lt is combination of two states of matter, the solid and the liquid.
LCD uses a liquid crystal to produce a visible image. Liquid crystal displays are super-thin
technology display screen that are generally used in laptop computer screen, TVs, cell phones
and portable video games. LCD’s technologies allow displays to be much thinner when
compared to cathode ray tube (CRT) technology'L6x2 LCD consists of 16 Columns and 2 Rows.
There are a lot of combinations available like, $xt,8x2, L1xz,16x1 in market. t6x2 LCD is the
39 | P a g e
most popular among them. It can accumulate maximum (16x2=32J. 32characters in total and
each character will be made of 5x8 Pixel Dots.

Pin Configuration

Pin
Pin Name: Description
No:

1 Vss (Ground) Ground pin connected to system ground

2 Vdd (+5 Volt) Powers the LCD with +5V (4.7V – 5.3V)

Decides the contrast level of display. Grounded to get

3 VE(Contrast V)
maximum contrast.

Connected to Microcontroller to shift between command/data

4 Register Select
register

Used to read or write data. Normally grounded to write data to

5 Read/Write
LCD

Connected to Microcontroller Pin and toggled between 1 and

6 Enable
0 for data acknowledgement

7 Data Pin 0 Data pins 0 to 7 forms a 8-bit data line. They can be
connected to Microcontroller to send 8-bit data.

These LCD’s can also operate on 4-bit mode in such case

Data pin 4,5,6 and 7 will be left free.

8 Data Pin 1

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9 Data Pin 2

10 Data Pin 3

11 Data Pin 4

12 Data Pin 5

13 Data Pin 6

14 Data Pin 7

15 LED Positive Backlight LED pin positive terminal

16 LED Negative Backlight LED pin negative terminal

Features of 16×2 LCD module

 Operating Voltage is 4.7V to 5.3V

 Current consumption is 1mA without backlight

 Alphanumeric LCD display module, meaning can display alphabets and numbers

 Consists of two rows and each row can print 16 characters.

 Each character is build by a 5×8 pixel box

 Can work on both 8-bit and 4-bit mode

 It can also display any custom generated characters

 Available in Green and Blue Backlight

16x2 Display Equivalents

Dot Matrix LED Display, 7-Segment LED Display, OLED Display, TFT LCD Screen Display

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Brief Description on LCD modules

LCD modules are vey commonly used in most embedded projects, the reason being its cheap
price, availability and programmer friendly. Most of us would have come across these displays in
our day to day life, either at PCO’s or calculators. The appearance and the pinouts have already
been visualized above now let us get a bit technical.

16×2 LCD is named so because; it has 16 Columns and 2 Rows. There are a lot of combinations
available like, 8×1, 8×2, 10×2, 16×1, etc. but the most used one is the 16×2 LCD. So, it will
have (16×2=32) 32 characters in total and each character will be made of 5×8 Pixel Dots. A
Single character with all its Pixels is shown in the below picture.

Now, we know that each character has (5×8=40) 40 Pixels and for 32 Characters we will have
(32×40) 1280 Pixels. Further, the LCD should also be instructed about the Position of the Pixels.
Hence it will be a hectic task to handle everything with the help of MCU, hence an Interface IC
like HD44780is used, which is mounted on the backside of the LCD Module itself. The function
of this IC is to get the Commands and Data from the MCU and process them to display
meaningful information onto our LCD Screen. You can learn how to interface an LCD using the
above mentioned links. If you are an advanced programmer and would like to create your own
library for interfacing your Microcontroller with this LCD module then you have to understand
the HD44780 IC is working and commands which can be found its datasheet.

2D model of 16×2 LCD module

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5.5 Resistors
Resistor Basics

Resistors are electronic components which have a specific, never-changing electrical resistance.
The resistor's resistance limits the flow of electrons through a circuit.

They are passive components, meaning they only consume power (and can't generate it).
Resistors are usually added to circuits where they complement active components like op-amps,
microcontrollers, and other integrated circuits. Commonly resistors are used to limit current,
divide voltages, and pull-up I/O lines.

Resistor units

The electrical resistance of a resistor is measured in ohms. The symbol for an ohm is the greek
capital-omega: Ω. The (somewhat roundabout) definition of 1Ω is the resistance between two
points where 1 volt (1V) of applied potential energy will push 1 ampere (1A) of current.

As SI units go, larger or smaller values of ohms can be matched with a prefix like kilo-, mega-,
or giga-, to make large values easier to read. It's very common to see resistors in the kilohm (kΩ)
and megaohm (MΩ) range (much less common to see miliohm (mΩ) resistors). For example, a
4,700Ω resistor is equivalent to a 4.7kΩ resistor, and a 5,600,000Ω resistor can be written as
5,600kΩ or (more commonly as) 5.6MΩ.

Schematic symbol

All resistors have two terminals, one connection on each end of the resistor. When modeled on a
schematic, a resistor will show up as one of these two symbols:

Two common resistor schematic symbols. R1 is an American-style 1kΩ resistor, and R2 is an

international-style 47kΩ resistor.

The terminals of the resistor are each of the lines extending from the squiggle (or rectangle).
Those are what connect to the rest of the circuit.

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The resistor circuit symbols are usually enhanced with both a resistance value and a name. The
value, displayed in ohms, is obviously critical for both evaluating and actually constructing the
circuit. The name of the resistor is usually an R preceding a number. Each resistor in a circuit
should have a unique name/number. For example, here's a few resistors in action on a 555 timer
circuit:

In this circuit, resistors play a key role in setting the frequency of the 555 timer's output. Another
resistor (R3) limits the current through an LED.

Types of Resistors

Resistors come in a variety of shapes and sizes. They might be through-hole or surface-mount.
They might be a standard, static resistor, a pack of resistors, or a special variable resistor.

Termination and Mounting

Resistors will come in one of two termination-types: through-hole or surface-mount. These types
of resistors are usually abbreviated as either PTH (plated through-hole) or SMD/SMT (surface-
mount technology or device).

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Through-hole resistors come with long, pliable leads which can be stuck into a breadboard or
hand-soldered into a prototyping board or printed circuit board (PCB). These resistors are usually
more useful in breadboarding, prototyping, or in any case where you'd rather not solder tiny,
little 0.6mm-long SMD resistors. The long leads usually require trimming, and these resistors are
bound to take up much more space than their surface-mount counterparts.

The most common through-hole resistors come in an axial package. The size of an axial resistor
is relative to its power rating. A common ½W resistor measures about 9.2mm across, while a
smaller ¼W resistor is about 6.3mm long.

A half-watt (½W) resistor (above) sized up to a quarter-watt (¼W).

Surface-mount resistors are usually tiny black rectangles, terminated on either side with even
smaller, shiny, silver, conductive edges. These resistors are intended to sit on top of PCBs, where
they're soldered onto mating landing pads. Because these resistors are so small, they're usually
set into place by a robot, and sent through an oven where solder melts and holds them in place.

A tiny 0603 330Ω resistor hovering over shiny George Washington's nose on top of a [U.S.
quarter](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarter_(United_States_coin).

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SMD resistors come in standardized sizes; usually either 0805 (0.08" long by 0.05" wide), 0603,
or 0402. They're great for mass circuit-board-production, or in designs where space is a precious
commodity. They take a steady, precise hand to manually solder, though!

Resistor Composition

Resistors can be constructed out of a variety of materials. Most common, modern resistors are
made out of either a carbon, metal, or metal-oxide film. In these resistors, a thin film of
conductive (though still resistive) material is wrapped in a helix around and covered by an
insulating material. Most of the standard, no-frills, through-hole resistors will come in a carbon-
film or metal-film composition.

Peek inside the guts of a few carbon-film resistors. Resistance values from top to bottom: 27Ω,
330Ω and a 3.3MΩ. Inside the resistor, a carbon film is wrapped around an insulator. More
wraps means a higher resistance. Pretty neat!

Other through-hole resistors might be wirewound or made of super-thin metallic foil. These
resistors are usually more expensive, higher-end components specifically chosen for their unique
characteristics like a higher power-rating, or maximum temperature range.

Surface-mount resistors are usually either thick or thin-film variety. Thick-film is usually
cheaper but less precise than thin. In both resistor types, a small film of resistive metal alloy is
sandwiched between a ceramic base and glass/epoxy coating, and then connected to the
terminating conductive edges.

Special Resistor Packages

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There are a variety of other, special-purpose resistors out there. Resistors may come in pre-wired
packs of five-or-so resistor arrays. Resistors in these arrays may share a common pin, or be set
up as voltage dividers.

An array of five 330Ω resistors, all tied together at one end.

Variable Resistors (i.e. Potentiometers)

Resistors don't have to be static either. Variable resistors, known as rheostats, are resistors
which can be adjusted between a specific range of values. Similar to the rheostat is the
potentiometer. Pots connect two resistors internally, in series, and adjust a center tap between
them creating an adjustable voltage divider. These variable resistors are often used for inputs,
like volume knobs, which need to be adjustable.

A smattering of potentiometers. From top-left, clockwise: a standard 10k trimpot, 2-axis joystick,
softpot, slide pot, classic right-angle, and a breadboard friendly 10k trimpot.

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Decoding Resistor Markings

Though they may not display their value outright, most resistors are marked to show what their
resistance is. PTH resistors use a color-coding system (which really adds some flair to circuits),
and SMD resistors have their own value-marking system.

Decoding the Color Bands

Through-hole, axial resistors usually use the color-band system to display their value. Most of
these resistors will have four bands of color circling the resistor, though you will also find five
band and six band resistors.

Four Band Resistors

In the standard four band resistors, the first two bands indicate the two most-significant digits of
the resistor's value. The third band is a weight value, which multiplies the two significant digits
by a power of ten.
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The final band indicates the tolerance of the resistor. The tolerance explains how much more or
less the actual resistance of the resistor can be compared to what its nominal value is. No resistor
is made to perfection, and different manufacturing processes will result in better or worse
tolerances. For example, a 1kΩ resistor with 5% tolerance could actually be anywhere between
0.95kΩ and 1.05kΩ.

How do you tell which band is first and last? The last, tolerance band is often clearly separated
from the value bands, and usually it'll either be silver or gold.

Five and Six Band Resistors

Five band resistors have a third significant digit band between the first two bands and the
multiplier band. Five band resistors also have a wider range of tolerances available.

Six band resistors are basically five band resistors with an additional band at the end that
indicates the temperature coefficient. This indicates the expected change in resistor value as the
temperature changes in degrees Celsius. Generally these temperature coefficient values are
extremely small, in the ppm range.

Decoding Resistor Color Bands

When decoding the resistor color bands, consult a resistor color code table like the one below.
For the first two bands, find that color's corresponding digit value. The 4.7kΩ resistor shown
here has color bands of yellow and violet to begin - which have digit values of 4 and 7 (47). The
third band of the 4.7kΩ is red, which indicates that the 47 should be multiplied by 102 (or 100).
47 times 100 is 4,700!

4.7kΩ resistor with four color bands

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If you're trying to commit the color band code to memory, a mnemonic device might help. There
are a handful of (sometimes unsavory) mnemonics out there to help remember the resistor color
code. A good one, which spells out the difference between black and brown is:

"Big brown rabbits often yield great big vocal groans when gingerly snapped."

Or, if you remember "ROY G. BIV", subtract the indigo (poor indigo, no one remembers
indigo), and add black and brown to the front and gray and white to the back of the classic
rainbow color-order.

Resistor Color Code Table

Having trouble seeing? Click the image for a better view!

Resistor Color Code Calculator

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If you'd rather skip the math (we won't judge!), and just use a handy calculator, give one of these
a try!

Four Band Resistors

Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4

Value 1 (MSV) Value 2 Weight Tolerance

Resistance: 1 kΩ ±5%

Five and Six Band Resistors

Note: Calculate your six band resistor here, but be sure to append the temperature coefficient to
the final value of the resistor.

Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4 Band 5

Value 1 (MSV) Value 2 Value 3 Weight Tolerance

Resistance: 1 kΩ ±5%

Decoding Surface-Mount Markings

SMD resistors, like those in 0603 or 0805 packages, have their own way of displaying their
value. There are a few common marking methods you'll see on these resistors. They'll usually
have three to four characters -- numbers or letters -- printed on top of the case.

If the three characters you're seeing are all numbers, you're probably looking at an E24 marked
resistor. These markings actually share some similarity with the color-band system used on the

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PTH resistors. The first two numbers represent the first two most-significant digits of the value,
the last number represents a magnitude.

In the above example picture, resistors are marked 104, 105, 205, 751, and 754. The resistor
marked with 104 should be 100kΩ (10x104), 105 would be 1MΩ (10x105), and 205 is 2MΩ
(20x105). 751 is 750Ω (75x101), and 754 is 750kΩ (75x104).

Another common coding system is E96, and it's the most cryptic of the bunch. E96 resistors will
be marked with three characters -- two numbers at the beginning and a letter at the end. The two
numbers tell you the first three digits of the value, by corresponding to one of the not-so-obvious
values on this lookup table.

Power Rating

The power rating of a resistor is one of the more hidden values. Nevertheless it can be important,
and it's a topic that'll come up when selecting a resistor type.

Power is the rate at which energy is transformed into something else. It's calculated by
multiplying the voltage difference across two points by the current running between them, and is
measured in units of a watt (W). Light bulbs, for example, power electricity into light. But a
resistor can only turn electrical energy running through it into heat. Heat isn't usually a nice
playmate with electronics; too much heat leads to smoke, sparks, and fire!

Every resistor has a specific maximum power rating. In order to keep the resistor from heating
up too much, it's important to make sure the power across a resistor is kept under it's maximum
rating. The power rating of a resistor is measured in watts, and it's usually somewhere between
⅛W (0.125W) and 1W. Resistors with power ratings of more than 1W are usually referred to as
power resistors, and are used specifically for their power dissipating abilities.

Finding a resistor's power rating

A resistor's power rating can usually be deduced by observing its package size. Standard
through-hole resistors usually come with ¼W or ½W ratings. More special purpose, power
resistors might actually list their power rating on the resistor.

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These power resistors can handle a lot more power before they blow. From top-right to bottom-
left there are examples of 25W, 5W and 3W resistors, with values of 2Ω, 3Ω 0.1Ω and 22kΩ.
Smaller power-resistors are often used to sense current.

The power ratings of surface mount resistors can usually be judged by their size as well. Both
0402 and 0603-size resistors are usually rated for 1/16W, and 0805's can take 1/10W.

Measuring power across a resistor

Power is usually calculated by multiplying voltage and current (P = IV). But, by applying Ohm's
law, we can also use the resistance value in calculating power. If we know the current running
through a resistor, we can calculate the power as:

Or, if we know the voltage across a resistor, the power can be calculated as:

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Series and Parallel Resistors

Resistors are paired together all the time in electronics, usually in either a series or parallel
circuit. When resistors are combined in series or parallel, they create a total resistance, which
can be calculated using one of two equations. Knowing how resistor values combine comes in
handy if you need to create a specific resistor value.

Series resistors

When connected in series resistor values simply add up.

N resistors in series. The total resistance is the sum of all series resistors.

So, for example, if you just have to have a 12.33kΩ resistor, seek out some of the more common
resistor values of 12kΩ and 330Ω, and butt them up together in series.

Parallel resistors

Finding the resistance of resistors in parallel isn't quite so easy. The total resistance of N resistors
in parallel is the inverse of the sum of all inverse resistances. This equation might make more
sense than that last sentence:

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N resistors in parallel. To find the total resistance, invert each resistance value, add them up,
and then invert that.

(The inverse of resistance is actually called conductance, so put more succinctly: the
conductance of parallel resistors is the sum of each of their conductances).

As a special case of this equation: if you have just two resistors in parallel, their total resistance
can be calculated with this slightly-less-inverted equation:

As an even more special case of that equation, if you have two parallel resistors of equal value
the total resistance is half of their value. For example, if two 10kΩ resistors are in parallel, their
total resistance is 5kΩ.

A shorthand way of saying two resistors are in parallel is by using the parallel operator: ||. For
example, if R1 is in parallel with R2, the conceptual equation could be written as R1||R2. Much
cleaner, and hides all those nasty fractions!

Resistor networks

As a special introduction to calculating total resistances, electronics teachers just love to subject
their students to finding that of crazy, convoluted resistor networks.

A tame resistor network question might be something like: "what's the resistance from terminals
A to B in this circuit?"

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To solve such a problem, start at the back-end of the circuit and simplify towards the two
terminals. In this case R7, R8 and R9 are all in series and can be added together. Those three
resistors are in parallel with R6, so those four resistors could be turned into one with a resistance
of R6||(R7+R8+R9). Making our circuit:

Now the four right-most resistors can be simplified even further. R4, R5 and our conglomeration
of R6 - R9 are all in series and can be added. Then those series resistors are all in parallel with R3.

And that's just three series resistors between the A and B terminals. Add 'em on up! So the total
resistance of that circuit is: R1+R2+R3||(R4+R5+R6||(R7+R8+R9)).

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5.6 BREADBOARD
What is a breadboard?

A breadboard is a solderless device for temporary prototype with electronics and test circuit
designs. Most electronic components in electronic circuits can be interconnected by inserting
their leads or terminals into the holes and then making connections through wires where
appropriate. The breadboard has strips of metal underneath the board and connect the holes on
the top of the board. The metal strips are laid out as shown below. Note that the top and bottom
rows of holes are connected horizontally and split in the middle while the remaining holes are
connected vertically.

A bread board is a construction base for prototyping of electronics. Originally it was literally a
bread board, a polished piece of wood used for slicing bread. In the 1970s the solder less
Breadboard (plug board, a terminal array board) became available and nowadays the term
,,breadboard,, is commonly used to refer to these. Because the solder less breadboard does not
require soldering, it is reusable. This makes it easy to use for creating temporary prototypes and
experimenting with circuit design. For this reason, solder less breadboards are also popular with
students and in technological education. Other breadboard types did not have this property. A
strip board (Vero board) and similar prototyping printed circuit boards, which are used to build
semi permanent soldered prototypes or one-offs, cannot easily be reused' Breadboards will not be
a good tool when designing circuits with high voltage. Although most PCB applications deal in
low-voltage applications, if we find our self in the area of 50V, pay attention and consider the
fact that the board connections are not suited for this voltage application. Similarly, the boards
will have difficulty in keeping up with high current applications. When heading into 20mA's or
greater, we will likely find our design not performing as well. So, here we are using this bread
board for our temporary testing Purpose.

Note how all holes in the selected row are connected together, so the holes in the selected
column. The set of connected holes can be called a node:

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To interconnect the selected row (node A) and column (node B) a cable going from any hole in
the row to any hole in the column is needed:

Now the selected column (node B) and row (node A) are interconnected:

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5.7 9-VOLT BATTERY

The nine-volt battery, or 9-volt battery, is a common size of battery that was introduced for the
early transistor radios. It has a rectangular prism shape with rounded edges and a polarized snap
connector at the top. This type is commonly used in walkie-talkies, clocks and smoke detectors.

The nine-volt battery format is commonly available in primary carbon-zinc and alkaline
chemistry, in primary lithium iron disulfide, and in rechargeable form in nickel-cadmium, nickel-
metal hydride and lithium-ion. Mercury-oxide batteries of this format, once common, have not
been manufactured in many years due to their mercury content. Designations for this format
include NEDA 1604 and IEC 6F22 (for zinc-carbon) or MN1604 6LR61 (for alkaline). The size,
regardless of chemistry, is commonly designated PP3—a designation originally reserved solely
for carbon-zinc, or in some countries, E or E-block.

Most nine-volt alkaline batteries are constructed of six individual 1.5 V LR61 cells enclosed in a
wrapper. These cells are slightly smaller than LR8D425 AAAA cells and can be used in their
place for some devices, even though they are 3.5 mm shorter. Carbon-zinc types are made with
six flat cells in a stack, enclosed in a moisture-resistant wrapper to prevent drying. Primary
lithium types are made with three cells in series.

9-volt batteries accounted for 4% of alkaline primary battery sales in the United States in 2007,
and 2% of primary battery sales and 2% of secondary battery sales in Switzerland in 2008.

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5.8 CONNECTING WIRES AND JUMPER WIRES
CONNECTING WIRES A wire is a single, usually cylindrical, flexible strand or rod of metal.
wires are used to bear mechanical loads or electricity and telecommunications signals. wire is
commonly formed by drawing the metal through a hole in a die or draw plate. wire gauges come
in various standard sizes, as expressed in terms of a gauge number. The term wire is also used
more loosely to refer to a bundle of such strands, as in "multistrand wire", which is more
correctly termed a wire rope in mechanics, or a cable in electricity. Connecting wires can be
made from aluminum and other materials almost all electrical wires are made of copper.

Jumper wires are extremely handy components to have on hand, especially when prototyping.
But what are they?

Jumper wires are simply wires that have connector pins at each end, allowing them to be used to
connect two points to each other without soldering. Jumper wires are typically used with
breadboards and other prototyping tools in order to make it easy to change a circuit as needed.
Fairly simple. In fact, it doesn’t get much more basic than jumper wires.

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What Do the Colors Mean?

Though jumper wires come in a variety of colors, the colors don’t actually mean anything. This
means that a red jumper wire is technically the same as a black one. But the colors can be used to
your advantage in order to differentiate between types of connections, such as ground or power.

Make Your Own Jumper Wires

While jumper wires are easy and inexpensive to purchase, it can also be a fun task to challenge
students to make their own. Doing so requires insulated wire and wire strippers. However,
beware that it is important not to nick the wire when stripping off the insulation.

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Types of Jumper Wires:

Jumper wires typically come in three versions: male-to-male, male-to-female and female-to-
female. The difference between each is in the end point of the wire. Male ends have a pin
protruding and can plug into things, while female ends do not and are used to plug things into.
Male-to-male jumper wires are the most common and what you likely will use most often. When
connecting two ports on a breadboard, a male-to-male wire is what you’ll need.

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5.9 Potentiometer
The Potentiometer is an electric instrument that used to measure the EMF (electro motive
force) of a given cell, the internal resistance of a cell. And also it is used to compare EMFs of
different cells. It can also use as a variable resistor in most of the applications. These
potentiometers are used in huge quantities in the manufacture of electronics equipment that
provides a way of adjusting electronic circuits so that the correct outputs are obtained. Although
their most obvious use must be for volume controls on radios and other electronic equipment
used for audio.

Potentiometer

Why is Potentiometer chosen over Voltmeter to measure the potential (EMF) of a cell? When we
use Voltmeter, current flows through the circuit and because of the internal resistance of the cell,
always terminal potential will be less than the actual cell potential. In this circuit, when the
potential difference is balanced (using a Galvanometer null detection), no current flows in the
circuit, so the terminal potential will be equal to the actual cell potential. So we can understand
that the Voltmeter measures the terminal potential of a cell, but this measures actual cell
potential. The schematic symbols of this is shown below.

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Schematic Symbols of a Potentiometer

Construction and Working Principle

The potentiometer consists of a long resistive wire L made up of magnum or with constantan and
a battery of known EMF V. This voltage is called as driver cell voltage. Connect the two ends
of the resistive wire L to the battery terminals as shown below; let us assume this is a primary
circuit arrangement. One terminal of another cell (whose EMF E is to be measured) is at one end
of the primary circuit and another end of the cell terminal is connected to any point on the
resistive wire through a galvanometer G. Now let us assume this arrangement is a secondary
circuit. The arrangement of the potentiometer as shown below.

Construction of Potentiometer

The basic working principle of this is based on the fact that the fall of the potential across any
portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of the wire, provided wire has uniform
cross-sectional area and the constant current flowing through it.“When there is no potential
difference between any two nodes there is electric current will flow”.

Now the potentiometer wire is actually a wire with high resistivity (ῥ) with uniform cross-
sectional area A. Thus, throughout the wire, it has uniform resistance. Now this potentiometer
terminal connected to the cell of high EMF V (neglecting its internal resistance) called driver cell
or the voltage source. Let the current through the potentiometer is I and R is the total resistance
of the potentiometer.

Then by Ohms law V=IR

We know that R= ῥL/A

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Thus, V= I ῥL/A

As ῥ and A are always constant and current I is kept constant by a rheostat.

So L ῥ/A=K (constant)

Thus, V= KL. Now suppose a cell E of lower EMF than the driver cell is put in the circuit as
shown above. Say it has EMF E. Now in the potentiometer wire say at length x the potentiometer
has become E.

E= L ῥx/A=Kx

When this cell be put in the circuit as shown above figure with a jokey connected to the
corresponding length (x), there will be no flow of current through the galvanometer because
when the potential difference is equal to zero, no current will flow through it. So the
galvanometer G show null detection. Then the length (x) is called the length of the null point.
Now by knowing the constant K and the length x. We can find the unknown EMF.

E= L ῥx/A=Kx

Secondly, EMF of two cells may also be compared, let the first cell of EMF E1 given a null point
at a length= L1 and the second cell of EMF E2 show a null point at length= L2

Then,

E1/E2= L1/L2

Types of Potentiometers

A potentiometer is also commonly known as pot. These potentiometers have three terminal
connections. One terminal connected to a sliding contact called wiper and the other two
terminals are connected to a fixed resistance track. The wiper can be moved along the resistive
track either by use of a linear sliding control or a rotary “wiper” contact. Both rotary and linear
controls have the same basic operation.

The most common form of the potentiometer is the single turn rotary potentiometer. This type of
potentiometer is often used in audio volume control (logarithmic taper) as well as many other
applications. Different materials are used to construct potentiometers, including carbon
composition, cermet, conductive plastic, and the metal film.

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Potentiometer

Rotary Potentiometers

These are the most common type of potentiometers, where the wiper moves along a circular
path.

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Linear Potentiometers

In these types of Potentiometers the wiper moves along a linear path. Also known as slide pot,
slider, or fader.

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Applications of Potentiometers

Potentiometer as a Voltage Divider

Voltage Divider

The potentiometer can be worked as a voltage divider to obtain a manual adjustable output
voltage at the slider from a fixed input voltage applied across the two ends of the potentiometer.
Now the load voltage across RL can be measured as

VL= R2RL. VS/(R1RL+R2RL+R1R2)

Audio Control

Sliding potentiometers, one of the most common uses for modern low-power potentiometers are
as audio control devices. Both sliding pots (faders) and rotary potentiometers (knobs) are
regularly used to frequency attenuation, adjust loudness and for different characteristics of audio
signals.

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Audio control

Television

Potentiometers were used to control the picture brightness, contrast, and colour response. A
potentiometer was often used to adjust “vertical hold”, which affected the synchronization
between the received picture signal and the receiver’s internal sweep circuit (a multi-vibrator).

Transducers

One of the most common application is measuring of displacement. To measure the displacement
of the body, which is movable, is connected to the sliding element located on the potentiometer.
As the body moves, the position of the slider also changes accordingly so the resistance between
the fixed point and the slider changes. Due to this the voltage across these points also changes.

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Potentiometer as a Transducer

The change in resistance or the voltage is proportional to the change in the displacement of the
body. Thus the voltage change indicates the displacement of the body. This can be used for the
measurement of translational as well as well rotational displacement. Since these potentiometers
work on the principle of resistance, they are also called as the resistive potentiometers. For
example, the shaft rotation might represent an angle, and the voltage division ratio can be made
proportional to the cosine of the angle.

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CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE

CONCLUSION
Gas leakage may leads to severe accidents which results in material losses and human injuries.
Gas leakage occurs mainly due to poor maintenance of equipment’s and inadequate awareness
of the people. Hence LPG leakage detection will be helpful to prevent accidents and to save
human lives. This project presented LPG leakage detection and alert system. This system
displays the severity of the leakage to alert people when LPG leakage is detected. This system is
very modest yet reliable.

This project is very useful to prevent accident due to gas leakage. Each flame and gas detection
application has its own unique safety hazards. If we implement this in broad way, it is very
successful. The main advantage of this simple gas leak detector is its simplicity and its ability to
warn its stakeholders about the leakage of the LPG gas. It is also detect alcohol so it can be
useful for liquor test. The sensor has excellent sensitivity combined with a quick response time.
This sensor is Long-life and stable and simple drive circuit. Due to its fast response time and
high sensitivity, measurements can be taken as soon as possible. The sensor sensitivity can be
adjusted by using the potentiometer. It also protect from any gas leakage in cars. Home
appliances. They are used in gas leakage detecting equipment’s in family, Car and industry, are
suitable for detecting of LPG, iso-butane, propane, LNG, avoid the noise of alcohol and cooking
fumes and cigarette smoke.

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FUTURE WORK
It leaves us with the further scope of improvement. Battery used in this system is of 5V which is
not that much sufferable, in future improvement, we can use a bigger, rechargeable one, which
can sustain the gas detection module for a long period of time, with warning signal whenever
battery runs out' In further modification, in addition to only leakage detection we can find out
the concentration of the gas too. The project has a good viability to be launched in commercial
market, small scale industries having multiple cylinders stored. with further improvement in
design the system can be made more handy and cost effective for the users.

There are many ways in which this gas leak detector can be modified and made more complex
by including more advanced features into it. The gsm module enables us to send the gas leak
message to the relevant stakeholders and hence it increases the efficiency of this system. Usage
of GSM module for this detector prevents the accidents from taking a hazardous turn. The
other modification which can be implemented in this gas leak detector is using a tripper circuit
which will trip off the main supply once the gas leak is detected. During a gas leak it is
dangerous to switch any appliances as it may spark and this tripper circuit helps to reduce the
electrical hazards that can be caused due to a gas leak. Along with the tripping off of the main
supply it is very much necessary to turn off the gas regulator so that no further leakage of the
gas occurs. A robot has been used in replacing human for handling various tasks in a hazardous
and dangerous workplace where human life may at risk. A mobile gas sensing robot can be
constructed to sense the leakage of gas through pipelines as the robot can move on a track
which is situated along the length of pipeline. This technique further increases the overall
efficiency of the system and makes the system a perfect gas leak detector providing overall
safety of the residents.

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