FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Material Science and nanomaterials

Laboratory #1

1. Objectives

 Understand the concepts of stress, deformation, normal stress, tensile load,

compression load, modulus of elasticity, yield stress and maximum stress and
toughness.
 Report the stress vs strain curve and be able to differentiate mechanical behaviors for
different materials.
 Identify the properties obtained from the stress vs strain curve.
 Understand the difference between elastic and plastic behavior of a material by
analyzing the stress vs strain curve.

2. THEORY

The responsibilities of an engineer requires that the components that it creates or

maintains must be trustable and safe, they must not fail under service.

Generally, any component or mechanical element will be subjected to different loads or

forces during its service life. A force can be defined as an interaction with an object that
causes the object to accelerate proportionally to the submitted force. This can be
represented in the following equation.
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Where F is the force, m the mass of the object and a is the acceleration.

Although an understanding of the force is essential to comprehend the failure of an

object, it is not the only factor to take into account. The geometry and properties of the
material are factors that must be considered to avoid failure. The concept of stress and
toughness are necessary to be able to quantify these factors mentioned. The stress is
considered as a measure of the intensity of a force exerted on a given area.

𝐹
𝜎=
𝐴

Where 𝜎 is the stress, F is the force acting on the object and A is the area where the force
is exerted.
Toughness, on the other hand, measures the ability of a component to withstand these
stresses. This definition will be studied later. The units in the international system (SI) for
σ are Pascal (Pa) which are N/ m2.In the English system σ has units of lbf / in2 (PSI).

Engineers use the stress applied to a component as a mean to compare and select a
material for a possible application in order to obtain a satisfactory design. One common
type of stresses is the normal stress.

Stress and deformation

Normal Stresses

Figure 1. Embed cantilever bar. Taken from: [2]

Figure 1 shows a circular bar with a cross section given by the area of a circle and an initial
length L0, given by

When the bar is subjected to a force that is perpendicular to the area, it elongates to a
final length Lf. This type of NORMAL load creates a NORMAL stress on the bar. There are
two types of normal loads: tension and compression. The tension load, as we saw above,
is a force that will try to elongate the material and reduce the cross-sectional area. The
compressive forces are loads that also act perpendicularly, but in the opposite direction,
producing an increase in the cross-sectional area of the rod and a reduction in its initial
length, the two types of forces are shown in Figure 2.
 Figure 2. Loads of tension and compression on a bar of circular section (note the
direction of the applied force). Taken from: [2]
Strain or Deformation

The DEFORMATION ε is associated with the amount of elongation that the component
would show under an applied stress, and is defined as

𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿0
ε=
𝐿0
Where ∆𝐿 = 𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿𝑜 is named as elongation. The deformation ε has no units quantity and
can be reported in percentage or units of (length/length).

Stress and deformation are used instead of elongation and force, because they are
defined independently of the geometry, that is, they are scaled. For example, in order to
determine the ability to withstand forces of a material, a certain number of specimens or
samples must be used to ensure a certain reliability of the safe service limits of the
material. The analysis would be complicated if each of the specimens has different
diameters and lengths. That is why you should look for quantities that do not depend on
geometry.

Stress- strain test (Mechanical response of material)

There is a test that is performed in order to obtain design criteria (properties of materials)
for the selection of materials. Figure 3 shows a stress (σ) vs strain (ε) curve for a structural
steel. Here the specimen was stretched in the normal direction, with a tension force.

When the rod is released from the acting force and it returns to its initial geometry
without suffering any deformation, it is said that the rod had an ELASTIC behavior. On the
other hand, if the rod is subjected to an acting force that after release cannot return to its
initial geometry, it is said that the bar had a PLASTIC behavior.
 Formatted: Font: +Headings (Calibri)

Figure 3. Curve Stress (σ) vs Deformation (ε) for a structural steel. Taken from [2]

Properties of materials

In this experiment, a specimen is subjected to a normal tensile stress and the specimen is
deformed over time until it fails. The result can be evidenced graphically in Figure 3.

The behaviors of the material can be observed by the two shaded regions in the graph:
Elastic Region (from 0 to B) and Plastic Region (from B to E). In the region from 0 to B the
material responds as if it were a spring, ie if a force is applied in the range of 0 to B and
then released, the material returns to its initial form. The slope of this region is known as
the ELASTICITY MODULE (E), which is defined as the strength of a material to be elastically
deformed. The point B is known as the elastic limit and is the point that marks the
transition between the elastic response and the plastic response of the material.

When the point B is exceeded and the point C is reached, the material begins to show
permanent deformation, which is denoted as the Yield zone. The YIELD STRESS (MPa) is a
property that shows how much a material can sustain without plastic deformation. From
this point it is possible to observe in the specimen the necking phenomenon, depending
on the material.
Point D shows the maximum stress that the material can sustain, known as MAXIMUM
STRESS (MPa). If the load continues to be applied on the specimen, it will continue to
deform until it reaches the point of fracture (point E). The last part of Figure 3 (points
between D and E) illustrates this behavior.

3. EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

 5 Test specimens, with Geometry according to ASTM. At least 3 must be metals

such that they present Ductile or brittle behavior. The day of the experiment, you
must know all the parameters needed to make the experiment.

 Universal testing machine INSTRON-EMIC series3300

4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Important! Make sure you wear safety glasses before starting any operation. Your
eyes could be hurt by a broken piece of material. Also wear gloves to protect against
any residue on the machine and samples.

(1) Measure the thickness, width and gage length of metal samples in mm. These
dimensions should be approximately the same for each sample.
(2) Also make note of any sample defects (e.g. impurities, air bubbles, etc.).

2.2 Bluehill Software Setup

1) Turn on the tensile test machine. The switch is located on the right side of the
machine. Also turn on the video extensometer.
(2) Go to the desktop and double-click on the “Bluehill” icon.
(3) On the main page, select Test to start a new sample. Name your test and click Browse
to select the folder you would like to save it in. Click next.
(4) Choose which method you would like to use. Create and save a new method if
needed.
(5) Method set up: Save after any changes are made.
 General: used for display purposes
 Specimen: specifies sample dimensions and parameters. A dogbone
sample is used for tensile testing. Select rectangular, and specify the width,
thickness and gauge length of the sample. The gauge length is the distance
between the clamps before starting the test.
 Control: describes the actual test. Select extension for mode of
displacement, then specify the rate of extension. Most use 5 mm/min or
50 min/mm, depending on if you want a slow or fast test.
 End of Test: identifies the criteria for the end of the test. A large load drop
is experienced when sample failure occurs. For this test, when the sample
load drops by a certain percentage of the peak load, the machine will stop.
 Data: specifies if the data is acquired manually or automatically, while the
strain tab recognizes whether the strain is measured from the video
extensimeter or the extension.
 Results and Graphs: select what data is shown and how it is displayed.

2.3 Instrument Setup

(1) Make sure the proper load cell is installed, either 5kN or 600 kN depending on the load
range and sensitivity of the sample. To switch load cells, make sure the machine is off.
Unscrew the bolts and remove using the handle. Make sure to plug the new load cell
into the port behind the machine.
(2) Calibrate the load cell by clicking on the button in the upper right hand corner. Make
sure all loads are removed from the load cell and click calibrate.
(3) Install the correct type of clamps for the testing. For tensile testing, 5kN or 600kN
samples can be used. Install the clamps using the pins. Also install height brackets if
needed. Zero the load once the clamps are installed.
(4) Press the up and down arrows on the controller until the clamps are just touching.
Press the reset gauge length button at the top of the screen to zero the position of the
clamps.
(5) Use the up and down arrows until the clamps are about 100 mm apart. This is a typical
gauge length for the dog bone samples.
(6) Place the Material sample between the grips of both the tensile test machine. While
holding the sample vertically with one hand, use another hand to turn the handle of
the top grip in the closing direction as tightly as possible.
(The specimen should be gripped such that the two ends of the specimen are covered
by the grip, approximately 3 mm away from its gage-length. It is important that the
specimens are tightly gripped onto the specimen grips to prevent slipping, which will
otherwise result in experimental errors. )
(8) Make sure that the specimen is vertically aligned, if not a torsional force, rather than
axial force, will result.
(9) Turn the bottom handle in the “close” direction as tightly as possible. Visually verify
that the sample is gripped symmetrically at its two ends.
(10)Zero the extension by pushing zero extension button at the top of the screen. Also
zero the load if needed. Wait for a few seconds to let the computer return its value to
zero.

2.4 Tensile Test

(1) Enter geometry of the sample before starting.
(2) Click on the Start button. Both the upper and bottom grips will start moving in
opposite directions according to the specified pulling rate. Observe the experiment at
a safe distance (about 1.5 meters away) at an angle and take note of the failure mode
when the specimen fails.
(NOTE: Be sure to wear safety glasses. Do not come close to equipment when the
tensile test is running).
(3) A plot of tensile stress (MPa) versus tensile strain (mm/mm) will be generated in real-
time during the experiment.

2.6 End of Test

(1) The machine will stop automatically when the sample is broken.
(2) Press the “Return” button on the digital controller. Both the upper and lower grips will
be returned to their original positions automatically.
(3) Turn the two handles in the open directions to remove the sample
(4) Repeat the previous steps for any additional tests.
(5) When finished, save your file and click Finish. This will export your data into a PDF and
individual data files.
(6) Clean up any broken fragments from the specimens.
(7) Turn off the machine and exit the program when finished.

3. ASSIGNMENTS
 Graph the material results (Excel or your preferred software) results using raw data
files.There should be one tests for each material. Construct the true stress-strain
curves for each material
 Calculate Young’s Modulus for each material and testing condition and compare
experimental values with literature values.
 Discuss any differences in mechanical behavior between the materials (use pictures!)
 Analyze the fracture modes of each sample (ductile fracture, brittle fracture, or
intermediate fracture mode).
 Explain any unexpected results.
 5. REPORT

The report must be made following the Laboratory Manual of the course sent the first week
of classes. Be sure to submit the following information:

 Equations used in calculations, based on their experimental data.

 Present the experimental curves of Stress (σ) vs. Deformation (ε) for the
materials worked. Analyze your data.
 Calculate the elasticity modulus (E) for each material, taking into account the
propagation of errors.
 Error analysis and possible sources of error.

REFERENCES

[1] Ross, Sheldon M. Probabilidad y estadística para ingeniería y ciencias 2a. ed. México ;
Santafé de Bogotá : McGraw-Hill, c2002

[2] Wickert Jonathan, Lewis Kemper , An INTRODUCTION to mechanical engineer, cenage

learning third edition, 2013

[3] Askeland Donald R. and Phulé Pradeep PTraducido del inglés de la obra: “The Science
and Engineering of Materials”, 4th. Edition.