Introduction

Scientific instruments vary greatly in size, shape, purpose, complication

and complexity. This includes relatively simple laboratory equipments
like scales, rulers, chronometers, thermometers etc. Other simple tools
developed in late 20th century or early 21st century are Fold scope (an
optical microscope), KAS Periodic Table (SCALE).
However, some scientific instruments can be quite large in size and
significant in complexity, like particle colliders. Conversely micro scale
and nanoscale technologies are advancing to the point where instrument
sizes are shifting towards the tiny, including nanoscale surgical
instruments, biological nanobots and bioelectronics.
Potentiometer is also one of the instruments used in the word of physics.
Potentiometers are three terminal resistors with one contact, known as
the wiper, which slides across the device in order to create a variable
voltage divider. They can also be used with just 2 terminals connected in
which case they behave like a variable resistor or rheostat.
Potentiometers are a common choice for human interface devices since
they can easily be made to resemble a dial or track slider.
The slide-wire potentiometer was invented by Johann Christian
Poggendorff (1796-1877) in 1841. In addition to his work
with electricity, he was the editor of the Annalen de Physik und Chemie
from 1824 to 1876, and his biographical volumes of scientists have
become standards and are still being published.
 Construction

There are 3 pieces to a potentiometer:

 These are the reference terminals of the potentiometer. You
connect Vcc and Gnd to A and B in order to power your voltage
divider.
 This is a resistive material of some kind. It is often graphite though
other common materials include resistance wire, carbon particles
in plastic, and a ceramic/metal mixture called cermets. In a linear
potentiometer, this would be a straight line as opposed to a circular
track.
 The final piece is the wiper. The wiper acts as a third terminal
which moves over the resistive section of the device thereby
changing the resistance on either side of it. In the case of a
rotational potentiometer like the one illustrated above, the wiper is
mounted on a pivot point and it can then be adjusted with a knob or
screwdriver etc... In a slider style potentiometer the wiper would
sit in a track and behave like the sliders on an audio equalizer. As
the wiper nears the Vcc terminal, the voltage on the wiper terminal
increases. It decreases as the wiper nears the Gnd terminal.
Parts of potentiometer
1- The terminals: As already discussed, the potentiometer has three
terminals, two fixed and one variable.
2- The resistive element: This part is the main part of the device and it is
connected to the two fixed terminals. It is one of the decisive
aspects when it comes to the cost of the potentiometer, and also
can govern aspects of the performance of the component including
the power dissipation capability and noise generated. The resistive
element used can be of the following types:

 Carbon Composition: This is made from carbon granules and is

one of the most common types of resistive material used,
because of its low cost. It also has a reasonably low noise and
lesser wear than other materials. However, it is not that
accurate in its operation.
 Wire wound – These are basically Nichrome wires and are
wound over an insulating substrate. They are mostly used in
high power applications and last really long. They are precise
but have limited resolution.
 Conductive plastic: Often used in high end audio applications,
they have very good resolution but are really costly, and can
be used in low power applications only.

 The wiper: This is the one terminal that slides over a resistive
strip to make an electrical contact. It may be a rotary wiper
that is like a half an arc, that covers over ¾ of a circle or a
linear wiper.
 Principle
Principle of working: the voltage drop along the wire is directly
proportional to the length of the wire. The potentiometer works without
drawing any current from the voltage source.

We can also use a potentiometer to measure internal resistance of a cell.

For this the cell (emf E) whose internal resistance (r) is to be determined
is connected across a resistance box through a, Key K2, as shown in the
figure. With key K2 open, balance is obtained at length L1 (AN1). E =
ΦL1.When key K2 is closed, the cell sends a current (I) through the
resistance box (R). If V is the terminal potential difference of the cell
and balance is obtained at length L2 (AN2), then
V = ΦL2
So, we have E/V = L1/L2
But, E= I (r + R) and V = IR. This gives
E/V = (r + R)/R
On comparing the above equations, we get,
(R + r)/R = L1/L2.
 Working
The potentiometers are commonly known in the electric circles, is a
three terminal variable resistor. Out of its three terminals, two of them
are fixed and one is a varying (linear / rotary) terminal. The value of the
resistance can be changed from zero to a defined upper limit, by just
manually sliding the contact over a resistive strip. As the resistance
changes, the current through the circuit changes and hence according to
the ohms law, the voltage across the resistive material also changes.
Since it coverts rotary or linear motion by the operator into a change in
resistance (hence a change in electric parameter), it can be called an
electro-mechanical transducer. They are passive in nature; therefore
dissipate power rather than supplying power to the circuit. A
potentiometer has three terminals. When connected to a circuit, the two
fixed terminals are connected to the ends of the resistive elements while
the third terminal is connected to the wiper.

In the circuit diagram shown, the terminals of the potentiometer are

marked 1, 2 and 3. The voltage supply is connected across terminals 1
and 3, positive lead to terminal one while negative lead to terminal three.
The terminal 2 is connected to the wiper.
 Characteristics
Some of the characteristics of a potentiometer are:
 TAPER: The law of pots or the taper of pots is one such
characteristic of potentiometer in which one needs a prior
knowledge, to pick the right device for the desired application. It is
nothing but a ratio between the wiper position and the resistance.
This ratio when plotted may be linear, logarithmic or
antilogarithmic, as shown in figure.

 MARKING CODES: While selecting a potentiometer, you need to

know the maximum value of resistance it can attain. For this
purpose, the manufactures use marking codes, which indicate the
same. For example, a pot with a resistance of 100K marked on it
means, the maximum limit of the pot is 100kΩ.

 RESOLUTION: As we vary the resistance in the pot, there is a

minimum amount of resistance that can be changed. This is known
as the resolution of the pot.
 Applications
A potentiometer essentially works as a voltage divider; however it is
used in many industries and applications too. Some of the applications
are listed below-:

1. AS CONTROLLER-:
 Potentiometers can be used in user controlled input
applications, where there is a requirement of manual
variation in the input.

 The potentiometer with logarithmic taper, is often used in

audio volume control devices, this is so because our hearing
has a logarithmic response to sound pressure.

2. AS MEASURING DEVICE-:
 Most common application of potentiometer is as voltage
measuring devices. The name itself has that implication. It
was first manufactured for the purpose of measuring and
controlling the voltage.

 Since these devices convert the position of the wiper into an

electrical output, they are used as transducers to measure
distance or angles.

3. AS TUNERS AND CALLIBRATORS-:

 Potentiometer can be used in a circuit, to tune them to get the
desired output. Also during the calibrations of a device, a
preset pot is often mounted on the circuit board. They are
kept fixed for most of the time.
 TYPES OF
POTENTIOMETER
There are two types of potentiometers-
1- Rotary Potentiometer
2- Linear Potentiometer
Both rotary and linear controls have the same basic operation.
ROTARY POTENTIOMETER-:
These are the most common type of potentiometers, where the wiper
moves along a circular path. The most common form of the
potentiometer is the single turn rotary potentiometer. This type of
potentiometer is often used in audio volume control (logarithmic taper)
as well as many other applications. Rotary potentiometer varies their
resistive value as a result of an angular movement. Rotating a knob or
dial attached to the shaft causes the internal wiper to sweep around a
curved resistive element.
LINEAR POTENTIOMETER-:
A linear taper potentiometer (linear describes the electrical characteristic
of the device, not the geometry of the resistive element) has a resistive
element of constant cross-section, resulting in a device where the
resistance between the contact (wiper) and one end terminal
is proportional to the distance between them. In these types of
Potentiometers the wiper moves along a linear path. Also known as slide
pot, slider, or fader. It is used for adjusting the centering of the display
on an analog cathode-ray oscilloscope.
 Sensitivity of
Potentiometer
The sensitivity of potentiometer means the smallest potential
difference that can be measured with the help of it. It can be increased
by decreasing its potential gradient. A potentiometer is said to be more
sensitive, if it measures a small potential difference more accurately.
Sensitivity of potentiometer depends on potential gradient.
Sensitivity of potentiometer can be increased by-:
1. By increasing length of potentiometer wire and by decreasing the
potential gradient.

2. If the potentiometer wire is a fixed length, reducing the current in

the circuit by using a rheostat.

Both the methods help in decreasing the potential gradient, and thereby
increasing the resistivity.
Potential Gradient is the decrease in potential per unit length.
It is calculated as V / L,
Where V is the potential difference between two points and
L is the distance between two points.
The longer the wire the lesser is the potential gradient and the greater the
sensitivity of the potentiometer.
PRINCIPLE
Let us see the principle of potentiometer.

In the figure we can have a cell with emf E and internal resistance r, a
rheostat and the wire. Consider the length of the wire as L and the
resistance of the wire as R. This is the primary circuit of the
potentiometer.
Now consider the point Q along the wire. So the length of the wire from
point P to Q is taken as L (PQ). The principle of potentiometer states
that the potential difference between two points across the potentiometer
is directly proportional to the length of the corresponding points.
Thus the voltage across the point P and Q,
V (PQ) ∝ L (PQ).
To remove the proportionality a constant is called which is the potential
gradient. It is denoted as K. So
V (PQ) = K x L (PQ)
Comparison of emf of
Two cells
The potentiometer works on the principle that when a constant current
flows through a wire of uniform cross sectional area, potential difference
between its two points is directly proportional to the length of the wire
between the two points.
Electromotive force (emf) is a measurement of the energy that causes
current to flow through a circuit. It is the energy provided by a cell or
battery per coulomb of charge passing through it. It can also be defined
as the potential difference across the terminals of a cell, when no current
flows through it. Electromotive force is also known as voltage, and it is
measured in volts. Electromotive force is not truly a force; rather, it is a
measurement of energy per unit charge.

Where E is the energy and Q is the charge.

Using a potentiometer, we can determine the emf of a cell by obtaining
the balancing length l. Here, the fall of potential along the length l of the
potentiometer wire is equal to the emf of the cell, as no current is being
drawn from the cell, then-:

Or

Where k is the potential gradient along the wire.

Thus it is possible to compare the emf of two given cells by measuring
the respective balancing lengths l1 and l2. I.e.

And

Or

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From this, the ratio can be calculated. Since, the measurements
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