What is LINUX?

 Linux is an operating system developed by Linus Torvalds at the University

of Helsinki in 1991.

 The Linux OS works on GUI (Graphical User Interface).

 It is the software on a computer which enables applications and the users to

access the devices on the computer to perform some specific function.

 The Linux OS relays instructions from an application from the computer's

processor and sends the results back to the application via the Linux OS.

 It can be installed on a different type of computers mobile phones, tablets

video game consoles, etc.

 The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free

and open source software collaboration.

What is UNIX?

 The UNIX OS was developed in the late 1960s. AT&T Bell Labs released
an operating system called Unix written in C, which allows quicker
modification, acceptance, and portability.

 It began as a one-man project under the leadership of Ken Thompson of Bell

Labs.

 The Unix OS works on CLI (Command Line Interface), but recently, there
have been developments for GUI on Unix systems.

Why Linux over Windows?

Open Source
 Open source refers to any program whose source code is made available for
use or modification for users or other developers.
  Open source software is usually developed as a public collaboration and
made freely available.

Secure
 Windows OS is defenseless to different types of attacks (or hacks).
However, Linux is not as defenseless as Windows.
 When you have Windows installed, you need to download/purchase
an Antivirus program to keep your computer safe from hackers and
malware. However, Linux does not require the use of such Anti-Virus
programs.
 A couple of software tools still exist to help you keep your system free from
threats

Can revive older computers

 If you purchase a genuine copy of Windows 10, you will have to meet the
minimum hardware requirements to run it successfully, and you cannot run
it on just about any low-end system.
 With Linux, you could even utilize one of your oldest computer systems to
achieve a task.
 However, that does not mean that every Linux distribution would work
with 256 MB of RAM coupled with an outdated processor. However, there
are options which you can install on such low-end systems as well (such as
Puppy Linux).

Perfect For Programmers

 Linux supports almost all of the major programming languages (Python,
C/C++, Java, Perl, Ruby, etc.). Moreover, it offers a vast range of
applications useful for programming purposes.
 The Linux terminal is superior to use over Window’s command line for
developers.

Software Updates
 Microsoft pushes a software update when it receives a set of problems or if
something major needs to be fixed. On the other hand, you would observe a
software update to address a little problem.
 So, with Linux, you will notice more updates to fix the problems you might
be facing. You will not only encounter a larger number of software updates,
but you will also observe much faster software updates.
Variety of Distributions
 There are no flavors of Windows. Yes, you may have different plans &
packages which differ in licensing terms, the period of activation, packaged
features, and price.
 In contrast, you will find tons of Linux distribution catered for a different set
of needs. So, you can choose to install any of the available Linux according
to your requirements.
 For example, there are Linux distributions for hackers, there are Linux
distributions for programmers, there are Linux distributions for extremely
old computers. There is a Linux for everyone.

Free to Use
 Linux is accessible to the public for free! However, that is not the case with
Windows!

Better Community Support

 There are a lot of active Linux users who are always ready to respond to a
relevant thread one might have created. The number of community users
active on such forums is more than the number of active members on any
Windows-focused forum.
 You do not need to hire an expert to solve a problem you are facing on your
Linux system.

Reliability
 You will want to re-install Windows after a while when you encounter
crashes or slow downs on your system.
 If you are using Linux, you will not have to worry about re-installing it just
to experience a faster and a smoother system. Linux helps your system run
smooth for a longer period.
 Also, with Windows, you will have to adapt to a habit where you keep on
rebooting the system for just about everything.
o If you just installed software, reboot!
o If you recently uninstalled software, reboot!
o If you just installed a Windows update, reboot!
o If the system seems to slow down, reboot!
 However, in the case of Linux, you will not have to reboot for the situations
mentioned above.
Differences between Linux and Windows

 Linux is open source operating system whereas Windows OS is commercial.

 Linux has access to source code and alters the code as per user need whereas
Windows does not have access to source code.

 Linux will run faster than windows latest editions.

 Linux distributions don’t collect user data whereas Windows collect all the
user details which lead to privacy concern.

 Linux is more reliable then windows.

 Linux supports a wide variety of free software’s than windows but windows
have a large collection of video game software.

 In Linux software cost is almost free as all programs, utilities, complex

applications such as open office are free but windows also have many free
programs and utilities but most of the programs are commercial.

 Linux is highly secure because it’s easy to identify bugs and fix whereas
Windows has a large user base and becomes a target for developers of
viruses and malware.

 Linux is used by corporate organizations as servers and operating system for

security purpose whereas windows are mostly used by gamers and business
users.

 Linux and windows have same priority over hardware and driver support in
the present situation.

Basic Features of Linux.

Following are some of the important features of Linux Operating System.

 Portable – Portability means software’s can works on different types of
hardware’s in same way. Linux kernel and application programs support
their installation on any kind of hardware platform.
  Open Source – Linux source code is freely available and it is community
based development project. Multiple team’s works in collaboration to
enhance the capability of Linux operating system and it is continuously
evolving.

 Multi-User – Linux is a multiuser system means multiple users can access

system resources like memory/ ram/ application programs at same time.

 Multiprogramming – Linux is a multiprogramming system means multiple

applications can run at same time.

 Hierarchical File System – Linux provides a standard file structure in which

system files/ user files are arranged.

 Shell – Linux provides a special interpreter program which can be used to

execute commands of the operating system. It can be used to do various
types of operations, call application programs etc.

 Security – Linux provides user security using authentication features like

password protection/ controlled access to specific files/ encryption of data.

Advantages Advantage of Linux

Advantages of Linux
1. Open Source:
2. Security:
3. Revive older computer systems:
4. Software Updates:
In Linux you encounter a larger number of software updates. These software
updates are much faster than updates in any other operating system. Updates in
Linux can be done easily without facing any major issue or concern.
5. Customization:
A feature that gives a major advantage over other operating systems is
customization. You can customize any feature, add or delete any feature according
to your need as it is an open source operating system.
6. Various Distributions:
Many distributions of Linux are available. It provides various choices or flavors to
the users. You can select any according to your needs.
7. Free to use (Low Cost):
Linux is freely available on the web to download and use. You do not need to buy
the license for Linux. This proved to be one of the major advantages Linux faces
over Windows and other operating systems.
8. Large Community Support:
Forums by excited users are made on the web to help and solve the problem any
other user is facing.
9. Stability (Reliability):
Linux provides high stability also this is good advantage i.e. it does not need to be
rebooted after a short period of time. Your Linux system rarely slows down or
freezes.
10. Privacy:
Linux ensures the privacy of user’s data as it never collects much data from the
user while using its distributions or software but this is not true for many other
operating systems.
11. Performance:
Linux provides high performance on various networks and workstations. It allows
a large number of users to work simultaneously and handles them efficiently.
12. Network Support:
Linux gives support for network functionality as it was written by programmers
over the internet. Linux helps you to set up client and server systems on your
computer systems easily and in a fast manner.
13. Flexibility:
Linux provides a high range of flexibility as you can install only required
components. There is no need to install a full or complete suite. You can also keep
Linux file under multiple partitions so if one of them corrupts then there is no
major loss. You only need to repair that particular partition, not the complete file
which is not the case with other operating systems.
14. Compatibility:
Linux runs or executes all possible file formats and is compatible with a large
number of file formats.
15. Fast and easy installation:
Linux can be easily installed from the web and does not require any prerequisites
as it can run on any hardware, even on your oldest systems.
16. Proper use of Hard Disk:
Linux performs all the tasks efficiently even after the hard disk is almost full.
17. Multitasking:
Linux is a multitasking operating system as it can perform many tasks
simultaneously without any decrease in its speed.
18. Run multiple desktops:
Linux provides various desktop environments to make it easy to use. While
installing Linux you can choose any desktop environment according to your
wishes.

Disadvantages of Linux
1. There’s no standard edition of Linux. Whereas Microsoft offers several
different editions of each version of Windows, there are countless variations
of Linux. For a new user it can be confusing to work out which is best for
you.
2. Linux is not as easy to use as Windows.
3. Linux is neither as popular as Windows, nor a commercial product.
4. Many of the programs you are used to in Windows will only run in Linux
through a complicated emulator.
5. While Linux can be suitable for an individual user, its small market share
means it’s much harder to introduce in a corporate setting. With most office
workers already familiar with Windows and Microsoft programs, there’ll
likely be a notable time cost in converting staff to using a Linux system.
6. Fans of PC gaming may find Linux offers them a much more limited range.
That’s partially because the latest games are nearly always a commercial
operation and much harder to reproduce in Linux.
7. Because Linux is a free, open source system, there are no legal comebacks if
you find software isn’t up to scratch or if it causes a problem.

Recommended Minimum System Requirements

Ubuntu Desktop Edition
1. 2 GHz dual core processor
2. 2 GB RAM (system memory)
3. 25 GB of hard-drive space (or USB stick, memory card or external drive but
see LiveCD for an alternative approach)
4. VGA capable of 1024x768 screen resolution
5. Either a CD/DVD drive or a USB port for the installer media
Installing the Linux system
1. Download the Linux distribution of your choice.
2. Boot into the Live CD or Live USB: Most computers are set to boot into
the hard drive first, which means you will need to change some settings to
boot from your newly-burned CD or USB. Start by rebooting the computer.
Once the computer reboots, press the key (F12, F2, or Del) used to enter the
boot menu.
3. Try out the Linux distribution before installing. Most Live CDs and
USBs can launch a "live environment", giving you the ability to test it out
before making the switch. You won’t be able to create files, but you can
navigate around the interface and decide if it’s right for you.
4. Start the installation process. : You will be asked to configure some basic
options, such as language, keyboard layout, and timezone.
5. Create a username and password. You will need to create login
information to install Linux. A password will be required to log into your
account and perform administrative tasks.
6. Set up the partition. Linux needs to be installed on a separate partition
from any other operating systems on your computer if you intend dual
booting Linux with another OS. A partition is a portion of the hard drive that
is formatted specifically for that operating system. You can skip this step if
you don't plan on dual booting.
7. Boot into Linux. Once the installation is finished, your computer will
reboot. You will see a new screen when your computer boots up called
“GNU GRUB”. This is a boot loader that handles Linux installations.
8. Check your hardware. Most hardware should work out of the box with
your Linux distro, though you may need to download some additional
drivers to get everything working.
9. Start using Linux. Once your installation is complete and you’ve verified
that your hardware is working, you’re ready to start using Linux.

Architecture of Linux/Unix
 Hardware
Hardware layer of the LINUX operating system consists of peripheral devices such
as RAM, HDD, and CPU.

Kernel
The kernel is the core part of the operating system, which is responsible for all the
major activities (like memory management, task scheduling and file management)
of the LINUX operating system. This operating system consists of different
modules and interacts directly with the underlying hardware.

Shell
The shell is an interface between the user and the kernel. It takes commands from
the user and executes kernel’s functions. The Shell is present in different types of
operating systems, which are classified into two types: command line shells and
graphical shells.
The command line shells provide a command line interface, while the graphical
line shells provide a graphical user interface. The graphical user interface shells
perform slower than the command line interface shells. Types of shells are:

 Korn shell
 Bourne shell
 C shell

System Utility programs

System Utility programs are liable to do individual and specialized-level tasks.

System library
System libraries are special functions that are used to implement the functionality
of the operating system.

Kernel
It is responsible for interfacing all of your applications that are running in “user
mode” down to the physical hardware, and allowing processes, known as servers,
to get information from each other using inter-process communication (IPC).

Different Types of Kernels

 In general, most kernels fall into one of three types: monolithic, microkernel,
and hybrid.
  Linux is a monolithic kernel while Windows use hybrid kernels.

 Microkernel
Microkernel takes the approach of only managing what it has to: CPU,
memory, and IPC.
 Everything else in a computer can be seen as an accessory and can be
handled in user mode.
 Microkernel also has a very small footprint for both memory and install
space.

Pros
 Portability
 Small install footprint
 Small memory footprint
 Security

Cons
 Hardware may react slower because drivers are in user mode
 Processes have to wait in a queue to get information
 Processes can’t get access to other processes without waiting

Monolithic Kernel

Monolithic kernels are the opposite of microkernel because they cover not only the
CPU, memory, and IPC, but they also include things like device drivers, file
system management, and system server calls.

Pros
 Direct access to hardware for programs
 Easier for processes to communicate between each other
 If your device is supported, it should work with no additional installations
 Processes react faster because there isn’t a queue for processor time

Cons
 Large install footprint
 Large memory footprint
 Less secure because everything runs in supervisor mode
Hybrid Kernel

Hybrid kernels have the ability to pick and choose what they want to run in user
mode and what they want to run in supervisor mode.
Things like device drivers and file system I/O are generally run in user mode while
IPC and server calls are run in the supervisor mode.

Pros
 Developer can pick and choose what runs in user mode and what runs in
supervisor mode
 Smaller install footprint than monolithic kernel
 More flexible than other models

Cons
 Device drivers need to be managed by user

Different Shells in Linux

 SHELL is a program which provides the interface between the user and an
operating system. When the user logs in OS starts a shell for user.
 Kernel controls all essential computer operations, and provides the
restriction to hardware access, coordinates all executing utilities, and
manages Resources between processes.
 Using kernel only user can access utilities provided by operating system.

Types of Shell:
 The C Shell –
Denoted as csh
 Bill Joy created it at the University of California at Berkeley.
 It incorporated features such as aliases and command history.
 It includes helpful programming features like built-in arithmetic and C-
like expression syntax.

In C shell:
Command full-path name is /bin/csh,
Non-root user default prompt is %,
Root user default prompt is #.

 The Bourne Shell –

Denoted as sh
  It was written by Steve Bourne at AT&T Bell Labs.
 It is the original UNIX shell. It is faster and more preferred.
 It lacks features for interactive use like the ability to recall previous
commands.
 It also lacks built-in arithmetic and logical expression handling.
 It is default shell for OS.

For the Bourne shell the:

Command full-path name is /bin/sh and /sbin/sh,
Non-root user default prompt is $,
Root user default prompt is #.

 The Korn Shell

It is denoted as ksh
 It Was written by David Korn at AT&T Bell Lab.
 It is a superset of the Bourne shell. So it supports everything in the
Bourne shell.
 It has interactive features.
 It includes features like built-in arithmetic and C-like arrays, functions,
and string-manipulation facilities.
 It is faster than C shell. It is compatible with script written for C shell.

For the Korn shell the:

Command full-path name is /bin/ksh,
Non-root user default prompt is $,
Root user default prompt is #.

 Bourne-Again Shell –
Denoted as bash
 It is compatible to the Bourne shell. It includes features from Korn and
Bourne shell.
 For the Bourne-Again shell the:
Command full-path name is /bin/bash,
Default prompt for a non-root user is $
Root user default prompt is #.
Unix / Linux - File System
 A file system is a logical collection of files on a partition or disk.
 A partition is a container for information and can span an entire hard drive
if desired.
 Your hard drive can have various partitions which usually contain only one
file system, such as one file system housing the /file system or another
containing the /home file system.
 One file system per partition allows for the logical maintenance and
management of differing file systems.
 Everything in Unix is considered to be a file, including physical devices
such as DVD-ROMs, USB devices, and floppy drives.
Directory Structure
Unix uses a hierarchical file system structure, much like an upside-down tree,
with root (/) at the base of the file system and all other directories spreading from
there.
Unix file system is a collection of files and directories that has the following
properties −
 It has a root directory (/) that contains other files and directories.
 It is self-contained. There are no dependencies between one file system and
another.

The directories have specific purposes and generally hold the same types of
information for easily locating files. Following are the directories that exist on the
major versions of Unix −
Sr.No. Directory & Description

1 /
This is the root directory which should contain only the
directories needed at the top level of the file structure

2 /bin
This is where the executable files are located. These files are
available to all users

3 /dev
These are device drivers
4 /etc
Supervisor directory commands, configuration files, disk
configuration files, valid user lists, groups, ethernet, hosts, where
to send critical messages

5 /lib
Contains shared library files and sometimes other kernel-related
files

6 /boot
Contains files for booting the system

7 /home
Contains the home directory for users and other accounts

8 /mnt
Used to mount other temporary file systems, such
as cdrom and floppy for the CD-ROM drive and floppy diskette
drive, respectively

9 /proc
Contains all processes marked as a file by process number or
other information that is dynamic to the system

10 /tmp
Holds temporary files used between system boots

11 /usr
Used for miscellaneous purposes, and can be used by many users.
Includes administrative commands, shared files, library files, and
 others

12 /var
Typically contains variable-length files such as log and print files
and any other type of file that may contain a variable amount of
data

13 /sbin
Contains binary (executable) files, usually for system
administration. For example, fdisk and ifconfig utlities

14 /kernel
Contains kernel files