1100
3, MAY 2007
An Antilock-Braking Algorithm for an
Eddy-Current-Based Brake-By-Wire System
Sohel Anwar and Bing Zheng
Abstract—This paper presents a nonlinear sliding-mode-type
controller for slip regulation in a braking event for an electro-
magnetic brake-by-wire (BBW)-system-equipped automobile. The
electromagnetic BBW system under consideration consists of a
set of eddy current brakes (ECBs) attached to the automobile
wheels. The antilock-braking controller modifies the brake torque
command generated by a supervisory controller which, in turn, is
based on the driver’s command sensed via brake pedal sensors.
The modified brake torque command is then generated by a
closed-loop actuator control algorithm to control the ECB system.
It is shown in this paper that the proposed antilock-braking
control system is stable in the sense of Lyapunov. Experimental
results are presented for a test vehicle equipped with an eddy-
current-based BBW system. Experimental results show that the
proposed antilock brake control algorithm provides very good slip
regulation in a braking event on low friction-coefficient surfaces
(wet jennite) when compared with that of a braking event without
the proposed antilock-braking control. Experimental results also
indicate that the proposed antilock-braking control system pro-
vides a smooth stop for the vehicle.
Index Terms—Antilock braking, brake-by-wire (BBW), eddy
current brake (ECB), sliding mode control.
N OMENCLATURE
Fxsum Sum of road forces in the x-direction at the
tire–ground interfaces.
Ftx Terrain forces at the center of gravity arising out of
road slopes and grades.
Fax Aerodynamic-drag forces on the vehicle.
Fxi Longitudinal friction force at the ith tire contact patch.
Frri Rolling resistance at the ith tire contact patch.
Iwi ith wheel rotational inertia.
M Total vehicle mass.
ms Sprung mass of the vehicle.
q Pitch velocity of the sprung mass.
R Effective wheel rolling radius.
r Vehicle yaw velocity.
Tdi Drive torque at the ith wheel.
Manuscript received December 7, 2005; revised March 11, 2006 and June
21, 2006. This work was supported by the Chassis Advanced Technology
Department of Visteon Corporation. The review of this paper was coordinated
by Dr. M. Shahgir Ahmed.
S. Anwar is with the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue School
of Engineering and Technology, Indiana University–Purdue University at
Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN 46202 USA (e-mail: soanwar@iupui.edu).
B. Zheng was with Visteon Corporation, Van Buren Twp, MI 48111 USA.
He is now with GE Aviation Systems, Cincinnati, OH 45246 USA (e-mail:
bing.zheng@ae.ge.com).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TVT.2007.895604
0018-9545/$25.00 © 2007 IEEE
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 56, NO.
Tbi Brake torque at the ith wheel.
V̇x Vehicle longitudinal acceleration.
Vx Vehicle longitudinal speed in road coordinate system.
Vy Vehicle lateral velocity.
Żs Sprung-mass velocity in the z-direction.
ωi Angular speed of the ith wheel.
ω̇i Angular acceleration of the ith wheel.
I. I NTRODUCTION
A NTILOCK braking systems (ABSs) generally offer supe-
rior vehicle safety by limiting the longitudinal wheel slip
in a braking event with wheel lock-up condition. Drivers have
better directional control of the vehicle equipped with ABS.
Most of the ABS systems in the published literature utilize
the wheel-slip estimate to control the wheel cylinder pressure
through a set of valves and a pump in order to regulate the
wheel braking torque. These control systems are built around
the actuators’ dynamic characteristics. With a new generation of
actuators on the horizon (e.g., electromagnetic, electromechan-
ical, etc.), it may be necessary to design a supervisory brake
control system that would issue a torque command as control
input based on the vehicle dynamics. The subsystem controller
would then close the loop on the actuators based on actuator
dynamics.
Watanabe and Noguchi [13] presented an ABS algorithm
that used a vehicle-deceleration threshold to activate the brake
pressure reduction algorithm, and the duration of the pressure
pulse was determined by the road friction coefficient. Tan
and Chin [12] discussed an antilock-braking algorithm based
on sliding-mode-control theory. Based on a longitudinal one-
wheel vehicle model, sufficient conditions for applying sliding
mode control to vehicle traction were derived via Lyapunov
stability theory. Athan and Papalambros [3] presented a mul-
ticriteria quasi-Monte Carlo method to optimize and compare
the three ABS nonlinear control algorithms. An adaptive fuzzy
logic controller for an ABS was discussed by Kokes and
Singh [9]. Their controller initially employed a priori training
data to control the braking system, but it continued to train
online while continuously updating the confidence parameters
and the placement of fuzzy sets by employing optimization
algorithms. Suh et al. [11] presented a real-time simulator
for an ABS based on the methodology of hardware-in-the-
loop simulation using a personal computer. They also pro-
vided an analysis and validation of the control logic that used
commercial hardware. A genetic algorithm-based fuzzy logic
controller for ABS systems was the subject of a paper written
by Chen and Liao [4]. The controller was based on a nonlinear
ANWAR AND ZHENG: ANTILOCK-BRAKING ALGORITHM FOR AN EDDY-CURRENT-BASED BRAKE-BY-WIRE SYSTEM 1101

feedback-linearization scheme and a fuzzy logic strategy. Given

the desired wheel slip ratio, the feedback-linearizing controller
cancels all nonlinear dynamics and imposes an appropriate
linear behavior on the wheel slip ratio. Huang and Wang [6] dis-
cussed a mixed fuzzy controller to navigate escaping motions
of wheeled vehicles under the assumption of viscous friction.
This paper focused on modeling, analysis, and control issues of
ABSs under the assumption of viscous friction while applying
the mixed fuzzy controller. Lee and Park [10] presented an
ABS algorithm based on sliding mode control in the context
of eddy current brakes (ECBs). However, they considered ABS
functionality only at very high speeds when the eddy-current-
machine torque is high. Another aspect of their paper is that
only a switching function has been used in this paper which
tends to cause chatter in the control command. Due to speed
dependent torque characteristics of the eddy current machines,
the wheels do not fully lockup which has not been addressed by
the authors of this paper either.
In this paper, we present a sliding-mode-type supervisory
ABS control algorithm for an eddy-current-based brake-by-
wire (BBW) system for automotive applications. This is a full
scale braking system for all speed ranges. The actuator control
algorithm [1] maximizes the ECBs’ usage. The sliding-mode-
type control algorithm uses a saturation function instead of a Fig. 1. Four wheel ECBs in the BBW system for a rear-wheel drive vehicle.
sign function (as used in [10]) to minimize chatter in the control
command [5]. The resulting ABS system has been verified on a
test vehicle in a winter test facility with very good results. III. M ODELING OF THE W HEEL -S LIP D YNAMICS
ABSs have been around in the cars and trucks for many years.
The effectiveness of these systems varies widely depending on
II. E LECTROMAGNETIC BBW S YSTEM A RCHITECTURE
the system design, road conditions, and driver’s response. Most
The electromagnetic BBW system under consideration con- of these systems are based on empirical data and are heavily
sists of the following hardware components (Fig. 1): dependent on testing. In this paper, a more systematic approach
1) four ECBs; is taken to develop an ABS system based on a simplified vehicle
2) a generator with rectifier to power the ECBs; model and a sliding-mode-type control algorithm.
3) a BBW pedal assembly; Like most of the ABS control algorithms, the proposed con-
4) power-electronic circuitry for the ECBs and the troller also requires the knowledge of wheel slip. The objective
generator; of the controller is to keep the wheel slip at a value that would
5) a 36-V battery and appropriate alternator for charging; maximize the tire–ground adhesion. The wheel slip ratio is
6) a rapid prototyping microcontroller (dSPACE obtained from the following definition:
microautobox);
7) wheel-speed sensors; Vx − Rωi
κi (t) = . (1)
8) BBW pedal sensors with triple redundancy. Vx
The BBW configuration in Fig. 1 is developed for a rear-wheel
drive vehicle. It shows that two of the four ECBs are mounted It is necessary to obtain the dynamic equations for the vehicle
in the rear-wheel hubs. The other two are mounted on the motion in order to develop the control algorithm. A simplified
sprung mass of the chassis frame and connected to the front vehicle model is obtained for a straight-line braking event. The
wheels via half shafts. The generator is mounted on the pinion vehicle motion in the longitudinal direction on the road plane is
of the rear differential. The BBW pedal assembly replaces the described by the following equation [8]:
regular brake pedal. Four wheel-speed sensors are mounted
on the wheels. The control algorithm is implemented through

Fx = Fxsum + Ftx − Fax = M (V̇x − Vy r) + ms Żs q.
a microprocessor-based rapid-prototype controller (dSPACE).
The controller output signals are sent to a power electronics
module which channels the electrical power from the generator The wheel rotational dynamics is given by the following
or the batteries to the appropriate ECBs. A 36-V battery is (Fig. 2):
used to store the regenerative power in a braking event and to
energize the generator field winding and occasionally the ECBs

depending on system status. Myi = Tbi − Fxi R + Frri R − Tdi = −Iwi ω̇i .
1102 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 56, NO. 3, MAY 2007

Fig. 2. Wheel dynamics in a braking event.

Thus, for a braking event, the following set of equations of

motion is written


(Frri − Fxi ) + Ftx − Fax = M (V̇x − Vy r) + ms Żs q Fig. 3. Friction coefficient versus slip ratio for different surfaces.

Tbi − Fxi R + Frri R − Tdi = − Iwi ω̇i . (2) IV. S LIDING -M ODE -T YPE ABS C ONTROLLER
Based on the above equations, the plant model for designing
The pitch dynamics of the vehicle in the first equation have a controller is written as follows:
negligible effect on the wheel braking forces and, hence, not
considered here. For simplicity, the effect of terrain forces 1

V̇x = − µi (κi )Fzi
arising out of road slopes and grades is neglected. The drive M
torque in a braking situation is generally small, and hence, it is 1
ω̇i = (−Tbi + µi (κi )Fzi R) . (4)
assumed to be insignificant in the second equation. In this in- Iwi
vestigation, only straight-line braking is considered to illustrate
Now
the concept. Therefore, the steering wheel angle assumed to be
zero resulting in zero lateral motion. Vx − Rωi Rωi
κi (t) = =1− .
Now, the following relationships are defined for rolling resis- Vx Vx
tance and braking forces:
Differentiating the above equation yields the following:
Fxi = µi (κ)Fzi Frri = ηFzi  
Rω̇i Rωi V̇x
κ̇i = − +
where µi (κ) = friction coefficient, and η = rolling resistance Vx Vx2
 
coefficient. R R 1
Since a simple model is desired for the proposed controller =− µ(κi )Fzi − Tbi
Vx Iwi Iwi
development, the effect of aerodynamic drag on the above equa-
Rωi 1

tion is neglected (since the aerodynamic drag is small compared − 2 µi (κi )Fzi
to the brake forces for the normal driving speeds). Besides, Vx M
since this controller works in a closed-loop system, these ef- R 1 R2 1
= Tbi − µ(κi )Fzi
fects can be compensated through the feedback information. Iwi Vx Iwi Vx
The rolling-resistance force Frri is insignificant compared to Rωi 1

the braking force Fxi in a braking event and, hence, it is − 2 µi (κi )Fzi . (5)
Vx M
neglected. Thus

Fig. 3 shows the friction-coefficient curves for a number of
Fxsumr = − µi (κi )Fzi . tire–ground interfaces. It is evident that the peak of the friction-
coefficient curve varies significantly depending on the road
The simplified equations of motion are then given by conditions. The slip-ratio value at the peak friction coefficient
also varies between 0.1 and 0.2. It is clear that the friction-


− µi (κi )Fzi = M V̇x coefficient relationship with slip adds nonlinearity to (5). Since
all of the curves in Fig. 3 exhibit approximate linear relationship
Tbi − µi (κi )Fzi R = − Iwi ω̇i . (3) with slip ratio below the peak of the curve, this relationship
between the coefficient of friction and the slip can be approxi-
The above set of equations represents the plant model for a mated with a piecewise linear function. This concept is shown
straight-line braking event. The following section describes the in Fig. 4 [77]. The friction curves are approximated by a straight
controller development process. line with a slope of αsi and a slip threshold of κth . While the
ANWAR AND ZHENG: ANTILOCK-BRAKING ALGORITHM FOR AN EDDY-CURRENT-BASED BRAKE-BY-WIRE SYSTEM 1103

The ABS control law is then given by

Vx Iwi
Tbi = κ̇th + Rαsi κi Fzi
R
Iwi ωi

+ αsi κi Fzi
Vx M
 
Iwi κth − κi
+η Vx ∗ SAT . (12)
R φ

If κth is a constant, then the above control law becomes

Fig. 4. Simplified friction coefficient versus slip ratio. Iwi ωi

Tbi = Rαsi κi Fzi + αsi κi Fzi
peak of these friction curves varies over a slip range, a slip-ratio Vx M
 
threshold and initial slope can be established for suboptimal Iwi κth − κi
+η Vx ∗ SAT . (13)
performance. R φ
An adaptive algorithm can be developed to vary αsi in order
to represent the actual tire–ground interface relationship to Equation (13) is the proposed control law for the antilock brake
provide optimal braking performance. The piecewise linear control system.
friction coefficient–slip ratio relationship can be described as Lyapunov stability analysis of the closed-loop control system
follows: indicates that the system is asymptotically stable. The following
analysis illustrates the stability of the system. Let the Lyapunov
µi (κi ) = αsi κi , if κi ≤ κth function candidate be defined as
= αsi κth , if κi ≥ κth . (6)
V = [(κth (t) − κi (t))]2 . (14)
Substituting the first part of (6) in (5), the following relation-
ship is obtained: The above expression indicates that the vehicle-deceleration
R 1 R 1 2
Rωi 1
slip energy is positive definite. In order for the closed-loop sys-
κ̇i = Tbi − αsi κi Fzi − 2 αsi κi Fzi . tem to be asymptotically stable, it is required that the derivative
Iwi Vx Iwi Vx Vx M
(7) of V should be negative definite

Now, let us define the sliding surface as follows: V̇ = 2(κth − κi ) ∗ (κ̇th − κ̇i ). (15)
S = (κth − κi ). (8)
Assuming that κth is a constant reference value (i.e., κ̇th =
It is assumed here that the desired slip ratio is the same as 0) and substituting (7) in (15), the following expression is
the slip-ratio threshold. With the above definition of the sliding obtained:
surface, the sliding-mode-type control law is given by [55]
  V̇ = −2 ∗ (κth − κi )
S  2 Rωi 1 
Ṡ = −ηSAT (9) ∗ IR 1
wi Vx
Tbi − IRwi V1x αsi κi Fzi − Vx2 M αsi κi Fzi . (16)
φ

where Again substituting (13) in (16), we further obtain

η convergence factor;
φ boundary layer thickness. V̇ = −2 ∗ (κth − κi )
Differentiating (8) and substituting (7), the following equation  
is obtained: R 1 Iwi ωi
∗ ∗ Rαsi κi Fzi +

Iwi Vx Vx M
R 1 R2 1
Iwi Vx Tbi − Iwi Vx αsi κi Fzi

Ṡ = κ̇th − κ̇i = κ̇th − . Iwi
− Rω i 1
Vx2 M αsi κi Fzi × αsi κi Fzi + η Vx
R
(10) κ − κ  
th i
Substituting (10) in (9), the following relationship is ∗ SAT −2
φ
obtained:
R2 1
R 1 R2 1 Rωi 1
∗ κi ∗
Iwi Vx
αsi κi Fzi − 2 ∗ κi
κ̇th − Tbi + αsi κi Fzi + 2 αsi κi Fzi
Iwi Vx Iwi Vx Vx M

 Rωi 1

κth − κi ∗ 2 αsi κi Fzi
= −ηSAT . (11) Vx M
(17)
φ
1104 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 56, NO. 3, MAY 2007

or estimated via static load distribution. The slope of the friction-

V̇ = −2 ∗ (κth − κi )

R2 1 R ωi

∗ αsi κi Fzi + 2 αsi κi Fzi
Iwi Vx Vx M
 
κth − κi R2 1
+ η ∗ SAT − αsi κi Fzi
φ Iwi Vx
proprietary ABS-mode detection algorithm. Once the controller
Rωi 1

− 2 αsi κi Fzi .
Vx M
Further simplifying, we obtain
  
κth − κi
V̇ = − 2 ∗ η ∗ (κth − κi ) ∗ SAT . (18)
φ is commanded full excitation current via 100% pulsewidth-
Now, V̇ in the above expression is always negative-definite
expression since the saturation function reverses sign whenever
(κth − κi ) reverses its sign. Hence, it can be concluded that
the closed-loop system is asymptotically stable within the slip
range for which the controller equation is valid.
V. C ONTROLLER I MPLEMENTATION FOR THE
E LECTROMAGNETIC A CTUATION S YSTEM
The ABS brake torque command in (10) should be applied
to the brake actuators at each wheel via an algorithm that is
described in the previous section. Although the front wheels
have two types of actuators, we used only the ECBs in order to
evaluate the ABS performance for ECBs. The ECB torque can
be estimated using the following equation [22]:
T (t) = f0 (ω) + f1 (ω)i + f2 (ω)i2
where
T retarding torque;
i ECB feedback current
f0 (ω) = a00 + a01 ω + a02 ω 2
f1 (ω) = a10 + a11 ω + a12 ω 2
f2 (ω) = a20 + a21 ω + a22 ω 2
a00 , a01 , . . . , a22 identified ECB parameters;
ω wheel speed.
The proposed ABS algorithm works on the desired brake
torque command computed by the supervisory brake-torque
controller. The supervisory brake-torque controller receives the
driver’s brake request via pedal sensor (displacement) and in-
terprets the request in terms of the desired vehicle deceleration.
The desired vehicle deceleration is then utilized to compute
the desired wheel braking torque based on the dynamic weight
transfer of the vehicle during deceleration.
The ABS controller receives the wheel-speed information
via wheel-speed sensors. The vehicle speed is estimated via
a proprietary estimation algorithm. The wheel slip ratio is
then calculated based on the measured wheel speed and es-
timated vehicle speed. The normal force on each wheel is
coefficient versus slip-ratio curve is either known or estimated.
The experimental data presented in the following section are
based on a known value of the friction coefficient. The vehicle
parameters, such as vehicle mass, wheel inertia, and wheel
rolling radius, are computed based on direct measurements.
With this information, the ABS torque command can now
be computed using (13). The ABS controller also employs a
is in ABS mode, it uses the ABS torque command. Else, it just
passes the commanded torque to the actuator control system.
Once the actuator controller receives the torque command from
the ABS controller, it estimates the maximum available torque
for the ECBs at a given wheel speed. If the ABS torque
command is larger than the ECB available torque, then the ECB
modulation duty cycle to the ECB driver. Otherwise, the ECBs
receive a current command proportional to the brake torque
command. The actuator controller regulates the desired ECB
current in a closed-loop fashion via current feedback.
VI. E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS
The proposed ABS control system was implemented on a
BBW vehicle that is previously developed. The BBW vehicle
has hybrid actuators for the front wheels and only ECBs on
the rear wheels. A Chevrolet Silverado was used as the test
vehicle. The front ECBs are mounted on the sprung mass of
the vehicle and are connected to the wheels via half shafts.
The vehicle was instrumented with a number of instrument
grade sensors. Wheel speeds and torques are measured using
Michigan Scientific sensors. Vehicle longitudinal acceleration
(19) is measured via Texas Instrument capacitive accelerometer.
For the evaluation of the ABS performance of the ECBs, only
these actuators were activated on all four wheels to stop the
vehicle. Since the rear wheels of the test vehicle were lightly
loaded, no significant slip occurred during an ABS maneuver.
Therefore, we present only the results for the front wheels.
The current sensors were made in house with off-the-shelf
components and were integrated into the ECB driver modules.
Test runs were performed for straight-line braking on wet-
(20) jennite road surface (with approximate friction coefficient mea-
sured at 0.5). The tests were run with and without the ABS
controller activated. The horizontal axis for all the plots in
Figs. 5–16 represents time in seconds. Fig. 5 shows the wheel
speeds for the front wheels in a straight-line braking event on
wet jennite without the proposed ABS controller activated. It
shows that the front wheels quickly reach lock-up condition due
to excessive torque applied by the ECBs which is a direct result
of driver’s request. Fig. 6 shows the wheel speeds for the vehicle
in a braking event on wet-jennite surface, with the proposed
ABS algorithm activated. The desired slip ratio for wet-jennite
surface was set at 0.2 where the friction coefficient is at its
maximum. The front wheels did not lockup, instead, they
maintained a slip ratio close to the desired value as observed
from the rate of change in the front wheel speeds.
Fig. 7 shows the slip ratio for the straight-line braking event
on wet jennite without the ABS activated. As the front wheels
ANWAR AND ZHENG: ANTILOCK-BRAKING ALGORITHM FOR AN EDDY-CURRENT-BASED BRAKE-BY-WIRE SYSTEM 1105

Fig. 5. Measured wheel speed for the front wheels in the non-ABS maneuver
on wet-jennite surface.
Fig. 8. Wheel slip ratio for the front wheels in the ABS maneuver on wet-
jennite surface.

Fig. 6. Measured wheel speed for the front wheels in the ABS maneuver on Fig. 9. Measured vehicle speed in the non-ABS maneuver on wet-jennite
wet-jennite surface. surface.

Fig. 7. Wheel slip ratio for the front wheels in the non-ABS maneuver on
wet-jennite surface. Fig. 10. Measured vehicle speed in the ABS maneuver on wet-jennite surface.

reach locked-up condition, the slip ratio for the front wheels activated. As shown, the front-wheel slip ratio is maintained at
reached a value of 0.75, indicating 75% skidding (or near lock- near the desired slip-ratio value of 0.2 over the same period
up condition). Fig. 8 shows the slip ratio for the straight-line when near lockup occurred without the ABS activated. Since
braking on wet jennite but with the proposed ABS algorithm the vehicle tests with and without the ABS activated were
1106
Fig. 11. Wheel brake torque command in the non-ABS maneuver on wet-
jennite surface.
Fig. 12. Wheel brake torque command in the ABS maneuver on wet-jennite
surface.
Fig. 13. Measured ECB current in the non-ABS maneuver on wet-jennite
surface.
performed in two different test runs, the wheel-slip condition
was not identical. As a result, the wheel slippage with the ABS
proposed activated was not always maintained at 0.2 due to
the fact that the road surface had patches with high friction
coefficient (dry jennite) on which the braking torque was not
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 56, NO. 3, MAY 2007
Fig. 14. Measured ECB current in the ABS maneuver on wet-jennite surface.
Fig. 15. Measured wheel torque for the front wheels in the non-ABS maneu-
ver on wet-jennite surface.
Fig. 16. Measured wheel torque for the front wheels in the ABS maneuver on
wet-jennite surface.
enough to cause more slippage. However, for the portion of
road surface with low friction coefficient, the proposed ABS
algorithm tried to maintain the wheel slip near the desired
value. The friction force is near its maximum at this slip ratio.
ANWAR AND ZHENG: ANTILOCK-BRAKING ALGORITHM FOR AN EDDY-CURRENT-BASED BRAKE-BY-WIRE SYSTEM
By limiting the slip value to 0.2, substantial lateral traction is
made available to the wheel contact patch offering the driver
full directional control of the vehicle. Basically, the tire contact
patch dynamics can be explained via Kamm circle [88] which
states that at higher longitudinal slip rates, the lateral coefficient
of friction value decreases drastically diminishing the driver’s
ability to steer.
Figs. 9 and 10 show the measured vehicle speed for the
non-ABS and ABS maneuvers, respectively. It is clear from
these plots that ABS provides a much smoother stopping of
the vehicle than the non-ABS scenario. Figs. 11 and 12 show
the commanded wheel braking torque from the supervisory
BBW controller for non-ABS and ABS activated controls,
respectively. Clearly, the commanded torques reached the max-
imum values quickly after brake is applied in a non-ABS case.
However, for the ABS activated condition, the commanded
torque is modified by the ABS control law and is modulated
to keep the wheel slip ratio near the desired value.
Figs. 13 and 14 show the measured current to the front
wheel ECBs for the non-ABS and ABS activated maneuvers,
respectively. It is clear that during the wheel lock-up event,
the current input to the ECBs modulates based on the torque
command in the ABS activated maneuver. Figs. 15 and 16 show
the measured wheel torque values for the front wheels in non-
ABS and ABS conditions, respectively. In the ABS mode, the
measured torque is reduced to a level to maintain the desired
slip ratio at each of the front wheels.
VII. C ONCLUSION
A nonlinear sliding-mode-type controller is presented for slip
regulation in a braking event for an eddy-current-based BBW
system in this paper. It is also shown that the closed-loop system
is stable in the sense of Lyapunov. Experimental results show
very good slip regulation in a braking event on the low friction-
coefficient surface when compared with the non-ABS braking
condition. The results show that the proposed ABS controller
provided a smooth ABS stop as evident from the vehicle-
speed plots.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the support of the technical
staff of Chassis Advanced Technology Department of Visteon
Corporation during the course of this paper. The authors would
also like to extend their gratitude to the Visteon management
team who encouraged the publication of this paper outside of
the corporation.
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Sohel Anwar received the Ph.D. degree in mechan-
ical engineering from the University of Arizona,
Tucson, in 1995.
He then joined the Caterpillar, Inc., Peoria, IL,
as a Research Engineer, where he was responsi-
ble for developing the advanced control systems
for earthmoving equipments. From 1999 to 2004,
he worked as a Senior R&D Engineer with the
Visteon Corporation, Dearborn, MI, where he led
projects in the area of control-system development
for drive-by-wire systems. Since 2004, he has been
in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue School of Engineer-
ing and Technology, Indiana University–Purdue University at Indianapolis,
Indianapolis, as an Assistant Professor. He is the holder of 12 U.S. patents.
He is a registered Professional Engineer in the state of Michigan.
Dr. Anwar is a member of American Society of Mechanical Engineers and a
Faculty Advisor for Society of Automotive Engineers International.
Bing Zheng received the Ph.D. degree from the
Chinese Academy of Space Technology (CAST),
Beijing, China, in 1987.
He then spent one year at the German Aerospace
Center, Germany, as a Guest Scientist, conducting
research on large flexible space structure control.
He returned to CAST as a System Engineer, where
he worked on the DFH-3 (Chinese) communica-
tion satellite control system for the next five years.
He then joined Yellow Spring Instrument, Yellow
Springs, OH, as a Senior Electrical Engineer, where
he worked for two years. He worked at Liebert Corporation, Columbus, OH, as
a Development Scientist for the next two years. From 1999 to 2006, he served
as a Technical Fellow with the Visteon Corporation, MI, leading the control
and fault-tolerant communication systems development for x-by-wire systems.
Currently, he is at the GE Aviation Systems, Cincinnati, OH.