Climate Full Notes

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Human CLIMATOLOGY AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIT I - SYLLABUS
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT
• Factors that determine climate of a place
• Components of Climate
• Climate classifications for building designers in tropics
• Climate characteristics.
• body heat loss
• Effects of climatic factors on human body heat loss
• Effective temperature
• Human thermal comfort
• Use of C.Mahony’s tables
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT
• Climatology is the study of climate of a place and its elements
• Climate is an integration in time of the physical states of the atmospheric environment,

characteristics of a certain geographical location
• Weather describes the variations which occur in the atmosphere on a daily basis, whereas
climate is an integration in time of the typical weather condition found at a place.
• Tropical climates are those where heat is the dominant problem where for the buildings
serve to keep the occupants cool, rather than warm, where the mean temperature is not
less than 20 degree C.
• The Earth's Climatic Zones

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Factors Determining Climate of a place
A. Solar Radiation- Quality
B. Solar Radiation- Quantity
C. Tilt of the Earth’s axis
D. Radiation at the earth’s surface
E. The earth’s thermal Balance
F. Winds -Thermal Forces
G. Trade winds- the coriolis force
H. Mid-latitude westerlies (wind blowing from west)
I. Polar winds
J. Annual wind shifts
K. Influence of Topography
A.Solar Radiation- Quality
• The earth receives almost all its energy from the sun in the form of radiation
• Sun is the dominating influence on climates
• The spectrum of solar radiation extends from 290 to 2300 nm
• Spectral energy distribution varies with altitude due to the filtering effect of the
atmosphere.
• Solar Position
• The sun’s position on the sky hemisphere can be specified by two angles:
Solar altitude angle
The vertical angle at the point of observation between the horizon plane and the line
connecting the sun with the observer
Solar azimuth angle
The angle at the point of observation measured on a horizontal plane between the
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northerly direction and a point on the horizon circle, where it is intersected by the arc of a
vertical circle, going through the zenith and the sun’s position.
• North - 0 or 360 deg. East - 90 deg. South -180 deg. West -270 deg.
B.Solar Radiation- Quantity
• The radiation reaching the upper surface of the atmosphere is taken as the solar constant-
1395 W/m² ±2% due to variations output of sun itself and ± 3.5 %due to changes n the
earth-sun distance
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C.Tilt of the Earth’s axis
• The earth rotates around its own axis and takes 24 hours/1 day
• The axis is tilted at an angle of 23.5º
• Maximum intensity is received on a plane normal to the direction of radiation
• Due to the tilted position the area receiving the maximum intensity moves north and
south between the tropic of cancer and tropic of capricorn which is the main causes of
seasonal changes.
D.Radiation at the earth’s surface
The earth – sun relationship affects the amount of radiation received at a particular point on
earth’s surface in three ways
• Cosine lawIc=Ibxcos ß(The lower the solar altitude angle the longer the path or radiation
through the atmosphere, thus a smaller part reaches the earth’s surface )
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• Atmosphere depletion(The absorption of radiation by ozone, vapours and dust particles in

the atmosphere )
• Duration of sunshine (The length of the daylight period)
• Cosine law states that the intensity on a tilted surface equals the normal intensity times
the cosine of the angle of incidence.
E.The earth’s thermal Balance
• The total amount of heat absorbed by the earth each year is balanced by a corresponding
heat loss.
The earth’s surfaces releases heat by three processes:
• By long wave radiation to cold outer space-84 % re radiation abosorbed in the

atmosphere, only 16% escapes to space.
• By evaporation- the earth’s surface is cooled as liquid water changes into water vapour
and mixes with air
• By convection- air heated by contact with the warm earth surface becomes lighter and
rises to the upper atmosphere where it dissipates its heat to space.
Winds-Thermal Forces
• Winds are basically convection currents in the atmosphere tending to even out the
differential heating of various zones.
• At the maximum heating zone air is heated by the hot surface, it expands, its pressure is
decreased it becomes lighter, rises vertically and flows off at a high level towards colder
regions.
• Part of this air having cooled down at the high level, descends to the surface in the subtropic
regions from where the cooler heavier air is drawn in towards the equator from both north
and south.
Inter tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) is the area where the air rises, where the northerly
and southerly winds meet and where the tropical front is formed. This area experience completely
calm condition or very light breezes of irregular directions and is known as doldrums.
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Trade winds- the coriolis force
• The atmosphere which is light in weight and behaves as fluid rotates with the earth.
• This has a tendency to lag behind the earth’s rate of rotation where this rotation is the
fastest- at the equator.
• There is a slippage at the boundary layer between the earth and its atmosphere causes by
what is known as coriolis force which is experienced as the wind blowing in a direction
opposite to that of the earth’s rotation.
• The actual wind is the resultant of thermal forces and the coriolis forces -north easterly
winds and south easterly winds also known as north east and south east trade winds.
Mid-latitude westerlies
Around 30º N and S there are two bands of continually high barometric pressure.
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Wind in these zones are typically light and variable
Between 30 and 60ºN and south strong westerly winds prevail blowing in the same direction as
the earths rotation
Polar winds
• Towards the poles from latitudes 60º N and S the air flow patterns come under the
influence of thermal factors.
• Air at the surface moves from the coldest to the slightly warmer regions- away from the
poles.
Annual wind shifts
• During the course of each year the global wind pattern shifts from north to south and back
again remaining symmetrical about the inter tropical convergence zone.
• As a consequence of this annual shift most regions of the earth experience seasonal
changes not only in temperature but also in wind directions and in rainfall.
Influence of Topography
• The force, direction and moisture content of air flows are strongly influenced by topography.
• Air can be diverted or funnelled by mountain ranges.
• The orientation of mountains to the prevailing wind affects precipitation. Windward slopes,
those facing into the wind, experience more precipitation. Leeward sides of mountains are in
the rain shadow and thus receive less precipitation.
• Air temperatures are affected by slope and orientation as slopes facing into the Sun will be
warmer than those facing away.
• Temperature also decreases as one moves toward higher elevations.
• Humidity of air will vary with rate of evaporation of moisture from the surface of earth.
Climatic Elements
• The main climatic elements, that make up the weather and climate of a place,regularly
measured by meteorological stations, and published in summary form are:
 Temperature - dry-bulb temperature, expressed in ºC
 Air movement
• Wind velocity is measured by a anemometer and its direction is measured by a wind vane.
• Wind velocity measured in m/s.
 Humidity
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The amount of moisture present in the air. The humidity of air can be described as
• Absolute humidity (AH)
The amount of moisture actually present in unit mass or unit volume of air in terms of g/kg or g/m³
• Saturation point humidity(SH)
The amount of moisture the air can hold to the maximum.
• Relative humidity (RH)
The ratio of actual amount of moisture to the amount of moisture the air could hold at the given
temperature expressed in %.
 Vapour pressure
Another expression of atmospheric humidity is the vapour pressure – partial pressure of

water vapour in air. The atmospheric P is sum of partial pressure of dry air Pa and the partial vapour
pressure Pv
P= Pa + Pv
 Solar radiation– quantitative recordings measured by a pyranometer,

solarimeter,heliometer on an unobstructed horizontal surface and recorded either as the
continuously varying irradiance (W/m2), or through an electronic integrator as irradiance
over the hour or day.
• Sunshine recorder will register te duration of sunshine exxpressed in no: of hours /day
average for everymonth
 Precipitation – is the collective term used for rain,snow,hail,dew and frost and all other
forms of water deposited from the atmosphere to the earth’s surface. Expressed in mm.
 Driving Rain
• Intense rains are associated with strong winds called driving winds.
• Driving rain index characterizes a given location and expresses the degree of exposure. It is
the product of annual rainfall in (m) and the annual average wind velocity m/s. m²/s
• Upto 3 m²/s it is sheltered, between 3-7 m²/s exposure moderate and over 7 m²/s it is
severe.
 Sky condition
• Are usually described in terms of presence or absence of clouds on average, two

observations are made per day. When the proportion of sky covered by clouds is expressed
as in %. Sky conditions is essential to calculate sky illuminance value if day lighting in building
is to be predicted.
 Special Characteristics
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• Most regions experience conditions which are particularly unique to that place,
unfavourable conditions such as earthquakes, hurricanes, dust storms, thunder storms,
extreme weather conditions etc.
 The frequency and duration of that situation should be noted as it may endanger the safety
of buildings and lives of the inhabitants.
 Vegetation
• Vegetation can inturn influence the local or site climate
• It is an important element in the design of out door spaces, providing sunshading and
protection from glare
Climate classifications for building designers in tropics
Tropical climates are those where heat is the dominant problem where for the buildings
serve to keep the occupants cool, rather than warm, where the mean temperature is not less than
20 degree C.
Climatic Zones
• The interaction of solar radiation with the atmosphere and the gravitational forces, together
with the distribution of land and sea masses, produces an almost infinite variety of climates.
• The climate classification is based on the two atmospheric factors which dominantly
influence human comfort:
Air temperature
Humidity
Climate classifications for building designers in Tropics
• Warm- Humid equatorial climate
subgroup: Warm-humid island or trade-wind climate
• Hot-dry desert, or semi desert climate
subgroup: Hot dry maritime desert climate
• Composite or Monsoon climate-combination of the above two
subgroup: Tropical upland climate

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Body’s Heat Gain
Heat is continuously produced by the body.
Most of the bio chemical processes involved in tissue building, energy conversion and
muscular work are exotherm.
Heat is also produced due to metabolism which is divided into
• – heat reproduction of vegetative, automatic process which are continuous
• Muscular metabolism – heat production of muscles while work.
Mobasal metabolism st of the energy produced by the body only 20% is used the 80% heat
is surplus. which needs to be dissipated to the environment.
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Factors that affect human comfort are
Air temperature
Humidity
Air movement
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Radiation
Effects of climatic factors on human body heat loss
The factors influence in some way the heat exchange process between human body and its
environment.
• Normal skin temperature is between 31-34ºC
• Convective -Increase in air temperature decreases convective cooling
• Radiation - As the surface temperature increases radiation heat loss decreases
• Humidity - Air should be dry to permit a high evaporation rate
• Air movement- movement of air will accelerate evaporation
Calm, Warm air and moderate humidity
• Air temp.=18ºC, air velocity 0.25m/s, humidity is 40-60%
• a person engaged in sedentary work will dissipate surplus heat without difficulty.
Hot air and considerable Radiation
• When both convective and radiant elements in the heat exchange are positive thermal
balance of the human body will be maintained by evaporation if air is dry
Hot air,radiation and appreciable air movement
• When the air is hot and both convective and radiation elements are positive and when air is
humid, movement of air will accelerate evaporation and help in heat loss
Saturated still air , above body temperature
• When there is no air movement and both convective and radiation elements are positive
and relative humidity is 100 % thermal balance equation will be positive
Effects of prolonged exposure
• Prolonged exposure to discomfort conditions can produce adverse effects
• Considerable loss of efficiency in work coupled with physical strain
Subjective variables
• Clothing
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• Acclimatization
• Age and Sex
• Body shape
• Subcutaneous fat
• State of health
• Food and drink
• Skin colour
Thermal Comfort
• Thermal comfort is that condition of mind that which expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment.
• Thermal environment is those characteristics of the environment which affects a person's

heat loss.
• It describes a person’s state of mind in terms of whether they feel too hot or too cold.
• In terms of bodily sensations, thermal comfort is a sensation of hot, warm, slightly warmer,
neutral, slightly cooler, cool and cold.
• Maintaining this standard of thermal comfort for occupants of buildings or other

enclosures is one of the important goals of HVAC ( Heating, Ventilation, and Air
conditioning) design engineers.
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Factors Influencing Thermal Comfort:
• Air Temperature
• Relative Humidity
• Air Velocity
• Radiation
• Metabolic Rate
• Clothing Insulation
Effective temperature
Effective temperature (ET)is defined as a comfort index or scale that takes into account the
temperature of air, its moisture content, and movement.
Developed by Houghton and Yaglou
Effective temperature scale integrates the effects of three variables-
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Air movement
The Corrected Effective Temperature (CET) includes radiation effects also
C Mahoney tables
• The Mahoney tables are a set of reference tables used in architecture, used as a guide to
climate-appropriate design. They are named after architect Carl Mahoney, who worked on
them together with John Martin Evans, and Otto Königsberger
• The tables use readily available climate data and simple calculations to give design
guidelines.
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C Mahoney tables
It contains:
• Air temperature
• Humidity, precipitation & wind
• Comparison of comfort condition for different spaces
• Schematic design recommendations
• Design development recommendations
A rough outline of the table usage is:
• Air Temperatures. The max, min, and mean temperatures for each month
• Humidity, Precipitation, and Wind. The max, min, and mean figures for each month and the
conditions for each month classified into a humidity group.
• Comparison of Comfort Conditions and Climate. The desired max/min temperatures are
entered, and compared to the climatic values
• Indicators (of humid or arid conditions). Rules are provided for combining the stress and
humidity groups to check a box classifying the humidity and aridity for each month. For each
of six possible indicators, the number of months where that indicator was checked are
added up, giving a yearly total.
• Schematic Design Recommendations. The yearly totals in table 4 correspond to rows in this
table, listing schematic design recommendations, e.g. 'buildings oriented on east-west axis
to reduce sun exposure', 'medium sized openings, 20%-40% of wall area'.
• Design Development Recommendations. Again the yearly totals from table 4 are used to
read off recommendations, e.g. 'roofs should be high-mass and well insulated'.
END OF 1 UNIT
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CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

unit – ii
design of solar shading devices
Content :
• Movement of sun
• Locating the position of sun
• Sun path diagram
• Overhead period
• Solar shading
• Shadow angles
• Design of appropriate shading devices
The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is almost perfectly spherical and consists of
hot plasma interwoven with magnetic fields.
Surface temperature: 5,778° K
Rotation speed: 1.997 km/s
Distance to Earth: 149,600,000 km
Mass: 1.989E30 kg
Escape velocity: 617,500 km/s
Absolute magnitude: 4.83
The sun is the brightest star in the Earth’s solar system. Not only does the sun give us light, but is
also a valuable source of heat energy.
The sun can be considered the ‘life giver’ of all living things on Earth, for without the sun, many living
organisms would cease to exist.
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However, the sun does create some problems for us. For example, extreme heat is undesirable as it
may cause a sudden increase in bodily temperature.
Hence, people have always sought ways to harness the sun’s power and yet at the same time
reduce the detrimental effects of it.
Before explaining the part on how architects come up with designs of buildings to control the sun’s
energy, it is important to give a short summary of the relationship between the sun and the earth as
this will affect the architects’ knowledge of the sun’s effect on building design.
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The Earth rotates about on a fixed plane that is tilted 23.5° with respect to its vertical axis around
the sun.
The Earth needs 23hrs 56mins to complete one true rotation, or one sidereal period, around the sun.
A sidereal day (period) is the time taken for a given location on the earth which is pointing to
a certain star to make one full rotation and return back pointing to the same star again.
Since the speed of the Earth’s rotation is constant throughout the year, the Earth’s sidereal day will
always be 23hrs 56mins.
The solar day, on the other hand, is the time needed for a point on earth pointing towards a
particular point on the sun to complete one rotation and return to the same point.
It is defined as the time taken for the sun to move from the zenith on one day to the zenith of the
next day, or from noon today to noon tomorrow.
The length of a solar day varies, and thus on the average is calculated to be 24hrs. In the course of
the year, a solar day may differ to as much as 15mins. There are 3 reasons for this time difference.
Firstly it is because the earth’s motion around the Sun is not perfect circle but is eccentric.
The second reason is due to the fact that the Sun’s apparent motion is not parallel to the
celestial equator.
Lastly, the third reason is because of the precession of the Earth’s axis.
For simplicity, we averaged out that the Earth will complete one rotation every 24hrs (based on a
solar day) and thus moves at a rate of 15° per hour (one full rotation is 360°). Because of this, the
sun appears to move proportionately at a constant speed across the sky. The sun thus produces a
daily solar arc, which is the apparent path of the sun’s motion across the sky.
At different latitudes, the sun will travel across the sky at different angles each day. Greater detail
about this phenomenon will be touch on in the later part of the section.
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The rotation of the earth about its axis also causes the day and night phenomenon. The length of the
day and night depends on the time of the year and the latitude of the location.
For places in the northern hemisphere, the shortest solar day occurs around December 21 (winter
solstice) and the longest solar day occurs around June 21 (summer solstice) (Figure 1.2).
In theory, during the time of
theequinox, the length of the day
should be equal to the length of
the night.
This will be further discussed in
the later part too.

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It is generally accepted that the earth’s complete revolution around the Sun is 365 days.
However, to be exact, the number of days the earth takes to revolve around the sun actually
depends on whether we are referring to a sidereal year or a tropical (solar) year.
A sidereal year is the time taken for the earth to complete exactly one orbit around the Sun.
A sidereal year is then calculated to be 365.2564 solar days.
A tropical year is the time interval between two successive vernal equinoxes, which is
365.2422 solar days.
The difference between the two is that tropical year takes into consideration precession
but the sidereal year does not.
Precession is the event where the earth’s axis shifts clockwise in circular motion which then
changes the direction when the North Pole is pointing.
To explain solstices, equinoxes and season, it will be easier if we use the heliocentric model.
Equinoxes happen when the ecliptic (sun’s apparent motion across the celestial sphere) and celestial
equator intersect. When the sun is moving down from above the celestial equator, crosses it, then
moves below it, that point of intersection between the two planes is when the Autumnal Equinox
occurs.
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This usually happens around the 22nd of September. When the Sun moves up from below the
celestial equator to above it, the point of intersection between the sun and the celestial equator is
when Spring (Vernal) Equinox occurs. It usually happens around the 21st of March.
During the equinoxes, all parts of the Earth experiences 12 hours of day and night and that is how
equinox gets itname as equinox means “equal night”. At winter solstice (Dec), the North Pole is
inclined directly away from the sun. 3 months later, the earth will reach the date point of the March
equinox and that the sun’s declination will be 0°. 3 months later, the earth will reach the date point
of the summer solstice. At this point it will be at declination -23.5°. This cycle will carry on, creating
the seasons that we experience on earth.
The earth is tilted 23.5o, so is the ecliptic, with respect to the celestial
equator, therefore the Sun maximum angular distance from the celestial equator is 23.5°.
At the summer solstice which occurs around 21st of June, the North Pole is pointing towards the sun
at an angle of 23.5o.
Therefore the apparent declination of the sun is positive 23.5o with respect to the celestial equator.
At the Winter solstice which occurs around 21st December, the North Pole is pointing away from the
sun at an angle of 23.5o.
Therefore the apparent declination of the sun is negative 23.5o with respect to the celestial equator.
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Seasons are caused by the Earth axis which is tilted by 23.5o with respect to the ecliptic and due to
the fact that the axis is always pointed to the same direction. When the northern axis is pointing to
the direction of the Sun, it will be winter in the southern hemisphere and summer in the northern
hemisphere.
Northern hemisphere will experience summer because the Sun’s ray reached that part of the surface
directly and more concentrated hence enabling that area to heat up more quickly.
The southern hemisphere will receive the same amount of light ray at a more glancing angle, hence
spreading out the light ray therefore is less concentrated and colder. The converse holds true when
the Earth southern axis is pointing towards the Sun. (Figure 1.5)
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On a globe model, lines of latitude are circles of different sizes. The largest circle is the equator,
whose latitude is zero, while at the poles- at latitudes 90° north and 90° south (or -90°), the circles
shrink to a point as shown below (Figure 2.1a). Whereas for longitude they are lines, or arcs, extend
from pole to pole as shown in the diagram below (Figure 2.1b).
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SUN’S APPARENT MOTION
From the heliocentric point of view, the Earth rotates and revolves around the sun in a counter
clockwise direction. However, when we look at the Sun on earth, it appears to be moving in a
clockwise direction. This phenomenon is known as the apparent motion of the sun.
The position of the sun in the sky hemisphere can be determined by two angles;
Solar Angles.
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a. Solar Altitude Angle ( θ ) is the vertical angle

at the point of observation, between the horizon
plane and the line connecting the sun to the
observer.
b. Solar Azimuth Angle ( α ) is the angle at

the pint of observation measured at the
horizontal plane between the north direction and
the vertical plane containing the sun.
Azimuth angle is measured clockwise from North towards East. Thus;
North Direction : (α ) = 0˚ or 360˚

East Direction : (α ) = 90˚
South Direction : (α ) = 180˚
West Direction : (α ) = 270˚
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Sun Path Diagrams :
Sun path diagrams are a convenient way of representing the annual changes in the path of the
Sun through the sky on a single 2D diagram. Their most immediate use is that the solar azimuth and
altitude can be read off directly for any time of the day and month of the year. They also provide a
unique summary of solar position that the architect can refer to when considering shading
requirements and design options.
There are several methods of projections to present the apparent movement of the sun on the sky
hemisphere. By using any of these projection methods, the apparent three-dimensional movement
of the sun can be represented on a two dimensional chart which is called SOLAR CHARTS or SUN
PATH DIAGRAM.
The most commonly used projections are EQUIDISTANT and STEREOGRAPHIC Projection Methods.
Sun Path Diagram
Sun path diagram prepared by the aid of the equidistant projection gives easy and direct reading
to the users. On this diagram;
a) The circle with 90 mm radius represents the sky hemisphere on the horizontal plane.
b) The center of the circle represents observation point.

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c) The perimeter scale gives the azimuth angles (α).
Equidistant
d) Concentric circles give the altitude angles (θ).
e) Group of curves extending from East to West show the sun path at various dates. The two
extreme curves show sun path in two solstices., June 21 and December 21. Sun paths for other days
lie between these extremes.
f) Vertical radius represent solar noon. Group of curved lines on both sides of the vertical
radius represent solar hours between sunrise and sunset.
Sunrise and sunset times can be read from the intersection of sun path curve and the
peripheral circle.
In equinox days, March 21 and September 21, the sun rises at 6:00 am and sets at 6:00 pm. In
summer the sun rises earlier and sets later, in winter it rises late and sets earlier.
Definition of the Sun`s Position ( Azimuth and Altitude Angles)
For a certain location, for a certain day and hour, azimuth and altitude angles may be defined by
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the following procedure. For this purpose the sun path diagram prepared for this location should be
used.
Example : Define the position of the sun in Gazimagusa at 9:00 am of December 21.
Step 1:
Select the sun path diagram for the site latitude (or nearest latitude).
For Gazimagusa 36˚ North latitude may be selected.
Step 2:
Find the date curve for December 21.
Step 3:
Find the hour line for 9:00 am and mark its intersection with the curve of December 21.
Step 4:
Lay a straight-edge from the center of the chart from the observation point) through the marked
hour point to the perimeter circle. Read the Azimuth Angle from the perimeter scale. For this
example (α) = 137.5˚.
Step 5:
On he straight line, measure the distance in millimeter between the perimeter circle and the marked
point. Each millimeter represents one degree of altitude angle. This distance will be measured 16.5
mm. This means the altitude of the sun at 9:00 am of December 21 in Gazimagusa is (θ) = 16.5˚.
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Shading devices
Shading devices can play important role in control the solar radiation that enter into the room
especially during summer months. Shading devices can control solar radiation in three ways. First,
they protects from sunlight. Second, they redirects the solar radiation and softens the excessive
solar energy. Third, they diffuses the light and gives visual comfort (Geun, 1997). According to
Dubois (2000), the appropriate design of shading devices can effectively reduce cooling load. This
reduction ranges between 23-89% depending on the type of shading device used, the building
orientation, the climate,etc.
Shading devices differ in their characteristics and dimensions according to the duration of sunshine
on the window facade. For examples, south windows can easily be shaded during summer because
of the high position of the sun in the sky and they can be designed to accept high solar heat gains
during winter. In contrast, there are some difficult in shading of west and east windows because of
the low position of the sun in the sky. North windows also accept very limited solar heat gains,
restricted to the summer early morning and late afternoon hours, so shading may be not necessary
in the north façade (Vogel, 2004).
The functions of shading systems are to improve thermal and visual comfort by reducing overheating
and glare, and to provide privacy (McKay, 2010). In some cases the disadvantage of shading devices
is that it may reduce availability of daylight which enter the building, hence increasing consumption
of energy for artificial lighting. Thus, an effective shading device should be able to prevent the
unwanted solar heat and allow the needed daylight to reach the building interior (Mathur, 2003)
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Shading devices should be able to perform
some of these functions:
· Stop solar radiation penetration into the building during hot periods.
· Allow solar radiation penetration into the building during cool periods.
· Should allow view to the outside from inside the building.
· Should allow daylight into the building.
· Provide some privacy whenever required.
· Protect the occupants of the building from glare.
· Should not interfere with air circulation through the windows.
Although adjustable shading devices may respond to multi demands than fixed ones, it is difficult
for a shading device to effectively perform all previous functions. Thus, a device should be
chosen after identifying its functions.
Generally, solar radiation entering a room through windows can cause three effects: increase in
air temperature by radiation absorbed on room surfaces, increase in the mean radiant temperature
of occupants, and the third important effect is that high intensities of radiation from direct sun can
cause discomfort glare. The performance of shading devices is measured by the level of reduction in
negative impacts of these three effects .
The following section discuss in details the performance parameters of the shading
devices
Performance parameters for shading devices :
Performance parameters for the shading devices include: thermal, visual, acoustic and
aesthetic performance. The values of these parameters depend on the independent variables such
as climate, site, and building type, and dependent variables, such as heat transfer, facade type, and
position of the blinds relative to the window …………
1. Thermal performance
2. Visual performance
3. Acoustic performance
4. Aesthetic performance
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2. 1. Thermal performance
3. There are three parameters determine the thermal performance of the shading
device: protection from overheating in summer by reflection or Absorption, protection
from heat loss in winter, and collection of sun energy. In hot climates, shading device
systems should protect the interior space from overheating in summer.
4. The thermal performance can also be measured by the 54 level of protection from
heat loss during winter nights in cold climates. Another parameter is the collection of solar
energy by absorbing instead of reflecting which can be used in many applications like the
building’s mechanical systems.
5. 2. Visual performance
6. Visual performance of the shading device includes: providing sufficient illuminance,

providing sufficient luminance, protection from glare, providing privacy, providing desired
darkening of the interior space, and providing direct visual contact to the outside space.
7. The building type affects the previous visual performance parameters. For example,
providing privacy and darkening of the space is desirable in residential buildings, but not
necessarily in office buildings.
3. Acoustic performance
Acoustic performance parameters of the shading device include: sound transmission

and vibration of the blinds. Both building location and site affect the acoustic performance of the
shading device. For example, a higher level of noise occurs in urban areas requires selecting a
specific shading device to reduce this noise. The blinds installed outside can vibrate because of wind,
resulting in increased noise level.
Thus, they should be fixed carefully to avoid the problem of vibration (Olbina,
2005).
4. Aesthetic performance
The shading device is an important architectural element. It has a significant impact

on both the exterior and interior appearance of the facade. Aesthetic performance parameters of
the shading device include: blinds’ transparency, blinds’ translucency, and percent of window area
obstructed by the blinds. There is a strong relationship between the aesthetic performance
parameters and thermal, visual, and acoustic performance. For example, the blinds’ transparency
and percent of window area obstructed by the blinds depend on the requirements for the protection
from overheating and the desired daylight level in the interior space (Olbina, 2005).
Different shading device types
There are many different kinds and categories of shading devices. It can be classified
into three main types fixed overhang shades, louvers, and movable shades as illustrated in fig. (3.6).
`
According to the position of a shading device relative to the building envelope, shading
devices can be divided into internal and external devices. The external devices also can be divided
into the sub categories of vertical, horizontal and combined devices. In addition, vegetation element
is considered as a important type of shading devices All these types of shading devices and its main
characteristics will be discussed in the following sections.
1. Fixed devices :
Fixed shading devices are parts of the building or extra structures mounted on the building facade.
They can be external or internal structures, however they usually used in the outside of building
envelope.
There are many types of fixed shading devices such as horizontal overhangs, vertical fins,
combination of horizontal and vertical elements, balconies or internal elements like louvers and
light-shelves. The most significant advantage of fixed shading devices is that they are "passive" or
self-operating. In addition, fixed devices are preferred because of their simplicity, low maintenance
cost and sometimes low construction cost .Particularly, fixed shading devices are effective at
preventing direct sun radiation, but it less effective against diffuse or reflected radiation.
The horizontal overhang is the most common form of fixed shading device. It can effectively be used
on the south-facing facade to provide complete shading during summer and allow solar penetration
in winter. However, Fixed horizontal devices do not generally provide effective protection from the
low-angled sunlight of morning and afternoon, particularly on the east and west facades
2. Movable devices
Moveable devices can be located externally, internally or between the panes of a double or triple
glazed window. They can be external shading elements in the form of tents, awnings, blinds,
pergolas, or internal elements like curtains, rollers and venetian blinds. Movable devices are more
flexible because they can modify according to the dynamic nature of the sun’s movement (McKay,
2010).
The concept of moveable devices depends on changing the cutoff angle to match the changing solar
altitude as a result of the movement of the sun. These devices can be operated manually or
automatically (Kasule, 2003). Both colour and material influence the effectiveness of shading system.
`
The white venetian blinds give 20% shade protection more than dark ones, while for roller blinds the
effect can reach 40%. An aluminium blind can add 10% more protection than a coloured one. For
internal curtains the differences are less, as light coloured ones are only 18% more effective than
dark ones. Fig.(3.7) shows shaded performance of various materials. Part of the sunlight will be
reflected out through the glazing and the rest of the solar energy will be absorbed, convected and
re-radiated into the room. Thus, It is not possible to achieve 100% efficiency in the shading system.
In the light of the previous fact, the dark coloured in internal shading devices should be avoided
3. Internal devices
Internal shading devices are that mounted on the inner side of the building envelope. They can
either be fixed like interior light shelves or adjustable like louvers, curtains, etc. Fig.(3.8) shows the
difference between interior and external shading devices. It demonstrates that internal shading
devices are considered less effective than external ones because the sunlight enters the building
envelope. In contrast, external shading devices diffuse any absorbed solar energy to the outside air.
Thus, the efficiency of external shading devices increases about 30% over internal shading devices,
but internal devices are considered cheaper and easier to operate manually
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4. External devices
External shading devices are that mounted on the outer side of the building envelope. Their
main function is to trap solar radiation before it reaches the building envelope. External shading
devices can play important role in architectural appearance of the building facade.
Thus, their color, form, and shape should be selected carefully during the design phase. External
shading devices can be divided basically into three categories which are horizontal shades, vertical
shades, and compound shades.
The vertical devices will be most effective when the sun is opposite to the wall considered, such as
an eastern or western facade. The performance of vertical devices can be measured by a horizontal
shadow angle.
Table shows many forms of vertical shading devices.
In contrast, The horizontal devices will be most effective when the sun is opposite to the building
face considered and at a high angle, such as for north and south facing walls. The performance of
horizontal devices can be measured by a vertical shadow angle .Some forms of horizontal shading
devices is shown in Table

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`
For an overhang: h =D x tan (solar altitude) / cos (solar azimuth – window azimuth)
• For total shade at your target month/hour, set h to height of window from sill to head
and solve for D, required overhang depth.
• For partial shade, set h to acceptable height of shadow (perhaps 2/3 of window height)
and solve for D, required overhang depth.
• With a given overhang, set D to its depth and find h, the height of shadow it will cast at
your target month/ hour.
For a fin: w = D x tan (solar azimuth - window azimuth)‡
• Solve for either w, width of shadow, or D, depth of fin,
as with the overhang equation
‡ Be sure to observe proper signs.
If both solar and window azimuths are
on the same side of the south vector, then both values are positive.
If they are on opposite sides of south, then set
one azimuth asnegative.
For example:
solar azimuth - (-window azimuth) = solar azimuth + window azimuth.

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Calculating Shading Devices using the Factor method
The following equation provides a quick method for determining the projection of a fixed overhang.
Projection = window opening (height) / F F = factor from the following table
North latitude F factor
28 5.5 – 11.1
32 4.0- 6.3
36 3.0- 4.5
40 2.5- 3.4
44 2.0- 2.7
48 1.7- 2.2
52 1.5- 1.8
56 1.3- 1.5
Select a factor according to your latitude. The higher values will provide 100% shading at noon on
June 21st, the lower values until August 1.
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END OF 2 UNIT
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UNIT 3
HEAT FLOW THROUGH BUILDING ENVELOPE CONCEPTS

HEAT
 Heat is a form of energy, appearing as molecular movements in a substance or as’ radiant

heat’ , a certain wavelength band of electromagnetic radiation in space (700 – 1000 nm ).
It is measured in joules ( J)
TEMPERATURE
 It is the out ward appearance of the thermal state of the body.. If energy is conveyed to a
body, the molecular movements with in the body increases and it appears to be warmer.
It is measured in degree Celsius.
SPECIFIC HEAT
 The specific heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat energy required by a unit
mass of the substance to cause unit temperature increase .
 It is measured in J/kg deg c.
 The relationship between heat and temperature change is usually expressed in the form
shown below where c is the specific heat.
specific heat, S = Q/(m x T)
 The higher the specific heat of a substance the more heat it will absorb for a given increase
in temperature.
Of all the common substance water has highest specific heat : 4187 J/kg deg C.
LATENT HEAT
 The latent heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat energy absorbed by unit
mass of substance at the change of state ( from solid to liquid or liquid to gas) with out any
change in temperature.
 It is measured in J/Kg.
THERMAL CAPACITY
 It is the product of mass and specific heat of the material.
 It is defined as the amount of heat required to cause unit temperature increase of the body.
>its expressed in J/deg C

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THE TRANSFER OF HEAT THROUGH SOLIDS
 Heat transfer is concerned with the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of thermal
energy and heat between physical systems.
 Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal
convection, thermal radiation, and transfer of energy by phase changes.
>While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics, they often occur simultaneously in the same
system.
CONDUCTION
Conduction (or heat conduction) is the transfer of heat energy by microscopic diffusion and
collisions of particles within a body due to a temperature gradient.
 Conduction can only take place within an object or material, or between two
objects that are in direct or indirect contact with each other.
 Heat transfer by conduction involves transfer of energy within a material without

any motion of the material as a whole.
 Conduction takes place in all forms such as solids, liquids, gases and plasmas.
In the absence of external drivers, temperature differences decay over time, and the bodies
approach thermal equilibrium.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY ( k – value)
 Thermal conductivity (k) is the intrinsic property of a material which relates its ability to
conduct heat.
 Conductive heat flow occurs in the direction of decreasing temperature because higher
temperature equates to higher molecular energy or more molecular movement.
 Thermal conductivity is defined as the quantity of heat (Q) transmitted through a unit
thickness (L) in a direction normal to a surface of unit area (A) due to a unit temperature
gradient (ΔT).
In equation form this becomes the following:
 Thermal Conductivity = heat × distance / (area × temperature gradient)
k = Q × L / (A × ΔT)
 Where
• (Q) = quantity of heat
• (L) = thickness of material
• (A) = area of material through which teat transfer takes place

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• (ΔT) = temperature gradient .
• Expressed in W/m deg C
THERMAL RESISTIVITY
 Thermal resistivity is defined as a material's ability to resist heat flow.
 The reciprocal of the thermal conductivity.
thermal resistivity = (distance × temperature gradient)/ heat flow rate
THERMAL CONDUCTANCE C-value
 Thermal conductance is heat flow through a unit area of a body when the temperature
difference between the two body surfaces is 1 degree Celsius.
 The value of the thermal conductance can be calculated by dividing the thermal conductivity
with the thickness of the specimen.
 C = k/b
Where R = thermal conductance
b= thickness of material
k= conductivity
Expressed in W/m2 deg C.
R-value – Thermal Resistance
 Thermal resistance is the reciprocal of thermal conductance.
 Resistance is usually given as an "R" value which is the resistance of one square metre of the
material subject to a one degree temperature difference.
 The value of the thermal resistance can be determined by dividing the thickness with
thermal conductivity of the specimen.
>Expressed in m2 deg C/W.
 R = b/k
Where R = thermal resistance
b= thickness of material
k= conductivity
`
 If a body consist of different materials, its total resistance will be the sum of the resistance
of individual layers.
>The conductance of such a multilayer bodies can be found by finding its total resistance and taking
its reciprocal.
Thickness and resistivity
 Increasing the thickness of an insulating layer increases the thermal resistance.
 For example, doubling the thickness of fiberglass batting will double its R-value, perhaps
from 2.0 m²K/W for 11cm of thickness, up to 4.0 m²K/W for 22 cm of thickness.
 Heat transfer through an insulating layer is analogous to adding resistance to a series circuit
with a fixed voltage.
 The addition of materials to enclose the insulation such as sheetrock and siding provides
additional but typically much smaller R-value.
Conductance Vs Conductivity
 Conductivity (k) is a material property and means its ability to conduct heat through its
internal structure.
>Conductance (c) on the other hand is an object property and depends on both its material and
thickness. Conductance equals conductivity multiplied by thickness, in units of W/m²K. Or
W/m²degC
Resistance Vs Resistivity
 Resistivity is a material property and refers to that material's ability to resist the flow of
heat.
 Resistance on the other hand is an object property and depends on both the resistivity of
the material and its overall thickness within that particular object.
Relevance of density
 Density is often taken as an indicator of conductivity: higher density material normally have
higher conductivity or k value but there is no casual or direct relationship between two
quantities.
 The apparent relation is due to the fact that air has a very low conductivity value and light
weight material tends to be porous, thus containing more air, their conductivity tends to be
less, how ever there are many exceptions.
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Cavities & Air Spaces
 In principle, use of cavities is similar to use of a insulating material.
 If an air space is left between two layers making a wall or roof in any building, the air
trapped between two layers being poor conductor of heat acts as a barrier to heat transfer.
 Heat is transferred across an air space by a combination of conduction, convection and

radiation.
 Heat transfer by conduction is inversely proportional to depth of the air space.
 Convection is mainly dependant on the height of the air space and its depth.
 Heat transfer by radiation is relatively independent of both thickness and height, but is
greatly dependent on the reflectivity of the internal surfaces.
 All three mechanisms are dependent on the surface temperatures.
 The thickness of air cavity is a very important design parameter that governs its
effectiveness by controlling the heat transfer coefficient as in case of insulation.
 It has been found that with gaps broader than 5cm, movement of trapped air due to
temperature gradient starts that in turn increases the coefficient of heat transfer.
 This increase in heat transfer takes place due to convective heat transfer taking place in
addition to conductive heat transfer.
>Therefore, cavities broader than 50 mm are normally not preferred. However, if more thickness of
air cavity is required for getting heavy insulation, by putting partitions in the main broad cavity
multiple cavities can be used as an alternative
 In case of roof ventilate the air gap between the roof and the ceiling, then we could expect a
reduction of heat transfer especially by convection.
 If the ventilation is effective then the air in the void will remain close to the ambient
temperature, thus reducing the convective heat transfer to zero.
 Ventilated air, however, does not reduce the radiative heat transfer from the roof to the
ceiling.
 The radiative component of the heat transfer may be reduced by using low emissivity or high
reflective coating (e.g. aluminum foil) on either surface facing the cavity.
>In addition to application on walls and roofs, the concept of air cavities also finds very important
place in development of insulating windows using double and triple glazing details
`
Transmittance or U-Value
The term ‘U’ represents overall thermal conductance from the outside to inside covering all modes
of heat transfer.
‘U- value’ can be defined as the rate of heat flow over unit area of any building component
through unit overall temperature difference between both sides of the component.
The U-Value is an important concept in building design. It represents the air-to-air transmittance of
an element. This refers to how well an element conducts heat from one side to the other, which
makes it the reciprocal of its thermal resistance. Thus, if we calculate the thermal resistance of an
element, we can simply invert it to obtain the U-Value
U = 1 / Rt
The U-Value is a property of a material. Thus, its units are Watts per meter squared Kelvin (W/m² K).
This means that, if a wall material had a U-Value of 1 W/m² K, for every degree of temperature
difference between the inside and outside surface, 1 Watt of heat energy would flow through each
meter squared of its surface.
Time Lag and Decrement Factor
The time delay due to the thermal mass is known as a time lag. The thicker and more resistive the
material, the longer it will take for heat waves to pass through.
The reduction in cyclical temperature on the inside surface compared to the outside surface is
knows and the decrement.
Thus, a material with a decrement value of 0.5 which experiences a 20 degree diurnal variation in
external surface temperature would experience only a 10 degree variation in internal surface
temperature.
`
This effect is particularly important in the design of buildings in environments with a high
diurnal range. In some deserts, for example, the daytime temperature can reach well over 40
degrees. The following night, however, temperatures can fall to below freezing. If materials with a
thermal lag of 10-12 hours are carefully used, then the low night-time temperatures will reach the
internal surfaces around the middle of the day, cooling the inside air down. Similarly, the high
daytime temperatures will reach the internal surfaces late in the evening, heating the inside up.
In climates that are constantly hot or constantly cold, the thermal mass effect can actually
be detrimental. This is because both surfaces will tend towards the average daily temperature
which, if it is above or below the comfortable range, will result in even more occupant discomfort
due to unwanted mean radiant gains or losses. Thus in warm tropical and equatorial climates,
buildings tend to be very open and lightweight. In very cold and sub-polar regions, buildings are
usually highly insulated with very little exposed thermal mass, even if it is used for structural
reasons.
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END OF 3 UNIT
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CLIMATOLOGY AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIT IV
IMPACT OF AIR MOVEMENT DUE TO NATURAL AND BUILT FORMS
• The wind
• The effects of topography on wind patterns
• Air currents around the building
• Air movement through the buildings
• The use of fans
• Thermally induced air currents
• Stack effect, Venturi effect
• Use of court yard.
THE WIND
 The horizontal movement of air along the earth’s surface is called a Wind.
 The vertical movement of the air is known as an air current.
 Winds and air current together comprise a system of circulation in the atmosphere.
 The movement and the speed of wind are affected by three main factors:
1. Pressure gradient
2. Rotation of the Earth
3. Friction of the Earth.

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1. PRESSURE GRADIENT
 wind always blows from a region of high-pressure to a region of low-pressure.
 Steeper the pressure gradient, higher is the speed or force of the blowing wind.
 Slower the pressure gradient, slower is the force of the blowing wind.
2. ROTATION OF THE EARTH
 If the Earth did not rotate upon its axis, winds would follow the direction of the pressure
gradient.
 But the rotation produces another force other than the pressure force. It is called the
‘Coriolis force’.
 This tends to turn the flow of air by changing its direction from its original
straight path. The wind starts deflecting more and more to its right from its
original path in the northern hemisphere.
 In the southern hemisphere it starts deflecting more and more to its left
from its original path.
Thus a wind blowing from north becomes north-easterly in the northern hemisphere.
A wind blowing from south becomes south-easterly in the southern hemisphere.
 The effect of the Coriolis force on wind is stated in Ferrel’s law as follows:
 “Any object or fluid, moving horizontally in the Northern Hemisphere, tends to be

deflected to the right of its path of motion regardless of the compass direction of
the path.
 In the Southern’ Hemisphere, a similar deflection is towards the left of the path of
motion.”
 The deflection is the least at the equator and the greatest at the poles.
`
3.FRICTION OF THE EARTH
 The friction along the Earth’s surface decreases both the angular deflection and velocity of
the wind.
 It is very little over vast free surface of oceans and is considerable over the mountains and
the heavily forested areas.
THE EFFECTS OF TOPOGRAPHY ON WIND PATTERNS
 The force, direction and moisture content of air flow are strongly influenced by the
topography.
Air can be diverted or funneled by mountain ranges.
 The force, direction and moisture content of air flow are strongly influenced by the
topography.
Air can be diverted or funneled by mountain ranges.

`
1. NEAR MOUNTAINS
during morning
 Over elevated surfaces, heating of the ground exceeds the heating of the surrounding air at
the lower altitude, creating thermal low pressure and high pressure area
 The less denser air at top of mountain gets replaced by the more denser air from down
slope.
 Consequently local winds usually blows up-slope during the day time. upslope wind speed
can be as high as 5 to 10 mph.
upslope wind
at night
`
 When the slope becomes shaded, the surface loses heat rapidly and becomes cool.
The air adjacent to the top surface cools and becomes more dense thus heavier and it will begin to
flow down-slope during night time
 Winds that flow over mountains down into lower elevations are known as down slope
winds. These winds are warm and dry. Down-slope winds usually are not stronger than 2 to
3 mph. The steeper the slope and the longer it is, the stronger the wind.
down slope winds
 Hills and valleys substantially distort the airflow by increasing friction between the
atmosphere and landmass ,by acting as a physical block to the flow, deflecting the wind
parallel to the range just upstream of the topography, which is known as a barrier jet.
 This barrier jet can increase the low level wind by 45%.Wind direction also changes because
of the contour of the land.
 If there is a pass in the mountain range, winds will rush through the pass with considerable
speed .
`
Mountain wave schematic. The wind flows towards a mountain and produces a first oscillation (A). A
second wave occurs further away and higher. The lenticular clouds form at the peak of the waves
(B).
Ravines and gullies will form paths for the flow of air. Intersecting drainages and sharp turns will
cause turbulence.
 Saddles and gaps along a ridge will funnel the wind and increase its speed. Winds will also
be gusty and spotting is more likely.
AIR CURRENTS AROUND THE BUILDING
 The configuration and pattern of massing of the built form can largely determine and modify
the air movement both in and around the buildings.
`
 Depending on the relationship between the wind direction and that of streets and buildings,
there may be variations in wind speed
BUILDINGS ARE PLACED PERPENDICULAR TO THE WIND DIRECTION
 Air though light has mass and as it moves has momentum, which is product of mass and
velocity.
`
 When the moving air strikes an obstacle such as a building, it will slow down the air flow but
the air flow will exert a pressure on the obstructing surface.
 This pressure is proportionate to the air velocity as in equation.
 p w = 0.612 v 2
pw = wind pressure in N/m 2
v = wind velocity in m/s
 This slowing down process effects roughly wedge - shaped mass of air on the windward side
of the building, which in turn diverts the rest of the air to flow upwards and side wards.
 A separate layer is formed between the stagnant air and the building on one hand and
laminar air flow on other hand.
The laminar air flow itself may be accelerated at the obstacle, as the area available for the flow
is narrowed down by the obstacleis narrowed down by the obstacle
 At the separation layer due to friction , the upper surface of stagnant air is moved forward,
thus a turbulance or vortex is developed.
`
 Due to momentum the laminar air flow tends to maintain a straight path after it has been
diverted, there fore it takes some time to return to the ground surface after the obstacle.
 Hence a stagnant air mass is formed on the leeward side , but it is at a reduced pressure.
 In fact it is not quite stagnant, a vortex is formed. The movement is light and variable and is
o
f
t
e
n
r
e
f
e
r
r
e
d
to as wind shadow.

consequently vortexes are formed where ever the laminar flow of air is separated from the
surface of solid bodies.
 On windward side such vortexes are at an increasing pressure and on leeward side at a
reduced pressure.
 If the building has opening in high pressure zone and another facing low pressure zone the
movement will be generated through the building.
`
BUILDINGS ARE PLACED PERPENDICULAR TO THE WIND DIRECTION
 When large built volumes, or say a long row of buildings are placed perpendicular to the
wind direction, then a wind shielded zones is established between the buildings, where
wind speed might be just a small fraction of the speed above building’s roofs, or in streets
parallel to the wind direction.
 The first row of buildings divert the approaching wind current upwards, the rest of the
buildings are left in wind shadow.
 In this case the distance between the buildings have little effect on the speed of currents
between the buildings.
 Thus two separate air flow regimes are created.

`
 The regional air currents flow mainly over the top of the buildings.
 while in between the buildings a secondary air flow pattern is created as a result of the
friction between the upper air currents and the building.
 This may be desirable in certain climatic conditions like the cold winters or hot summers
when winds are to be avoided, but undesirable in warm humid climates when ventilation is
required.
 If buildings are laid out on a regular grid, the benefit of wind may be lost altogether.
 If buildings are staggered, and preferably spaced at least 50m apart, then the flow of air may
be maintained, and the wind shadow is reduced.
 In this case, the interior of the buildings suffer from poor ventilation while the adjacent open
spaces experience high wind velocities.
`
 Orienting buildings at an angle in relation to the wind direction can produce relatively
homogeneous wind patterns around them, thus creating better ventilation.
 In the second case a greater velocity is created along the windward faces, therefore the
wind shadow will be much broader , the negative pressure( suction effect) will be increased
and indoor air flow will result.
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AIR CURRENTS OBTAINED IN THE BUILDING DUE TO OBSTRUCTIONS

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AIR MOVEMENT THROUGH THE BUILDINGS
 Circular air movement happening within a building envelope is called air circulation.
Air movement between the building interior and the outside of the building’s conditioned-
air envelope, such as the exterior, crawlspace, attic or unheated basement is called infiltration (if air
is moving into the conditioned space) and exfiltration, if it’s moving out.
 For air flow to occur, there must be both:
 a pressure difference between two points, and
 a continuous flow path or opening connecting the points.
 There are three primary mechanisms which generate the pressure differences required for
air flow within and through buildings
 wind,
 stack effect or bouyancy, and
 mechanical air handling equipment and appliances.
1.WIND
 Wind forces act on all buildings, typically creating a positive pressure on the windward face
and negative (suction) pressures on the walls.
`
 Low-slope roofs tend to have mostly negative (uplift) pressures, especially on the leading
edge (Figure 2).
 Roofs with slopes above about 25 degrees experience positive pressures on the windward
face, and suctions on the leeward.
STACK EFFECT
 Stack effect pressures are generated by differences in air density with temperature, i.e. hot
air rises and cold air sinks.The density of dry air, varies with temperature.
 Stack effect is the movement of air into and out of buildings, chimneys, flue gas stacks, or
other containers, and is driven by buoyancy.
 Buoyancy occurs due to a difference in indoor-to-outdoor air density resulting from

temperature and moisture differences. The result is either a positive or negative buoyancy
force.
 The greater the thermal difference and the height of the structure, the greater the buoyancy
force, and thus the stack effect.
 The stack effect is also referred to as the "chimney effect", and it helps drive natural
ventilation, infiltration and fires.
`
 The greater the height of a column of air, the greater the potential difference in pressure if
that column is at a different temperature.
 Although houses tend to be only 3 to 9 m tall, stack effect can be a major force driving
airflow, particularly in climates with a large temperature difference (more than 25 °C / 40 °F)
across the enclosure.
 During the heating season, the warmer indoor air rises up through the building and escapes
at the top either through open windows, ventilation openings, or other forms of leakage.
 The rising warm air reduces the pressure in the base of the building, drawing cold air in
through either open doors, windows, or other openings and leakage.
 During the cooling season, the stack effect is reversed, but is typically weaker due to lower
temperature differences.
`
3.MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
 Fans and blowers cause the movement of air within buildings and through enclosures. By
doing so, they can generate large pressures.
 If more air is exhausted from a building than is supplied, a net negative pressure is
generated and vice versa.
 Bathroom exhaust fans, clothes dryers, built-in vacuum cleaners, dust collection systems,
and range hoods all exhaust air from a building. This creates a negative pressure inside the
building.
 If the enclosure is airtight or the exhaust flow rate high, large negative pressures can be
generated. These negative pressures have the potential to cause several problems
 Commercial HVAC systems both supply and extract air from buildings. This means both
positive and negative pressure can be developed, depending on the balance of supply to
exhaust flows.
 Dust collection systems, commercial range hoods and other industrial air handlers can move
thousands of liters per second, seriously disturbing the pressure-flow relationship within a
building and should be handled on an individual basis.
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VENTURI EFFECT
 The Venturi effect is a phenomenon that occurs when air going through a pipe is forced
through a narrow section.
This results in a pressure decrease and a velocity increase. It was named for an Italian physicist,
Giovanni Battista Venturi.
"The Venturi effect is the reduction in air pressure that results when a air flows through a
constricted section of pipe."
 Bernoulli's equation, together with conservation of energy shows that a stream of fluid
moving through a constrained space at higher speed must be at a lower pressure
`
COURTYARD EFFECT
 Due to incident solar radiation in a courtyard, the air gets warmer and rises.
 Cool air from the ground level flows through the louvered openings of rooms surrounding a
courtyard, thus producing air flow.
 At night, the warm roof surfaces get cooled by convection and radiation.
 If this heat exchange reduces roof surface temperature to temperature of air, condensation
of atmospheric moisture occurs on the roof and the gain due to condensation limits further
cooling.
 If the roof surfaces are sloped towards the internal courtyard, the cooled air sinks into the
court and enters the living space through low-level openings, gets warmed up, and leaves
the room through higher-level openings.
 However, care should be taken that the courtyard does not receive intense solar radiation,
which would lead to conduction and radiation heat gains into the building.
`
END OF UNIT 4
`
UNIT 5
Hot and Dry Climate

Hot and dry climatic regions are characterised by very high radiation levels,
ambient temperatures and relatively low humidity.
The design objectives in such a climate should be aimed at:

(A) Resisting heat gain:
Heat gain can be resisted by:
 Decreasing the surface of the building exposed to the outside.
 Using materials that take a longer time to heat up.
 Providing buffer spaces between the living areas and the outside.
 Decreasing ventilation during daytime in the summers.
 Providing adequate shading devices.
(B) Promoting heat loss:
Some measures to promote heat loss are:
 Providing for ventilation of various appliances used.
 Increasing ventilation during cooler parts of the day or night time.
 Providing for evaporative cooling (e.g. roof surface evaporative cooling).
 Using earth coupling systems like earth-air pipes.
General recommendations for the climate are:

(1) Site
(a) Landform:
 Regions in this zone are generally flat and heat up uniformly.
 In case of an undulating site, constructing on the leeward side of the slope
is preferred.
This protects the building from direct impact of hot winds which can be quite
uncomfortable.
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

`
 Building in a depression is preferable in cases where ventilation is

assured.
(b) Waterbodies
 Waterbodies like ponds and lakes act as heat sinks and can also be used
for evaporative cooling. They humidify the air and make it comfortable inside.
 Fountains and water cascades in the vicinity of a building also aid in

cooling.
`
(c) Street width and orientation

Streets must be narrow so that they cause mutually shade the buildings. Streets
need to be oriented in the north-south direction to block solar radiation.
(d) Open spaces and built form:

 Open spaces such as courtyards and atria promote ventilation.
 They can be provided with ponds and fountains for evaporative cooling.
 Courtyards act as heat sinks during the day and radiate the heat back at
night.
 Grass can be used as ground cover to absorb solar radiation and aid
evaporative cooling.
 Earth berming can help lower the temperature and also deflect hot
summer winds.
`
(2) Orientation and planform

 An east-west orientation is preferred in hot and dry climatic regions.
South and north facing walls are easier to shade than east and west walls.
During summer, the south wall with significant exposure to solar radiation in
most parts of India, leads to very high temperatures in south-west rooms.
Hence, shading of the south wall is imperative.
 The surface to volume (S/V) ratio should be kept as minimum as possible

to reduce heat gains.
`
 Cross-ventilation must be ensured at night as ambient temperatures

during this period are low.
(3) Building Envelope

(a) Roof
 Flat roofs or vaulted roofs are ideal in this climate. Nonetheless, a vaulted
roof provides a larger surface area for heat loss compared to a flat roof.
 The material of the roof should be massive; a reinforced cement concrete

(RCC) slab is preferred to asbestos cement (AC) sheet roof.
`
 External insulation in the form of mud phuska with inverted earthen pots
is also suitable.
 A false ceiling in rooms having exposed roofs is favourable as the space
between the two acts as a heat buffer. Thermal insulation over false ceiling
further increases the buffer action.
 Insulation of roofs makes the buildings more energy efficient than
insulating the walls.
 Evaporative cooling of the roof surface and night time radiative cooling
can also be employed.
 Incase of evaporative cooling, it is better to use a roof having high
thermal transmittance.
(b) Walls
 In multi-storeyed buildings, walls and glazing account for most of the heat
gain.
 The control of heat gain through the walls by shading, thus, becomes an
important design consideration.
 A wall that transmits less heat is hence feasible.
(c) Fenestration
 In hot and dry climates, reducing the window area leads to lower indoor
temperatures.
 More windows should be provided in the north facade of the building as
compared to the east, west and south as it receives lesser radiation throughout
the year
 All openings should be protected from the sun by using external shading
devices such as chhajjas and fins.

`
 Moveable shading devices such as curtains and venetian blinds can also
be used.
 Ventilators are preferred at higher levels as they help in throwing out the
hot air.
 Since daytime temperatures are high during summer, the windows should
be kept closed to keep the hot air out and opened during night-time to admit
cooler air.
 The use of 'jaalis'(lattice work) made of wood, stone or RCC may be
considered as it they allow ventilation while blocking solar radiation.
Scheduling air changes (i.e. high ventilation rate at night and during cooler
periods of the day, and lower ones during daytime) can significantly help in
reducing the discomfort.
 The heat gain through windows can be reduced by using glass with low
transmissivity.
(D) Colour and textures

 Change of colour is a cheap and effective technique for lowering indoor
temperatures.
 Colours that absorb less heat should be used to paint the external surface.
 Darker shades should be avoided for surfaces exposed to direct solar
radiation.
 The surface of the roof can be of white broken glazed tiles.
 The surface of the wall should preferably be textured to facilitate self
shading.
Remarks
 As the winters in this region are uncomfortably cold, windows should be
designed such that they encourage direct gain during this period.
 Deciduous trees can be used to shade the building during summer and
admit sunlight during winter.
 Well-insulated and very thick walls give a good thermal performance if the
glazing is kept to a minimum and windows are well-shaded.
 In case of non-conditioned buildings, a combination of insulated walls and
high percentage of glazing will lead to very uncomfortable indoor conditions as
the building will tend to act like a green house with the insulated walls
`
preventing the radiation from the windows from escaping into the
environment.
 Indoor plants can be provided near the window, as they help in
evaporative cooling and in absorbing solar radiation.
 Evaporative cooling and earth air pipe systems can be used effectively in
this climate.
 Desert coolers are extensively used in this climate, and if properly sized,
they can help in achieving comfort levels
Warm and Humid Climate

In hot and humid climatic regions, high temperatures are accompanied by very
high humidity levels leading to immense discomfort. Cross ventilation is hence
very essential here. Adequate shading measures are also necessary to protect
the building from direct solar radiation.
The main design objectives should be:
(A) Resisting heat gain

Measures that are convenient to resist unwanted heat gain are:
(a) Decreasing surface area of the building exposed to the outside.
(b) Using materials that take a longer time to heat up.
(c) Providing buffer spaces between the outside and the inside.
(d) Increasing shading of the building in general.
(e) Using materials that reflect heat.
(B) Promoting heat loss

To promote heat lost it is essential to ensure:
(a) Appliances used are well ventilated.
(b) Proper ventilation occurs throughout the day.
(c) Humidity levels are reduced as much as possible.
`
General recommendations for building design in warm and humid

climate are:
(1) Site
(a) Landform
 For flat sites, design considerations for the landform is immaterial.
 Incase of slopes and depressions, the building should be located on the
windward side or crest to take advantage of cool breezes.
(b) Waterbodies
 Water bodies are not essential as they would tend to further increase the
humidity.
(c) Open spaces and built form
 Buildings should be spread out with large open spaces in between for
unrestricted air movement.
 In cities, buildings on stilts can promote ventilation and cause cooling at

the ground level.
(d) Street width and orientation
`
 Major streets should be oriented parallel to or within 30 of the prevailing

wind direction during summer months to encourage ventilation in warm and
humid regions.
 A north-south direction is ideal from the point of view of blocking solar
radiation.
 The width of the streets should be such that the intense solar radiation
during late morning and early afternoon is avoided during the summers.
(2) Orientation and Planform
 As temperatures are not very high, free plans can be evolved as long as
the house is under protective shade.
 An unobstructed air path through the interiors is important to ensure
proper ventilation.
 The buildings could be long and narrow to allow cross-ventilation. For
example, a singly loaded corridor plan (i.e. one with rooms on one side only) is
preferable over a doubly loaded one.
 Heat and moisture producing areas like toilets and kitchens must be
ventilated and separated from the rest of the structure.

`
 Semiopen spaces such as balconies, verandahs and porches can be used

advantageously for daytime activities as well as give protection from rainfall.
 In multistoreyed buildings a central courtyard can be provided with vents
at higher levels to draw away the rising hot air.

(a) Roof
 In addition to providing shelter from rain and heat, the form of the roof
should be planned to promote air flow.
 Vents at the rooftop effectively induce ventilation and draw hot air out.
 Insulation does not provide any additional benefit for a normal RCC roof in
a non-conditioned building.
`
 However, very thin roofs having low thermal mass, such as AC sheet
roofing, require insulation as they tend to rapidly radiate heat into the interiors
during daytime.
 A double roof with a ventilated space in between can also be used to
promote air flow. The space in between can also act as a heat buffer.
(b) Walls:
 The walls must also be designed to promote air flow so as to counter the
prevalent humidity.
 Baffle walls, both inside and outside the building can help to divert the
flow of wind inside.
 They should be protected from the heavy rainfall prevalent in such areas.
 If adequately sheltered, exposed brick walls and mud plastered walls work
very well by absorbing the humidity and helping the building to breathe.
(c) Fenestration
 Cross-ventilation is of utmost importance in warm and humid climatic
regions.
 All doors and windows should preferably be kept open for maximum
ventilation for most of the year.
 These must be provided with venetian blinds or louvers to shelter the
rooms from the sun and rain, as well as for the control of air movement.
 Openings of a comparatively smaller size can be placed on the windward
side, while the corresponding openings on the leeward side should be bigger
for facilitating a plume effect for natural ventilation.
`
 The openings should be shaded by external overhangs.

 Outlets at higher levels serve to vent hot air.
Examples illustrating how the air movement within a room can be better
distributed

`
(d) Colour and texture

 The walls should be painted with light pastel shades or whitewashed,
while the surface of the roof can be of broken glazed tile (china mosaic
flooring) to reflect the sunlight back to the environment, and hence reduce
heat gain of the building.
 The use of appropriate colours and surface finishes is a cheap and very
effective technique to lower indoor temperatures.
 The surface finish should be protected from/ resistant to the effects of
moisture.
Remarks
 Ceiling fans are effective in reducing the level of discomfort in this type of
climate.
 Desiccant cooling techniques can also be employed as they reduce the
humidity level.
 Careful water proofing and drainage of water are essential considerations
of building design due to heavy rainfall.
 In case of airconditioned buildings, dehumidification plays a significant
role in the design of the plant.
`
Moderate Climate
In regions with a moderate climate, prevalent temperatures are neither too high
nor too low. Techniques such as shading, cross ventilation, orientation, reflective
glazing, etc. need to be incorporated into buildings so as to maximise their
energy efficiency. The thermal resistance and heat capacity of walls and roofs
need not be very high as the prevalent temperatures are generally within human
comfort levels.
The main objectives while designing buildings in this zone should be:
To resist heat gain the measures that can be adopted are:
(a) The exposed surface area of the building be reduced.
(b) Using materials that absorb heat slowly.
(c) Adequately shading the building.
Heat loss can be promoted through
(a) Proper ventilation of appliances used.
(b) Increasing the rate of ventilation in the building.
In this region, the general recommendations are:

(1) Site
(a) Landform
 Building the structure on the windward slopes is preferable for getting cool
breeze
`

(b) Open spaces and built form
 An open and free layout of the buildings is preferred.
 Large open spaces in the form of lawns can be provided to reduce
reflected radiation.

 It is preferable to have a building oriented in the north-south direction.
 Living areas like bedrooms may be located on the eastern side to allow for
heat penetration in the mornings, and an open porch on the south south east
side allows heat gain in the winters while providing for shade in the summers.
The western side should ideally be well-shaded.
 Humidity producing areas must be isolated.
 Sunlight is desirable except in summer, so the depth of the interiors need
not be excessive.

(a) Roof
 Insulating the roof does not make much of a difference in the moderate
climate.
(b) Walls
 Insulation of walls does not give significant improvement in the thermal
performance of a building.
(c) Fenestration
 The arrangement of windows is important for reducing heat gain.
 Windows can be larger in the north, while those on the east, west and
south should be smaller.
 All the windows should be shaded with chajjas of appropriate lengths.
 Glazing of low transmissivity should be used.
 Pale colours are preferable; dark colours may be used only in recessed
places protected from the summer sun.
`
Cold Climate
Regions that fall under the cold climate experience very cold winters. As such,
trapping the sun’s heat whenever possible is a major design concern. At the
same time, the buildings in such regions need to be properly insulated so that
the internal heat is retained with minimum loss to the environment. Exposure to
cold winds should also be minimised.
The main objectives of building design in these zones are:
(A) Resisting heat loss
To resist heat loss, the following measures may be taken into consideration:
 (a) Decrease the exposed surface area of the building.

 (b) Using materials that heat up fast but release heat slowly.
 (c) Providing buffer spaces between the living area and the outside.
 (d) Decreasing the rate of ventilation inside the building.
(B) Promoting heat gain
Heat gain can be promoted by
 (a) Avoiding excessive shading.

 (b) Utilising the heat from appliances.
 (c) Trapping the heat of the sun.
The general recommendations for these climatic regions are
(1) Site
(a) Landform
 In cold climates, heat gain is desirable. Hence, buildings should be located
on the south slope of a hill or mountain for better access to solar radiation.

`
 Exposure to cold winds can be minimised by locating the building on the

leeward side. Incase the southern side is the windward side. The building
should be glazed in such a manner that minimum wind enters the building.
 Parts of the site which offer natural wind barrier can be chosen for
constructing a building.
(b) Open spaces and built forms
 Buildings can be clustered together to minimise exposure to cold winds.
 Open spaces between buildings must be such that they allow maximum
solar rays to be incident on the building.
 They should be treated with a halt and reflective surface so that day
reflect solar radiation onto the building.

 In cold climates, the street orientation should be east-west to allow for
maximum south sun to enter the building.
`
 The street should be wide enough to ensure that the buildings on one side
do not shade those on the other side (i.e. solar access should be ensured)

 Buildings must be compact with small surface to volume ratios to reduce
heat loss.
 Windows should face south to facilitate direct gain.

 The north side of the building should be well-insulated.
 Living areas can be located on the southern side while utility areas such
as stores can be on the northern side.
 Air-lock lobbies at the entrance and exit points of the building reduce heat
loss.
 Heat generated by appliances in rooms such as kitchens may be used to
heat the other parts of the building.
(a) Roof
`
 False ceilings with internal insulation such as polyurethane foam (PUF),

thermocol, wood wool, etc. are feasible for houses in cold climates.
 Aluminium foil is generally used between the insulation layer and the roof
to reduce heat loss to the exterior.
 A sufficiently sloping roof enables quick drainage of rain water and snow.
 A solar air collector can be incorporated on the south facing slope of the
roof and hot air from it can be used for space heating purposes.
 Skylights on the roofs admit heat as well as light in winters.
 Skylights can be provided with shutters to avoid over heating in summers.

(b) Walls
 Walls should be made of materials that lose heat slowly.
 The south-facing walls (exposed to solar radiation) could be of high
thermal capacity (such as Trombe wall) to store day time heat for later used.
 The walls should also be insulated.
 The insulation should have sufficient vapour barrier (such as two coats of
bitumen, 300 to 600 gauge polyethylene sheet or aluminium foil) on the warm
side to avoid condensation.
 Hollow and lightweight concrete blocks are also quite suitable.
 Skylights can be provided with shutters to avoid over heating in summers.
 On the windward or north side, a cavity wall type of construction may be
adopted.
(c) Fenestration
 It is advisable to have the maximum window area on the southern side of
the building to facilitate direct heat gain.
 They should be sealed and preferably double glazed to avoid heat losses
during winter nights.
 Condensation in the air space between the panes should be prevented,
 Movable shades should be provided to prevent overheating in summers.
`
 The external surfaces of the walls should be dark in colour so that day
absorb heat from the sun.
Composite Climate
Regions having a composite climate display characteristics of hot and dry, warm
and humid as well as cold climates. Design of buildings here should be guided by
longer prevailing climatic conditions. Uncomfortable periods in each season need
to be prioritised to generate the necessary guidelines for design.
The objectives of building design should be:
Unwanted heat gain can be reduced by
 Decreasing the surface area of the building exposed to the outside.
 Using materials that absorb heat slowly.
 Providing buffer spaces.
 Providing adequate shading devices.
To promote heat loss, the following measures need to be undertaken:
 Ventilating appliances used.
 Providing evaporative cooling systems like roof surface evaporative
cooling.
 Using earth coupling systems like earth air pipe system.
(C) Promoting ventilation
 Increasing the rate of ventilation during cooler parts of the day or night-
time and during the humid periods is a necessity in composite climatic areas.
General recommendations for the climate are:
(1) Site
(a) Landform
 Regions in this zone are generally flat and heat up uniformly.
(b) Waterbodies
 Waterbodies like ponds and lakes act as heat sinks and can also be used
for evaporative cooling.
`
 Fountains and water cascades in the vicinity of a building also aid in

cooling.
 However, it has to be ensured that these water bodies do not increase the
relative humidity during the humid seasons.
 Streets must be narrow so that buildings mutually shade each other. They
need to be oriented in the north-south direction to block solar radiation.
`

(d) Open spaces and built form
 Open spaces such as courtyards and atria promote ventilation.
 They can be provided with ponds and fountains for evaporative cooling.
 Courtyards act as heat sinks during the day and radiate the heat back at
night.
 Grass can be used as ground cover to absorb solar radiation and aid
evaporative cooling.
 Earth berming can help lower the temperature and also deflect hot
summer winds.

 An east-west orientation is preferred as northern and southern walls are
easier to shade.
`
 During summer, the south wall which gets significant exposure to solar
radiation in most parts of India, leads to very high temperatures in south-west
rooms. Hence, shading of the south wall is imperative.
 The surface to volume ratio should be kept as minimum as possible to
reduce heat gains.
 Cross-ventilation must be ensured at night as ambient temperatures

during this period are low.

(a) Roof
 Flat roofs may be used in this climate.
 A massive roof structure like a reinforced cement concrete RCC slab is
preferrable over an asbestos cement AC sheet roof.
`
 External insulation in the form of mud phuska with inverted earthen pots
is quite suitable.
 A false ceiling in rooms having exposed roofs can help in reducing the
discomfort level.
 Provision of roof insulation yields greater lifecycle savings compared to
walls in this climate.
 Evaporative cooling of the roof surface and night-time radiative cooling
are measures that can also be employed to improve comfort levels.
 Incase the former is used, it is better to have a roof that will cool down
fast.
(b) Walls
 In multi-storeyed buildings, walls and glazing account for most of the heat
gain. So, the control of heat gain through the walls by shading is an important
consideration in building design.
 A wall that takes a longer time to heat up reduces the heat gain.
(c) Fenestration
 Minimising the window area leads to lower indoor temperatures.
 More windows should be provided in the north facade of the building as
compared to the east, west and south as it receives lesser radiation during the
year.
 All openings should be protected from the sun by using external shading
devices such as chhajjas and fins.

`
 Moveable shading devices such as curtains and venetian blinds can also
be used.
 Since daytime temperatures are high during summer, the windows should
be kept closed to keep the hot air out and opened during night time to admit
cooler air.
 The use of 'jaalis'(lattice work) made of wood, stone or RCC may be
considered as they allow ventilation while blocking solar radiation. Measures to
control ventilation of the building as and when required makes it more
comfortable indoors.
 The heat gain through windows can be reduced by using glass with low
transmissivity.

 Change of colour is a cheap and effective technique for lowering indoor
temperatures.
 Colours having low absorptivity should be used to paint the external
surface.
 Darker shades should be avoided for surfaces exposed to direct solar
radiation.
 The surface of the roof can be of white broken glazed tiles.
 The surface of the wall should preferably be textured to facilitate self
shading.
Remarks
 As the winters in this region are uncomfortably cold, windows should be
designed such that they encourage direct gain of solar heat during this period.
 Deciduous trees can be used to shade the building during summer and
admit sunlight during winter.
 Well-insulated and very thick walls give a good thermal performance if the
glazing is kept to a minimum and windows are well shaded.
`
 In case of non-conditioned buildings, a combination of insulated walls and

high percentage of glazing will lead to very uncomfortable indoor conditions.
 Indoor plants can be provided near the window, as they help in
evaporative cooling and in absorbing solar radiation.
 Evaporative cooling and earth air pipe systems can be used effectively in
this climate.
 Desert coolers are extensively used in this climate, and if properly sized,
they can help in achieving comfort levels.
END OF UNIT 5
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Human CLIMATOLOGY AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

• Factors that determine climate of a place

• Climate classifications for building designers in tropics

• body heat loss

• Effects of climatic factors on human body heat loss

• Human thermal comfort

• Use of C.Mahony’s tables

CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT

• Climatology is the study of climate of a place and its elements

• Climate is an integration in time of the physical states of the atmospheric environment,

• The Earth's Climatic Zones

Factors Determining Climate of a place

A. Solar Radiation- Quality

B. Solar Radiation- Quantity

C. Tilt of the Earth’s axis

D. Radiation at the earth’s surface

E. The earth’s thermal Balance

F. Winds -Thermal Forces

G. Trade winds- the coriolis force

H. Mid-latitude westerlies (wind blowing from west)

J. Annual wind shifts

A.Solar Radiation- Quality

• Sun is the dominating influence on climates

• The spectrum of solar radiation extends from 290 to 2300 nm

B.Solar Radiation- Quantity

C.Tilt of the Earth’s axis

• The axis is tilted at an angle of 23.5º

• Maximum intensity is received on a plane normal to the direction of radiation

D.Radiation at the earth’s surface

• Atmosphere depletion(The absorption of radiation by ozone, vapours and dust particles in

E.The earth’s thermal Balance

The earth’s surfaces releases heat by three processes:

• By long wave radiation to cold outer space-84 % re radiation abosorbed in the

Trade winds- the coriolis force

Wind in these zones are typically light and variable

Annual wind shifts

• Air can be diverted or funnelled by mountain ranges.

• Temperature also decreases as one moves toward higher elevations.

 Temperature - dry-bulb temperature, expressed in ºC

• Wind velocity measured in m/s.

• Absolute humidity (AH)

• Saturation point humidity(SH)

The amount of moisture the air can hold to the maximum.

• Relative humidity (RH)

Another expression of atmospheric humidity is the vapour pressure – partial pressure of

 Solar radiation– quantitative recordings measured by a pyranometer,

• Are usually described in terms of presence or absence of clouds on average, two

• Vegetation can inturn influence the local or site climate

Climate classifications for building designers in tropics

Climate classifications for building designers in Tropics

• Warm- Humid equatorial climate

subgroup: Warm-humid island or trade-wind climate

• Hot-dry desert, or semi desert climate

subgroup: Hot dry maritime desert climate

• Composite or Monsoon climate-combination of the above two

subgroup: Tropical upland climate

Body’s Heat Gain

Heat is continuously produced by the body.

Heat is also produced due to metabolism which is divided into

• – heat reproduction of vegetative, automatic process which are continuous

• Muscular metabolism – heat production of muscles while work.

Factors that affect human comfort are