CHAPTER 7

Electricity
and
Magnetism

E
7 .1 Electrical Force and Charge LECTRICITY UNDERLIES almost
7.2 Coulomb's Law everything around us. It's in the
7.3 Electric Field lightning from the sky, it powers
7 .4 Electric Potential devices from computers to flashlights, and
7. 5 Conductors and lnsulators it's what holds atoms together to form mol-
7 .6 Voltage Sources ecules. But what is electricity? Why can you
7 .7 Electric Current feel a spark when you grab a doorknob after
7 .8 Electrical Resistance
HISTORY OF SCIENCE ...scuffing your feet along the carpet? What's
110 Volts the difference between electric current and
7.9 Ohm's Law voltage-and which of these gives us electric
MATH CON N ECTION
Ohm's Law shocks? How do electric circuits work? Is
INTEGRATED SCIENCE 7A BIOLOGY electricity related to magnetism- if so, how?
Eledric Shock
How do the magnetic strips on credit cards,
7 . 10 ElectricCircuits
timing systems for traffic lights, and metal
7 .11 Electric Power
MATH CONNECTION detectors at airports tap both magnetic and
Solving Power Prob/ems
electrical forces? We begin our study with a
7 .12 The Magnetic Force
fundamental idea-the concept of electric
7. 13 Magnetic Fields
INTEGRATED SCIEN CE 78 BIOLOGY charge.
ANO EARTH SCIENCE
Earth's Magnetic Field and the Abi!ity
of Organisms to Sense lt
7 .14 Magnetic Forces ~n Moving Charges

7 .15 Electromagnetic lnduction

HISTORY OF SCIENCE
Generators and PowerProduction
TECHNOLOGY
Eledromagnetic lnduciion in Everyday Techno!ogies
148 PART ONE PHYSICS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Distinguish between negative
and positive electric charges.
El Electrical Force and Charge
E X P LA 1N T H 1s W hat is meanc by saying that elecrric charge is conserved?
1

uppose that the universe consisred of cwo kinds of parricles-say, positive

UNIFYING CONCEPT
• The Electric Force S and negarive. Suppose chat positives repelled positives but attracted nega-
tives, and that negatives repelled negatives bue attracted positives. Whar
would che universe be like? The answer is simple: Ir would be like che one we are
living in. For chere are such particles and there is such a force-the electric force.
The cerms posítive and negative refer to electric charge, che fundamencal quan-
ticy that underlies all electric phenomena. T he positively charged particles in
ordinary maccer are protons, and the negatively charged particles are electrons.
C harge is noc something added to protons and electrons. Ir is a basic attribuce of
chem, jusc as gravicacional attracciveness is an attribute of any mass.
(a) The attraction becween protons and eleccrons pulls them togecher into tiny
unics- acoms. (Atoms also contain neutral particles called neutrons. More in-
teresting .details abouc atoms are presented in Pare Two of chis book.) In order
ro underscand che basic principles of electricicy, however, we muse preview sorne
fundamental faces abouc atoros:
l. Every atom is composed of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by nega-
t ively charged eleccrons.
(b) 2. Each of che electrons in any atom has che same quantity of negative charge
and che same mass. Eleccrons are identical to one anocher.
FIGURE 7 . 1 (;;:•
INTERACTIVE FIGURE"'- ~ 3. Protons and neucrons make up che nudeus. (The only excepcion is che mosc
common form of hydrogen atom, which has no neucrons.) Procons are abouc
(a) Like charges repel. (b) Un like
1800 times more massive than eleccrons, bue each proton carries an amoum
charges attract.
of positive ch arge equal to the negative charge of che electrons. Neutrons have
slighdy more mass t han protons, and chey have no net charge.
Normally, an acom has as many electrons as protons. When an acom loses one or
more electrons, it has a positive nec charge; when it gains one or more electrons, it has
MasteringPhysics· a negative net charge. A charged atom is called an ion. A positive ion has a net positive
TUTORIAL: Electrostatics charge. A negative ion, with one or more extra eleccrons, has a net negative charge.
Material objects are made of acoms, which in turn are composed of eleccrons
and prorons (a~d neutrons as well). Although che innermosc eleccrons in an atom
are attracted very strongly to che oppositely charged acomic nucleus, che oucermosc
electrons of many atoms are attracted more loosely and can be dislodged. The
amount of work required to tear an electron away from an atom varíes for different

F 1G U RE 7 . 2 /""•
INTERACTIVE FIGURE"'- {~
Model of a helium arom. The atomic
nucleus is made up of two prorons
and two nemrons. The positively FIGURE 7 . 3
charged protons attract rwo nega- Fur has a greater affinity for electrons than plastic. So, when a plastic rod is rubbed wirh
t ively charged electrons. What is the fur, eleccrons are transferred from the fur ro che rod. T he rod is then negatively charged.
net charge of chis arom ? By how much compared with the rod? Posirively or negarively?
 CHAPTER 7 ELECTR I CI TY AND MAGNETISM 149

substances. Electrons are held more firmly in rubber or plastic than in your hair,
for example. Thus, when you rub a comb against your hair, electrons transfer from
rhe hair to the comb. The comb then has an excess of electrons and is said to be
negatively charged. Your hair, in turn, has a deficiency of electrons and is said to be Negative and positive are just
na mes given to opposite charges.
positively charged.
The names chosen could just as well
So, protons attract electrons and we have atoms. Electrons repel electrons and have been east and west, or up and
we have matter- because aroms don't mesh into one another. This pair of rules down, or Mary and Larry. Positive
charge is not "better" than negative
is the guts of electricity.
charge-the two kinds of charge are
just opposites of each other.
Conservation of Charge
Another basic fact of electricity is that, whenever somerhing is charge~, no elecrrons
are created or destroyed. Electrons are simply transferred from one material to an-
other. Charge is comerved. In every evem, wherher large-scale or at the atomic and
nuclear leve!, the principle of conservation ofcharge has always been found to apply.
No case of the creation or destruction of charge has ever- been found (Figure 7.4).

CHECK YOURSELF
lf you walk across a rug and scuff electrons from your feet, are you nega-
FIGURE 7 . 4
tively or positively charged?
Why will you gec a slighc shock from
che doorknob afcer scuffing across
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
che carpec?
You have fewe r electro ns af ter yo u scuf f you r f eet, so you are positively
charged (and the rug is negatively ch arged).

Hw Coulomb's Law LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Relate the inverse-square la w t o
Ex P LA 1N T H 1s What do Newton's law of gravity an d Coulomb's law have in electrical fo rces.

common?

T
he elecrric force, like the gravitacional force, decreases inversely as the
square of the disrance becween the charges. This relacionship, which was
discovered by Charles Coulomb in the 18th century, is called Coulomb's
law. Ic states that, for two charged objects thac are much smaller than the distance
between them, the force between them varies directly as the produce of their charges
and inversely as the square of the distance becween them. The force acts along a
srraight line from one charge to che ocher. Coulomb's law can be expressed as
F = k qiq2
d1
where dis rhe distance berween rhe charged parricles, q 1 is the charge on one panicle,
q2 is rhe charge on the second parricle, and k is che proportionalicy conscant.
T he unic of electric charge is called rhe coulomb, abbreviaced C. lt turns
c
out that a charge of 1 is equal in magnicude to the total charge of 6.25 bil-
lion billion electrons. This might seem like a great number of electrons, but it
represents only rhe amount of charge that flows through a common 100-watt
lightbulb in a liccle more chan a second. Dividing che value of 1 C by che num-
ber of electrons with this much charge, we find the charge on a single electron:
1.60 X 10- 19 C. An electron and a proton carry this same magnitude of charge.
150 PART ONE PHYSICS
....
FIGUR E 7 . 5
T he negatively charged balloon
polarizes molecules in che wooden
wall and creaces a positively charged
surface, so che balloon scicks to che
wall.
(a)
(b)
F I GURE 7. 6
An eleccron buzzing around che
acomic nucleus makes up an eleccron
cloud. (a) T he center of che negative
"cloud" of eleccrons coincides wich
che cencer of che posirive nucleus in
an atom. (b) W hen an external nega-
cive charge is brough r nearby, as on a
charged balloon, che electron cloud is
discorced so chac che centers of nega-
cive and posirive charge no longer
coincide. The atom is elecrrically
polarized.
Because all charged objects carry multiples of this charge, 1.60 X 10- 19 C is
considered rhe fundamental charge.
The proportionality constant k in Coulomb's law is similar to G in Newton's
law of graviry. lnstead of being a very small number, like G, however, k is a very
large number-approximately ·
k = 9,000,000,000 N ·m2/ C 2
In scientific notation, k = 9.0 X 109 N ·m2/ C 2 . The unir N ·m2/ C 2 is not cen-
tral to our interest here; it simply converts the right-hand side of the equation to
the unit of force, the newton (N). What is important is rhe large magnirude of k.
If, for example, a pair of charges of 1 coulomb each were 1 meter apart, the force
of repulsion berween rhe two would be 9 billion N. That would be about ten
times the weight of a battleship. Obviously, such quantities of unbalanced charge
do not usually exist in our everyday environment .
So, Newton's law of gravitation for masses is similar to Coulomb's law for
electrically charged bodies. T he most important difference between gravitational
and electrical forces is that electrical forces may be either attractive or repulsive,
whereas gravitational forces are only atrractive.
CHECK YOURSELF
1. The proton is the nucleus of the hydrogen atom, and it attracts the elec-
tron that orbits it. Relative to this force, does the electron attract the
proton with less force, more force, or the same amount of force?
2. lf a proton ata particular distance from a charged particle is repelled
with a given force, by how much will the force decrease when the pro- ·
ton is three times as distant from the particle? When it is five times as
distant?
3. What is the sign of the charge on the particle in this case?
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS
1. Th e same amount of force, in accord with Newton's th ird law- basic
mechanics! Recall that a force is an interaction between two things-in
this case, between the proton and the electron. They pull on eacr other
equally.
2. In accord with the inverse-square law, it decreases to ~ of its original
E
value when it is three times farther away and to of its original value
when it is five times farther away.
3. The sig n is positive.
Charge Polarization
lf you charge an inflated balloon by rubbing it on your hair and then place the
balloon againsr a wall, it sticks (Figure 7.5). This is because th.e charge on the
balloon alrers rhe charge disrriburion in the atoros or molecules in rhe wall, effec-
tively inducing an opposite charge on the wall. The molecules cannot move from
their relarively srationary positions, but their "centers of charge" are moved. The
positive part of the atom or molecule is atrracred roward the balloon while rhe
negative part is repelled. This has the effect of distorting rhe atoro or molecule
(Figure 7.6). T he atom or molecule is said to be electrically polarized. (We will
treat electrical polarization further in Chapter 12.)
 CHAPTER 7 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 151

BI Electric Field LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Relate t he gravitationa l field to
E X P LA 1N T H 1s How does the magnitude of an elecrric field relate to the the electric field.
force that acts on a positive test charge placed in the field?

lectrical forces, like gravitational forces, can act between things that are

E not in contact with each other. How do bodies thar are not touching exert
forces on one another? To model "action-at-a-distance" forces such as
gravity and the electric force, we use the concept of the force field. Every mass is
MasteringPhysicsº
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Generator
surrounded by a gravitational field, while an elecrric field surrounds any charged
objecr. Since you are more familiar with the gravitational force rhan the electric
force ar rhis point, firsr consider how the gravitational field works. The space sur-
rounding any mass is altered such that another mass imroduced into this region
experiences a force. This "alterarion in space" is called irs gravitational field. We
can think of any orher mass as interacring wirh rhe ·field and aot direccly wirh An electric f ield is nature's store-
the mass that produces it. For example, when an apple falls from a tree, we say
that it is interacting with the mass of Earth, but we can also rhink of an apple as
responding to the gravirarional field of Earrh ar that point.
Similarly, rhe space around every electric charge is filled with an electric
field- an energeric aura rhar extends through space. An electric field is a vector
quantity, having borh magnitude and direction. The magnitude of rhe field at
any point is simply the force per unir charge. If a charge q experiences a force F at
sorne point in space, then the elecrric field at that point is E = F/ q. The direc-
tion of che electric field is away from posirive charge and toward negative charge.
If you place a charged particle in an elecrric field, it will ~xperience a force.
The direction of the force on a positive charge is rhe same direction as the field.
The electric field can bese be visualized with field lines. Field lines show rhe di rec-
tion of the elecrric field-away from positive charge and toward negative charge. F 1G U RE 7. 7 ~·

Field lines also show the intensity of the electric field-where the field lines are
INTERACTIVE FIGURE~ (~
Electric-field represenrarions about a
most tightly bunched together, the field is strongest. T he electric field and field
negative charge.
lines about an electron point toward the electron (Figure 7.7). The elecrric field
and field lines about a proton point in the opposite direction- rad ially away
from rhe proron. As with the electric force, rhe electric field abour a particle
obeys rhe inverse-square law. Sorne elecrric-field configurations are shown in
Figure 7.8.
¡¡:
-- ~
+
+
... .._~ -

L.:

(a) (b) (e)

FIGURE 7.8 ~·
INTERACTIVE FIGURE~ (~
Sorne electric-field configurations. (a) Field lines about a single positive ch arge. (b) Field lines for
a pair of equal bue opposite charges. (e) Field lines between two oppositely charged parallel piares.
 152 PART ONE PHYSICS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Distinguish between e lectric
Mil Electric Potential
potentia l e nergy and electric EXPLAI N TH 1 s Why aren't you harmed when yo u couch a 5000-V party
pot ential.
balloon?

n our srudy of energy in C haprer 4, we learned thar an object has gravita-

I tional potem ial energy due to its location in a gravitational field. Similarly, a
charged object has potential energy dueto irs locarion in an electric field. Just
as work is requi red to lift a massive object against the gravitational field of Earth,
work is required to push a charged particle against che electric field of a charged
body. This work changes the electric potential energy (PE) of che charged par-
t icle. This is similar ro che work done in compressing a spring, increasing the
(a) potential energy of the spring (Figure 7.9a). Likewise, che work done in pushing
a positively charged particle closer to the positively charged sphere in Figure 7.9b

o---------- F
@
increases the potential energy of che charged particle. We call this energy pos-
sessed by the ch arged particle that is due to its location electric potential
en er gy. If the particle is released, ir accelerates in a direction away from the
fF+), ____~ sphere, and its electric potential energy changes ro kinetic energy.
(b] 'zd ~ Ifwe push a particle with rwice che charge, we do twice as much work. Twice
FIGURE 7 . 9
the charge in the same location has twice che potenrial energy; with chree times
(a) The spring has more elastic PE
when it is compressed. (b) T he small
the charge, there is chree rimes as much potencial energy; and so on. When
charge similarly has more PE when it working with elecrricity, rarher than dealing with che total potential energy of a
is pushed closer m the sphere of 1ike charged body, we find it is convenienc to consider the elecrric potential energy
charge. I n borh cases, rhe increased per charge. We simply divide the amount of energy by che amount of charge. T he
PE is the result of work inpuc.
electric potencial eµergy per amount of charge is called electric potential; thar is,
electric potencial energy
Elecrric potencial = h
e arge
T he unit of measuremenc for electric potenrial is the volt, so elecrric potential
is often called vo!tage. A potentiafof 1 volt (V) equals 1 joule (J) of energy per
coulomb (C) of charge:
1 joule
1 volt=----
+~+ coulomb
\++
+
+ T hus, a 1.5-volt battery gives 1.5 joules of energy to every 1 coulomb of charge
+
+ +
+ :o+
+ •
++++

+++++
+
FIGURE 7 . 10
The larger test charge has more PE
in the fleld of the charged dome, bue
the electric potencial of any amount
of ch arge at che same location is che
same.
flowing through the battery. Electric potential and volrage are the same thing,
and the two terms are commonly used interchangeably.
The signifkance of electric potential (voltage) is that a definite value for it can
be assigned to a location. We can speak about the voltages at different locations
in an electric field w hether or not charges occupy those locations (Figure 7.10).
T he same is true of voltages at various locations in an electric circuir. Later in this
ch apter, we'll see that the location of a positive terminal of a 12-volt battery is
maintained ata voltage 12 volts higher than che location of che negative terminal.
W hen a conducting medium connects this vo!tage difference, any charges in che
medium will move berween these locations.

CHECK YOURSELF
1. Suppose there were twice as many coulombs in one of the t est cha rges
near the charg ed sphe re in Figure 7.1 0. Would the electric potential
energy of this t est cha rge relative to the charged sphere be t he same,

...
 CHA PTER 7 ELECTRICITY AN O M A G N ETISM 153

or would it be twice as· great? Would the electric potential of the test
charge be the same, or would it be twice as great?
2. What does it mean to say that your car has a 12-volt battery?

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

1. The result of twice as many coulombs is twice as much electric potential
energy because it takes twice as much work to put the charge there. But
the electric potential would be the same. Twice the energy divided by FIGURE 7 . 11
twice the charge gives the same potential as one unit of energy divided Although rhe volrage of che charged
by one unit of charge. Electri c potential is not the same thing as electric balloon is h igh, the electric potencial
potential energy. Be su re you understand this before you read any further. energy is low because of che small
2. lt mea ns that one of the battery termina Is is 12 V higher in potential amounr of charge.
than the other one. Soon we' ll see that it also mea ns that, when a circuit
is conn ected between these termina Is, each coulo mb of charge in th e
resulting current wi ll be given 12 J of energy as it passes through the bat-
tery (and 12 J of ehergy is "spent" in the circuit) ." - Hi gh voltage at low energy is
very si mila r to the harm less h ig h-
temperature sparks emitted by a
Fourth of July sparkler. Tempera-
ture, the ratio of energy/ molecule,
means a lot of energy only if a lot
Rub a balloon on your hair, and the balloon becomc;:s negatively charged- of molecules are involved. High
perhaps ro several thousand volts. That would be several thousand joules of en- voltage means a lot of energy o nly
if a lot of charge is invo lved.
ergy, if the charge were 1 coulomb. However, 1 coulomb is a fairly respectable
amount of charge. The charge on a balloon rubbed on hair is typically much less
than a millionth of a coulomb. Therefore, the amount of energy associared w ith
che charged balloon is very, very small (Figure 7.11).

wJw Conductors and Insulators LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Distinguish between electric con-
E X P LA 1N T H 1sWhat is the role of electro ns in conducring materials and in ductors and insulators.

insulating materials?

lectric conductors are materials that allow charged particles (usually electrons)

E to pass through them easily. Copper, silver, and other metals are good electric
conductors for the same reason they are good heat conductors: Atoros of met-
als have one or more outer electrons that are loosely bound ro their nuclei. These are
There are great differences in t he
electrical conductivity of co nduc-
t o rs and insul ators. For exam ple,
called free electrons. Ir is these free electrons that conduct through a merallic conduc-
in a common appliance cord, elec-
tor when an electrical force is applied to them, making up a current. (A current is a trons flow through several meters
Aow of cbarged parricles, usually electrons, which is discussed in Secrion 7.7.) of metal wire rather than t hrough
The electrons in other materials-rubber and glass, for example- are tightly a sma ll fraction of a centimeter of
vinyl or rubber insulation.
bound and belong to particular atoms. Consequently, ir isn't easy to make them
flow. These materials are poor electric conductors for the same reason they are
generally poor heat conductors. Such a m aterial is called a good insulator.
All substances can be arranged in arder of their electrical conductiviry. Those at
the top of the list are conduci;ors and those at the bottom are insulators. T he ends of
the listare very far apart. The conductivity of a metal, for example, can be more than
a million rrillion times grearer rhan the conductiviry of an insulator such as glass.
Sorne rnaterials are neither good conductors nor good insulators; they are Miniaturized semiconducti ng
electronic components take up
semiconductors. These materials fall into the midrange of conductivity, since less space, and they are faster and
they possess few electrons that are free to move. H owever, the number of free requ ire less energy to operate than
elecrrons in a semiconductor can be adjusred by introducing sm all amounts of old-fashi o ned circu it com po nents.

anorher element. This process is called doping. By doping a semiconductor, a

154 PART ONE PHYSICS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Recognize how a potential
difference is necessary for
electric current.
F I GURE 7 . 12
An unusual sou rce of volcage. T he
electric potential between the head and
tail of che electric eel (Electrophorus
electricus) can be as high as 650 V
scientist can creare a conductor with a specific conducrivity. Silicon and germanium
are the mosr common semiconductors. These elemems, once they have been
doped, serve as rhe basic material for computer chips and miniacurized electronic
components-rransistors, for example. Transistors~re essential components of
computers and other electronic devices. A transistor can act as a conductor or as
an insulator depending on che applied voltage, controlling che flow of charge to
differem pares of a circuir.
MiM Voltage Sources
E X P LA 1 N T H 1s Why is an electric baccery often called an electric pump?
W
hen the ends of an elecrric conductor are at differem electric poten-
tials-when there is a potential difference-charges in che conduc-
tor ílow from che higher potential to che lower pocential. The ílow
of charges persists umil both ends reach che same potential. Without a potencial
difference, no flow of charge will occur.
To attain a sustained flow of charge in a conductor, sorne arrangemem must
be provided to maintain a difference in potential while charge flows from one
end ro another. The situation is analogous to the flow of water from a higher
reservoir to a lower one (Figure 7.13a). Water will flow in a pipe that connects
the reservoirs only as long as a difference in the water levels exists. The flow of
water in the pipe, like che flow of charge in a wire, will cease when the pressures
at each end are equal. A continuous flow is possible if the difference in the water
levels- and hence che difference in che water pressures-is maimained with che
use of a suitable pump (Figure 7.13b).
A sustained electric current requires a suitable pumping device to maintain a
difference in electric potencial- to maintain a voltage. Chemical batteries or gen-
erators are "electrical pumps" chac can maintain a sceady flow of charge. These
devices do work to pull negacive charges apare from positive ones. In chemical bac-
teries, chis work is done by the chemical disintegracion of lead or zinc in acid, and
che energy scored in che chemical bonds is converted in to electric potential energy.
(See Chapcer 13 for a discussion of how batteries work.) Generacors separare charge
by electromagnetic induccion, a process described lacer in this chapcer.
Higher J Lower)
pressure pressure
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7 . 13
(a) Water flows from che reservoi r of higher pressure to the reservo ir of lower pressu re.
T he flow will cease when the difference in pressure ceases. (b) Water continues to flow
because the pump m ai ntains a difference in pressure.
 CHAPTER 7 EL ECTRIC ITY AND MAGNETISM 155

T he work that is done (by whatever means) in separating the opposite charges
is available at che terminals of che battery or generator. This energy per charge
provides che difference in potencial (voltage) that provides che "electrical pres-
sure" to move electrons through a circuir joined to rhose terminals. A common In ac circuits, 120 volts is what is
called the "root-mean-square"
automobile battery provides an electrical pressure of 12 volts to a circuir connected
average of the volt age. The actua l
across its terminals. Then 12 joules of energy are supplied to each coulomb of vo ltage in a 120-vo lt ac circuit var-
charge that is made to f!ow in the circuir. A simple battery that can be made with íes between + 170 volt s and -170
volts, delivering the same power
a lemon provides about 1 V. (lnstructions for making a lemon battery are given
to an iron or a toast er as a 120-volt
in Exercise 36 at che end of che chapter.) de circuit .

Electric Current LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Relate the speed of electrons in a
E X P LA 1N T H 1 s What kind of currenc is produced by a battery? -By a generator? circuit to de and ac.

ust as water currenc is a f!ow of H 20 molecules, electric current is a flow

1 of ch arged particles. In circuits of metal wires, electrons make up che flow

of charge. In mecals, one or more electrons from each atom are free to move
throughout che atomic lattice. These charge carriers are called conduction elec-
trons. Protons, on che ocher hand, do not move because they are bound within
che nuclei of atoms thac are more or less locked in fixed positions. In fluids, how-
'<"

ever, positive ions as well as electrons may make up che flow of an electric charge.
This occurs inside a com mon automobile battery.
An important difference becween water flow and electron flow has to do w ith
cheir conductors. If you purchase a water pipe ar a hardware store, che clerk
doesn't sel! you che water ro flow through it. You provide that yourself. By con-
FIGURE 7 . 14
trast, when you buy an "elecrric pipe" (that is, an electric wire), you also get che
Each coulomb of charge rhac is made
eleccrons. Every bit of matter, wires included, concains enormous numbers of to flow in a circuir rhac conneccs che
electrons that swarm about in random directions. When a source of voltage sets ends of ch is 1.5-V flash lighr cell is
them moving, we have an electric circuir. energized with 1.5 ] .
The rate of electrical flow is measured in amperes. An ampere is che rate of
flow of 1 coulomb of charge per second. (That's a flow of 6.25 billion billion
electrons per second.) For example, in a wire that carries 4 amperes to a car
headlighc bulb, 4 coulombs of charge flow pase any cross section in che wire each
second. We often thin k of current flow ing
lt is inceresting to note th at the speed of electrons as they drift chrough a through a circuit, but we don't
say this around somebody who
wire is surprisingly slow. This is because electrons continually bump into at- is picky about gramma r, because
oms in che wire. The net speed, or drift speed, of electrons in a typical circuir is the expression "current f lows" is
much less than 1 centimeter per second. The electrical signa!, however, travels at redundant. More properly, charge
flows-which is current.
nearly che speed of light. Thac's the speed at which the electric field in che wire
is established .

André-Marie Ampére is often

, called the "Newton of elect ric-
Dircct Current and Alternating Current ity." In the 1820s he show ed that
Electric current may be de or ac. By de, we mean direct current, which refers parallel wires carrying current in the
same direction attract each other,
to charges flowing in only one direction. A battery produces direct currenc in
and he postulated t hat circulating
a circuir because che terminals·of che battery always have the same sign. Elec- charge is responsible for magnetism.
trons move from the repelling negative terminal toward the attracting positive In his honor, the unit for current is the
terminal, and they always mové rhrough che same circuir in che same direction. ampere, oft en shortened to amps.

........
156 PART ONE PHYSIC S
FIGURE 7 . 15
T ime graphs of direcr and alcernating
curren c.
MasteringPhysics·
VIDEO: Alternating Current
VIDEO: Caution on Handling Wires
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Relate the length and width of
wires to electrical resistance.
lnsulat or
FIGURE 7 . 16
T he conduction electrons chat surge
to and fro in che filament of che
incandescent lamp do not come
from che voltage source. They are
in che fi lament ro begin wirh. T he
volcage source simply provides them
wirh surges of energy. When che
volrage source is swirched on, che
very rhin rungscen filamenr heacs up
ro 3000ºC and roughly doubles irs
resisra nce.
Alternating current (ac) acts as the name implies.
Electrons in the circuir are moved first in one direc-
tion and then in the opposite direction, alternating
to and fro about relativelyJ ixed positions (Figure 7.15).
.....e: Time T his is accomplished in a generator or alternator by
V
..... periodically switching the sign at che terminals.
.....
:::::5 Nearly all commercial ac circuits involve currents that
u
alternare back and forth at a frequency of 60 cycles
per second. This is 60-hertz currem. (One cycle per
second is called a hen z.) In sorne countries, 25-hertz,
30-hertz, or 50-hertz current is used.
M :I Electrical Resistance
E X P LA 1 N T H 1s What distinguishes a conductor from a superconductor?
ow much current is in a circuir depends not only on voltage but also
H on the electrical resistance of the circuit. Just as narrow pipes resist
water flow more rhan wide pipes, thin wires resise eleccric current more
tha n thicker wires. And length comributes to resistance also. Just as long pipes
have more resistance than short ones, long w ires offer more electrical resistance.'
Most important is the material from which the wires were m ade. Copper has
a low electrical resistance, while a strip of rubber has an enormous resistance.
Temperature also affects electrical resistance. The greater the jostling of atoms
within a conductor (the higher the temperature), the greater its resistance. The
resistance of sorne materials reaches zero ar very low temperatures. T hese materi-
als are referred to as superconductors.
Electrical resistance is measured in units called ohms. T he Greek letter omega,
fl , is commonly used as che symbol for the ohm. T he unir was named after
Georg Simon O hm, a German physicist who, in 1826, discovered a simple and
very important relationship among voltage, current, and resistance.
( Resistor
'- Line
- Switch
- Valve
Voltage so urce """'
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7 . 17
Analogy berween a sim ple hydraulic circuir and an electric circuit. (a) ln a hydraulic
circuir, a narrow pipe (green) offers resistance ro water flow. (b) In an eleccric circuir,
a lamp or orher device (shown by rhe zigzag symbol for resistance) offers resisrance ro
elecrron flow.
 CHAPTER 7 ELECTR I CI T Y AN D MAG N ETIS M 157

110 Volts
In the early days of elecrric lighting, high volrages burned
out clecrric filaments, so low volr.ages were more practica!.
The hundreds of power planes built in rhe United Srares
prior ro 1990 adop red 110 volrs (or 11 5 volrs, or 120 volts)
as cheir standard. The tradition of 110 volts was decided
upon because it made che bulbs of rhe <lay glow as brighdy
as a gas lamp. By the rime elecrric lighting became popular
in Europe, engineers had figu red ouc how ro make light-
bulbs rhac would not burn our so fase ar higher volrages.
Power rransmission is more efficienr at higher volrages,
so Europe adopred 220 volrs as che standard. The Unired
Srates remained wich 110 volts (today, ir is officially
120 volts) becausc of che inicial huge expense necessary to
install 11O-volt equipment.

MU ühm'sLaw LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Relate current, voltage, and re-
E X P LA 1N T H 1s What is the source of electrons in a body undergoing sistance in electric circuits.
electric shock?

T
he relationship among voltage, current, and resistance is summa-
rized by a statement known as Ohm's law. Ohm discovered thac the
amounc of currenc in a circuir is directly proporcional to che voltage The u nit of resistance is the ohm,
established across the circuir and is inversely proporcional to che resistance fl-li ke the o ld cowboy song,
of the circuir: "fl, {l on the Range."

voltage
Current = resistance
MasteringPhysics"
VIDEO: Ohm'~ Law
Or, in che forro of units,

volts
Amperes = - h-
o ms
'
And, in symbolic forro [since V stands for volrage (in volts), I for currem (in am-
i! ,.. +·
1· 1 •

11' ~ ~~
peres), and R for resistance (in ohms)], we express Ohm's law as

V 1
I=
R
FIGURE 7 . 18

So, for a given circuir of conscanc electrical resistance, currenc and volrage are Resistors. The graphic symbol for a
resistor in an cleccric circuir is .J\/V'-.
proporcional to each other. T his means thac we'll get cwice the currenc for rwice
the volrage. The greacer che voltage, the greater che current. But, if rhe resisc-
ance is doubled for a circuir, che currenc will be half whac ic would have been
ocherwise. The greater the resiscance, che sm aller the currenc. Ohm's law makes
good sense. ,,
The resiscance of a cypical lamp cord is much less chan 1 ohm, and a cypical
lighcbulb has a resistance greacer than 100 ohms. An iron or an electric toascer Current is a flow of cha rge, pres-
has a resistance of 15 to 20 ohms. The currenc inside these and ali other electrical sured into motion by voltage and
hampered by resistance.
devices is regulated by circuir elemencs called resistors (Figure 7.18), whose resist-
ance may be a few ohms or millions of ohms.
158 PART ONE PHYSICS

Ohm's Law 2. Whar is the resistance of a toasrer thac draws a current of

, V 12 A when connecced cq a 120'-V circuit?
We can rearrange Ohm s law to show rhac I = - can be
V R Solutions
expressed R = - . If any rwo variables are known, che chird , voltage 12 V
I . l. From Ohms law: Current = . = ,-,. = 0.2 A
can be found. res1srance 6O "
2 . Rearranging Ohm's law, we get
Problem s
l. How much current is in a lamp of resistance 60 when voltage l 20 V
Resistan ce = -- = - - = 1O n
t he volrage across che lamp is 12 V? current 12 A

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ~ lntegrated Science 7A

Relate electrical phenomena to
electric shock.
L.::J BIOLOGY
Electric Shock
Ex P LA 1N T H 1s W hat is the so urce of the electrons that shock a person?

T
he damaging effects of electric shock are the result of current passing .
through the human body. But what causes electric shock in the body-
current or voltage? From O hm's law, we can see that this current depends
on the voltage that is applied and also on the electrical resistance of the human
body. T he resistance of one's body depends on its condition, and the resistance
ranges from about 100 ohms, if the body is soaked with salt water, to about
500,000 ohms, if the skin is very dry. If we rouch the two electrodes of a battery
with d ry fingers, completing the circuit from one hand to the other, we offer a
resistance of about 100,000 ohms. We usually cannot feel 12 volts, and 24 volts just
barely tingles. If our skin is moist, 24 volts can be quite uncomfortable. Table 7.1
lists the effects that different amounts of current have on the human body.
To receive a shock, there must be a difference in electric potential between one
parr of your body·and another parr. Most of the current will pass along the path of
least electrical resistance connecting these two points. Suppose you fell from a bridge
and managed to grab onto a high-voltage power line, halting your fall. So long as
you touch nothing that has a different potential, you will receive no shock at ali.
Even if the wire is a few thousand volts above ground porential and you hang by it
with two hands, no appreciable charge w ill flow from one hand to the other. T his
is because there is no appreciable difference in potential between your two hands.
If, however, you reach over with one hand and grab onto a wire that has a different

0.001 Can b e fe lt
·o.oos Is painful
O.Q10 Causes invo luntary muscle contractions (spasms)
0 .15 Cau ses loss of muscle co ntrol
0.70 Goes through the heart; cau ses serious disruption; probably fatal if
current lasts longer than 1 s
 CHAPTER 7 EL ECTRI CITY AND MAGNETI SM 159

potential- zap! We have all seen birds perched on high-voltage wires. Every part of
their bodies is at the same potential as rhe wire, so rhey feel no ill effects (Figure 7.19).
Many people are killed each year from common 120-volt electric circuirs. If your
hand touches a faulry 120-volt light fixture while your feet are on the ground, rhere's
likely a 120-volt "electrical pressure" between your hand and the ground. Resistance
to current is usually grearest between your feet and the ground, and so che current
is usually not enough to do serious harm. Bue if your feec and the ground are wet,
FIGURE 7 . 19
there is a low-resistance electrical path between you and the ground. Pure water is The bird can stand harmlessly on
not a good conductor. But che ions that normally are found in water make ir a fair one wire of high potential, but ir had
conductor. Oissolved materials in water, especially small quamities of salt, lower the better not reach over and rouch a
resistance even more. There is usually a !ayer of salr remaining on your skin from neighboring wire. Why nor?
perspiration, which, when wet, lowers your skin resisrance to a few hundred ohms
or less. Handling electrical devices when wet is a definite no-no.
Injury by electric shock occurs in three forms: (1) burning of rissues by heac- While A lexandra Volta was
ing, (2) comraction of muscles, and (3) d isruptiop. of cardia_,c rhythm. These experimenting with metals
and acids in 1791 he touched a silver
conditions are caused by rhe delivery of excessive power for too long a time in
spoon and a piece of tinto his tongue
critica! regions of the body. (saliva is slightly acidic) and connected
Electric shock can upset the nerve center that controls breathing. In rescu- them wit h a piece of copper wire.
ing shock victims, the first thi ng to do is remove them from the source of rhe The sour taste indicated electricity.
electriciry. Use a dry wooden stick or sorne other nonconducrnr so thac you don't He went on to assemble a pi le o f cells
to form a battery. In Volta's honor,
get eleccrocuted yourself Then apply artificial respira6on. lt is importanc to con-
electric potential is measured in units
cinue artificial respiration. There have been cases of viccims oflighcning who did of "volts." (Touch the t wo term inals
not breathe wichout assistance for severa! hours but who were eventually revived of a 9-volt battery to your tongue to
and complecely regained good health. experience this for yourse lf.)

CHECK YOURSELF
1. What causes electric shock-current or voltage7
2. At 100,000 n, how much current will flow through you r body if you
touch the terminals of a 12-V battery7
3. lf your skin is very moist, so that your resistance is only 1000 !l, and you
touch the termina Is of a 12-V battery, how much current do you receive7

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

1. Electric shock occurs w hen current is produced in the body, but the cur-
rent is caused by impressed voltage.
voltage 12
2. Current = --.- - V = 0.00012 A.
res1stance 100.000 n
FIG U RE 7 . 20
voltage 12 V
3. Current = . OOO n = 0.012 A. Ouch ! The third prong connects rhe body of
res1stance 1 the appliance direct!y ro ground. Any
charge that builds up on an appliance
is rherefore conducted to the ground.
Most electrical plugs and sockecs are wired wirh chree connecrions. The
principal rwo flar prongs on an electrical plug are for che current-carrying dou-
ble wire, one part "live" and rhe other neutral, while the third round prong is
grounded-con nected diroctly to Earth (Figure 7.20). Appliances such as stoves,
washing machines, and dryers are connected with these three wires. If the live
wire accidentally comes into contact wirh rhe metal surface of the appliance and A battery doesn't supp ly electrons
you touch the surface of che appliance, you could receive a dangerous shock. This to a circuit; it instead supplies
won't occur when rhe appliance casing is grounded vía the ground wire, which energy to electrons that already
exist in the circuit.
assures rhar the appliance casing is ar zero ground poremial. A lamp has an insu-
lating body and doesn't need ºthe third (ground) wire.
160 PART ONE PHY SICS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE iJlel Electric Circuits

Distinguish between series and
parallel circuits. E X P LA 1N T H 1sHow can a circuir be connected so that the current in each
device is rhe same?

A
ny path a long which electrons can flow is a circuir. For a cominuous flow
of electrons, there must be a complete circuir with no gaps. A gap is usually
provided by an electric switch that can be opened or closed either to cut
off energy or to allow energy to flow. Most circuits h ave more than one device
chat receives electric energy. T hese devices are commonly connected to a circuir
in one of cwo ways: in series or in para/le!.
A simple series circuit is show n in Figure 7.21. Three lamps are connected
in series with a battery. The same current exists almost immediately in ali chree
lamps when che switch is closed. The current does noc "pile up" or accumulate
in any lamp but flows chrough each lamp. Electrons chac make up this current
leave che negative terminal of the baccery, pass through each of the resistive fila-
mems in the lamps in turn, and then return to che positive terminal of the bat-
tery. (The same amount of currem passes chrough che battery.) This is che only
path of the electrons chrough che circuir. A break anywhere in che path results in
an open circuir, and then che flow of electrons ceases. Such a break occurs when
FIGURE 7 . 21 ; - ..
che switch is opened, when che wire is accidencally cut, or when one of che lamp
INTERACTIVE FIGURE, (~ filaments burns out.
A simple series circuir. T he 6-V bat- le is easy to see che main disadvantage of che series circuir; if one device fails,
tery provides 2 V across each lamp. current in che entire circuir ceases. Sorne cheap C hriscmas-tree lights are con-
nected in series. W hen one bulb burns out, ic's fon and games (or fruscracion)
Mastering Physics• trying to locate which one to replace.
VIDEO: Electric Circuits Mosc circuics are wired so chat ir is possible to operare severa! eleccrical de-
vices, each independendy of che other. In your home, for example, a lamp can be
turned on or off wichouc affeccing che operation of ocher lamps or electrical de-
vices . This is because these devices are connecced not in series bue in parallel wich
one anocher. A simple parallel circuit is shown in Figure 7.22. Three lamps are
connecced co the same cwo points, A and B. Eleccrical devices connecced to che
same two points of an electric circuir are said to be connected in parallel. Eleccrons
leaving rhe negafive terminal of che battery need co travel chrough only one lamp
filament befare returning to the posicive terminal of che battery. In chis case, che
current branches into chree separare pathways from A to B. A break in any one
path does not interrupt che flow of charge in the other paths. Each device oper-
ares independendy of the ochcr devices.

CHECK YOURSELF
1. In a circuit consisting of two lamps connected in series, if the current in
one lamp is 1 A , what is the curren.t in the other lamp?
2. In a circuit consisting of two lamps connected in parallel, if there is 6 V
Electron Voltage ~ across one lamp, what is the voltage across the other lamp?
flow source
F 1G U R E 7 . 2 2 /"'"""4• CHECK YOUR ANSWERS
INTERACTIVE FIGURE, (~ 1. 1 A; current does not "pile up" anywh ere in the ci rcuit.
A simple parallel circuit. A 6-V battery 2. 6 V; the vo ltages in all branches of a parallel ci rcuit are the same.
prov ides 6 V across each lamp.
 CHAPTE R 7 ELECTR IC ITY AN O MAGNET ISM 161

IJll Electric Power LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Relate current and voltage

.
Ex P LA 1N T H 1s Why shouldn't you con nect a 120-V hairdryer to 240 V? to power with their units of
measurement.

T
he moving charges in an electric current do work. This work, for exam-
ple, can heat a circuit or turn a motor. The rate at which chis work is
done-that is, che rate at which electric energy is converted imo another
form, such as mechanical energy, heat, or light-is called electric power. Elec-
tric power is equal to the produce of current and voltage:*
Power = current X voltage = IV
If a lamp rated at 120 volts operares on a 120-volt line, you can figure that it will
drawacurremofl ampere (120 watts = 1 ampere X 120 volts).AGO-wattlamp
draws 1/2 ampere on a 120-volt line. This relationship becomes a practica! mat-
ter when you wish to know the cose of electric energy, which is-usually a small FIGURE 7 . 23
fraction of a dallar per kilowatt-hour, depending on the locality. A kilowan is The power-and-voltage designation
o n rhe incandescent lighcbulb reads
1000 watts, and a kilowan-hour represems the amoum of energy consumed in
"100 W 120 V." H ow many amperes
1 hour at the rate of 1 kilowatt.** Therefore, in a locality where electric energy will flow through the bulb?
costs 25 cents per kilowatt-hour, an incandescent 100-watt electric lightbulb
can operare for 10 hours at a cost of 25 cenes, or a half nickel for each hour
(Figure 7.23). Compact fluorescem lamps (CFLs) are much less expensive to
operate (Figure 7.24).
It is interesting that a 26-W C FL (see Figure 7.24) provides about the same
amount of light as a 100-W incsandescent bulb. Thac's only one-quarter of che
power for che same light! t In addition t0 significantly greater efficiencies, CFLs
also have longer bulb lifetimes.tt lncandescem bulbs are now being replaced
byCFLs.
Another up and coming light source is the light-emitting diode (LEO), the
most primitive being the little red lights that tell you whether your eleccronic
devices are on or off. LEDs that emit a ful! range of colors were developed in the
FIGURE 7 . 24
1960s. Today, LEDs have advanced beyond indicator displays on electronic appli- The power-and-voltage designacion
ances and are common in relevision screens, traffic lights, automobile lights, on che compacc fluorescenc lamp
airport runway lighting, and even billboards. LEDs are compact, efficient, require (CFL) reads "26 W 120 V." It glows
as bright as a more power-consuming
100-W incandescent bulb.

~ Recall from Chapcer 4 that power = ~'¡:;:~; 1 watt = 1 J/s. Note thac che units fo r mechan ical
power and eleccric power agree (work and energy are borh measured in joules):
charge energy energy
Power = -- X - - = -- A bulb's brightness depends
cime charge time
on how much power it uses.
If rhe volcage is expressed in volts and che currenr is expressed in amperes, then che power is A n incandescent bulb that uses
expressed in watts. So, in units form,
100 W is brighter than one that
Watts = amperes X volts uses 60 W. Because of this, many
Using Ohm's law w substituce IR for V, we have an alrernative statemenr for power: power = l 2R. peop le mistakenly think that a watt
** Since power = energy/time, simple rearrangemenr gives energy = power X time; chus energy is a unit of brightness, but it isn't.
can be expressed in rhe un ir kilowa{t-hours (kWh). A 26-W CFL is as bright as a 100-W
t lt turns out that the powcr formula P = IV doesn't apply ro C foLs, because in a CFL che incandescent bulb. Does that mean
alrernating volrage and currenr are out of srep with each other (out of phase), and the produce of
that an incandescent bulb wast es
currenr and volrage is greater than che actual power consumption. How much grearer? Check the
electricity? Yes. The extra electric
prinred data ar rhe base of a CFL.
tt A disadvanrage of CFLs is che uace amounrs of mcrcury sealed in their glass tubing, sorne 4 mg.
power used just heats the bu lb,
Bue che single largesr sou rce of mercury em issions in che environmenr is coal-fired power planrs. which is why incandescent bulbs
According to the EPA, when coa! power is used to illum inate a single incandescenr lamp, more are much hotter to touch than
mercury is released in rhc air rhan exis"ts in a comparably luminous CFL. equal ly bright CFLs.
162 PART ONE PHYS ICS

Solving Power Problems
You'll find that you can answer many practica!, everyday
questions related to electriciry if you know che relation-
ships among power, voltage, and current. Here are two
examples.
Proble m s
l. If a 120 -V line to a socker is limired ro 15 A by a safety
fuse, will ir operare a 1200-W hair dryer?
2. At 30\t/kWh, show that it coses 36\t to operare che
1200-W hair dryer for 1 h. •'
Solutions
l. Yes. From rhe expression watts = amperes X volts, we
can see that current = i¡gg~ = 1O A, so che hair dryer
will operare when connecred to che circuir. Bue rwo hair
dryers on che same circuir will blow che fuse.
2. 1200 W = 1.2 kW; 1.2 kW X 1 h X 30\t/ kWh = 36\t.

no filament, and are long-lasting (about 100 times longer-lasting chan incandes-
cent bulbs). They emit 15 times as much light per watt asan incandescent bulb.
And, they do not contain che traces of harmful mercury found in CFLs. With
competition from CFLs, chen LEDs, wacch for che commonly used incandescent
bulbs to become history.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Establish the rule for the
ljfj The Magnetic Force
attraction and repulsion of
E X P LA 1N T H 1s Why are refrigerator magnets short range?
magnetic poles.

nyone who has played around with magnets knows that magnets exert

A forces on one another. Magnetic forces are similar to electrical forces,

in that magnets can both attract and repel without touching (depend-
ing on which ends of che magnets are held near one another), and che scrength
of their interaction depends on the distance between them. W hereas electric
charges produce electrical forces, regions called magnetic poles give rise to mag-
netic forces. · ·
If you suspend a bar magnet at its cencer by a piece of string, you've got a
compass. One end, called the north-seeking pole, points northward. The op-
posite end, called che south-seeking pole, points souchward. More simply, these
are called che north and south poles. All magnets hav~ both a north and a south
pole (sorne have more than one of each). Refrigerator magnets have narrow scrips
FIGURE 7 . 25
A horseshoe magnet. of alternating north and south poles. These magnets are strong enough to hold
sheets of paper against a refrigerator door, but they have a very shon tange be-
cause the north and south pales cancel a short distance from the magnet. In a
simple bar magnet, rhe magnetic poles are located at the two ends. A common
horseshoe magnet is a bar magnet bend inco a U shape. Its poles are also located
at its cwo ends (Figure 7.25).
When che north pole of one magnet is brought near che north pole of another
magnet, they repel each other. The same is true of a south pole near a south pole.
If opposite poles are brought together, however, attraction occurs. We find the
following rule:
Like poles repel; opposite poles attract.
 CH A PTE R 7 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 163

This rule is similar to the rule for the forces becween eleccric charges, where
like cha rges repel each other and unlike charges actract. Bue chere is a very im-
si
portanc difference becween magnecic poles and electric charges. Whereas electric
charges can be isolaced , magnecic poles cannoc. Electrons and protons are encicies IN sl{N si
by chemselves, buc che norch and south poles of a magnec are like che head and
cail of che same coin. ~[]~~
If you break a bar magnet in half, each h alf scill behaves as a complete magnec.
Break che pieces in half again, and you have four complete magnecs. You can
continue breaking che pieces in half and never isolate a single pole. Even if your ílBBBBBBB
pieces were one atom chick, chere would still be two poles on each piece, wh ich FIGURE 7 . 26
suggescs chat che atoms themselves are magnecs (Figure 7.26). If you break a magnet in half, you
will have two magnecs. If you break
these cwo magnecs in half, you will
have four magnecs, each wich a north

liFI Magnetic Fields and a souch pole. If you cominue

breaking che pieces, you will find
chac you always gec the same resulrs.
E X P LA 1N T H 1s W hac is che origin of all magnetic fields ? Magnecic poles exist in pairs.

Y
ou have learned chat che space around every eleccric charge is filled with
an electric field. Similarly, che space around a magnec contains a mag-
netic field- an energecic aura thac extends through space. If you sprinkle LEARNING OBJECTIVE
sorne iron filings on a sheet of paper placed on a magnec, you' ll see chac the fil- Relate magnetic field strength to
ings move in response to che magnecic field and trace out an orderly pactern of magnetic field patterns.
lines chat surround che magnec. The shape of the field is revealed by magnetic
field lines that spread out from one pole and return to che other pole. lt is inter-
est ing to compare che field pacterns in Figures 7.27 and 7.28 with che electric
field patterns in Figure 7.8b.
The d ireccion of che field oucside che magnec is from che norch pole to che
south pole. W here che lines are closer cogerher, che field is scronger. We can see
chac che magnetic field strength is greacer at che poles. If we place anocher mag-
nec or a small compass anywhere in che field, its poles will cend to align wich che
magnetic field (Figure 7.29).
A magnetic field is produced by moving electric charges. W here, chen, is this
motion in a common bar magnec? T he answer is, in che eleccrons of che ac- F 1G U R E 1 . 2 1 , - ..
oms chac make up che magnec. These electrons are in conscant motion. Two INTERACTIVE FIGURE""- (~
kinds of eleccron mocion produce magnecism: electron spin and electron revo- Top view of iron filings sprinkled on
lucion. In mosc common magnecs, eleccron spin is che main contributor to a sheet of paper on top of a magnet.
magnetism. T he filings trace out a patcern of
magnetic field lines in che surround-
ing space. lmeresringly enough, che
magnetic field lines cominue inside
che magnet (noc revealed by che filings)
and form closed loops.

FIGURE 7 . 28
T he magneric field patcerns for a pair of magners. (a) O pposire poles are nearesr each other,
and (b) like poles are nearest each orher.
1 164 PART ONE PH YSICS

1 Every spinning electron is a tiny magnet. A paif of electrons spinning in

1
1
the same direction create a stronger magnet. A pair of electrons spinning
1 in opposite direction s, however, work against each other, and the magnetic
1
1
fields cancel. This is why most substances are not magnets. In most atoms,
1 the various fields cancel one another because che eléctrons spin in oppos¡te
1
1
direction s. In such materials as iron, nickel, and cobalt, however, the fields
1 do not cancel entirely. Each iron atom has fou r electrons whose spin magnet-
1
1
1
ism is uncanceled. Each iron atom, then, is a tiny m agnet. The same is true,
1
to a lesser extent, of nickel and cobalt atoms. Most common magnets are
1
1 1
Torq ue
1 1 !
No torque
1
1
1
1
1 therefore m ade from alloys containing iron, nickel, cobalt, and aluminum in
various proportions.
FIGURE 7 . 29
W hen rhe compass needle is not
aligned with the magneric fleld, che Magnetic Domains
oppositely directed forces produce a pair
of torques (a corque is a turning force) The magnetic field of an individual iron atom is so scrong chat interactions
rhat twisc che needle into alignmem. among adjacent acoms cause large clusters of them to line up w ith one another.
Regions with these cluscers of aligned atoms are called magnetic domains.
Each domain is perfectly magnetized and is made up of billions of aligned
atoms. The domains are microscopic (Figure 7.30), and chere are many of them
in a crystal of iron.
FIGURE 7 . 30 ~~ Not every piece of iron is a magnet because the do-
A microscopic view of magnecic
domains in a cryscal of iron. Each
• 1ª
•••
,~p maim in mdina'y irnn m nm aligned. In a common

• lle
doma in consiscs of billions of nail, for example, che domains are randomly oriented.

1
aligned atoms. ~ Bue, when you bring a magnet nearby, rhe domains
j -
l'
can be induced into alignment. W hen you remove the

'~
nraanild~o'mºmartrhaenmgeamgnenett,.
ordinary
most or all of rhe domains thermal
in the nail motion causes
to return to a

_,, _--- --- ......... .,,,,.,.__ -...... /

A magstripe o n a credit card
contains millions of tiny mag- s ~I
_,,....., --- _.,,,,.. -.....
!' -
-- "' \ I
.....
....... ""' .....,
N
netic do mains held together by a
Slightly magnetized iron
resin binder. Data is encoded in
binary code, w ith zeroes and on es
d ist inguished by t he frequency of
domain reversals. lt is quite amaz-
s¡ -. -- -- IN
ing h ow quickly your name pops Strong ly magnetized iron
--
si -- ~IN
up w hen an airline reservationist
swipes your card.
s¡ ~ =IN
When a magnet is broken
into two pieces, each piece
is an equally strong magnet
FIGURE 7 . 31
Pieces of iron in successive stages of m agnetizacion. The arrows represem domains; che
head is a north pole and che cail is a south pole. Poles of neighboring domains neucralize
each ocher's effeccs, except ac the ends.
 CHAPTER 7 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNET ISM 165

Electric Currents and Magnetic Fields

A moving electric charge produces a magnecic field. A currenc of charges, chen, Mognet ic
also produces a magnecic field. The magnecic field chac surrounds a currenc-
carrying wire can be demonscrated by arranging an assorcmenc of compasses
around che wire (Figure 7.32). The magnecic field abouc che current-carrying
wire makes up a paccern of concencric circles. When che current reverses direc-
tion, che compass needle curns around, showing chac che direccion of che mag-
necic field changes also.
If che wire is bent inco a loop, che magnecic field lines become bunched up Elect rie
inside che loop (Figure 7.33). If che w ire is benc inco anocher loop chat overlaps current
che first, che concentration of magnetic field lines inside che loops is doubled. le
follows chat che magnecic field incensicy in chis region is increased as che number FIGURE 7 . 32
of loops is increased. The magnecic field incensicy is appreciable for a currenc- The compasses show the circular
shape of the magnetic field surround-
carrying coil chachas many loops (Figure 7.34). ing the current-carrying wire.

J333333
FIGURE 7 . 33
Magnetic field lines about a current-
carrying wire become bunched up
when the w ire is bent into a loop.

If a piece of iron is placed in a currenc-carrying coil of wire, che alignmenc of

magnetic domains in che iron produces a particularly scrong magnet known as
an electromagnet. The screngch of an eleccromagnet can be increased simply by
increasing che current chrough che coi! or by increasing che number of loops in
che coi!. Electromagnets powerful enough to lift automobiles are a common sighc
in junkyards.

There's much b unk about magnet-

ism- hence the need for a knowl-
edge filter to tell the difference
between what's true and what's
not true. The best knowledge filter
ever inve nted is sci ence.

(a) (b) (e)

FIGURE 7 . 34
!ron fillings sprinkled on paper revea! the magnetic-field configurations about (a) a /
current-carrying wire, (b) a currenr:carrying loop, and (c) a currenr-carrying coi! ofloops.
166 PART ONE PHYSICS
~

LEARNING OBJECTIVE rJll Integrated Science 7B

Relate magnetic phenomena to
living creatures.
L_::I BIOLOGY ANO EARTH SCIENCE
Earth's Magnetic Field and the Ability of Organisms
to Sense lt
EXPLAIN THIS What serves as a compass in creatures that can sense Earth's
magnetic field?

uspended magnet or compass points northward because Earth itselfis a huge

I I
,'

,'
'
'
A magnet and the compass aligns with Earch's magnetic field (Figure 7.35).
The configuration of Earch's magnetic field is similar to chat of a
scrong bar magnet placed near the cemer ofEarch. Bur Earth is nota magnetized
,1, '1
'
. :,,
'

'
chunk of iron like a bar magnet. Temperacures rise quickly underground, and
they are too high for individual atoms to stabilize in magnetic domains with che
..... - .... ',,:
1 \
.... ... ,'
_..
,' proper oriemation. Random thermal motion would destroy such an organized
.... -.......
¿I,

\ alignmem of atoms. Rather, che explanation of Earch's magnetic field has to do

wich che convection cells chac occur in Earch's interior, especially in che liquid
FIGURE 7 . 35 oucer core. Accelerating electric charges produce magnetic fields, as we know.
Earth is a magnet. As che electrically charged, iron-rich material of the hot oucer core circulares in
convection patterns, it creares a magnetic field. (More on chis in Chapter 22.)
Many organisms are able ro sense Earch's magnetic field. They use ic, racher
chan che maps and street signs that humans employ, to figure out how to get
where they need to go- and they often use their magnetic sense with remarkable
accuracy. For example, certain bacteria biologically produce single-domain-sized
grains of magnetite (an iron-comaining magnetic material) that they string to-
gether to form magnetic compasses. They use these compasses to detect the clip in
Earth's magnetic field. Equipped with a sense of direction, the organisms are able
to locate food supplies. Pigeons have been found to have multiple-domain mag-
netice magnets within their skulls chat are connected by a large number of nerves
to their brains. Magnetic material has also been found in the abdomens of bees,
whose behavior is affected by small magnetic fields and fluctuations in Earch's
magnetic field. Monarch bucterflies and sea curdes are known to employ their
magnecic sense to migrare vast distances. Organisms as d iverse as hamscers, sala-
manders, sparrows, rainbow trout, spiny lobsters, and many bacteria have demon-
FIGURE 7 . 36 strated a magnetic sense in laboratory experiments. Magnetite crystals resembling
T he pigeon may well be able ro sense those found in bacteria have been found in human brains. No one knows how
direction because of a builr-in mag- chese may be useful, bue ic seems likely that humans, roo, have a magnetic sense.
neric "compass" in its skul l.

CHECK YOURSELF
1. Is Earth a magnet? Justify your answer.
2. How does the presence of magnetite in an organism's body help it navigate?

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

1. Yes; Earth is a magnet that produces a net magnetic field outside itself,
as evidenced by a magnetic compass.
2. The domains in magnetite line up in an externa! magnetic field much like
a compass, providing organisms that contain magnetite w ith an interna!
compass to indicate orientation with respect to Earth's magnetic field.
 CHAPTER 7 ELECTRICI TY AND MAGNE TISM 167

lj@I Magnetic Forces on Moving Charges LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Show how the relative direction,
EXPLAIN THIS How does Earth's magnetic field protect us from cosmic field, and motion of charged
particles affect the force on those
radiation?
particles.

A
charged particle has to be moving to interact with a magnetic field.
Charges at rest don't respond to magnets. Bue, when they are moving,
charged particles experience a deflecting force.* T he force is grearest
when the particles move at right angles to che magnetic field lines. At other
angles, the force is less, and it becomes zero when che particles move parallel to
the field lines. T he force is always perpendicular to che magnetic field lines and
perpendicular to the velocity of the charged particle (Figure 7.37). T his means
that a moving charge is deflected when it crosses through a magnetic field, but
not when it travels parallel to the fiel d.

FIGURE 7 . 37
A beam of elecrrons is deflected by a

beam ~~~~:::;::::::.--::;;.--Force magnetic field.

*
Magnet1c
field
Beam

This deílecting force is very different from the forces that occur in ocher incerac-
tions. Gravitation acts in a direction parallel to che line between masses, and electrical
forces act in a direction parallel to the line between charges. Bur magnetic force acts
at right angles ro the magnetic field and che velocity of che charged particle.
We are fortunate that charged particles are deflected by magnetic fields . This
FIGURE 7 . 38
fact is used when -Earth's magnetic field deflects charged particles from outer
Earrh's magnecic field picks up many
space. W ithout this magnetic deflection, the harmful cosmic rays that bombard charged parcicles rhar make up cosmic
Earch's surface would be much more intense (Figure 7.38). radiation.

Magnetic Force on Current-Carrying Wires

Simple logic tells you that, if a charged particle moving through a magnetic MasteringPhysics•
field experiences a deflecting force, then a current of charged parricles moving VIDEO: Magnetic Force on
Current-Carrying Wire
through a magnetic field also experiences a deflecting force. If the particles are
deflected while moving inside a wire, che wire is also deflected (Figure 7.39).
FIGURE 7 . 39
A currem-carrying wire experiences a
force in a magnetic field.

-Current

*When particles of electric charge q and velocity v move perpendicularly imo a magnetic field of
screngch B, che force Fon each parricle is simply che produce of che threc variables: F = qvB. For
nonperpendicular angles, v in chis reladonship muse be che component of velociry perpendicular ro B.
 168 PART ON E PHYSICS

If we reverse the direction of the current, the deflecting force acts in the op-
posite direction . T he force is strongest when the current is perpendicular to the
magnetic field lines. The direction of force is neither along the m agnetic field
lines nor along the direction of currem. The force is perpend icular both to the
field lines and to the currem. It is a sideways force.
We see that, just as a current-carrying wire will deflect a m agnet, such as a
compass needle, a magnet will deflect a current-carrying w ire. W hen discovered ,
these complemem ary links between electricity and m agnetism created much
excitement. Al~ost immediately, people began harnessing the electromagnetic
force for usefu1 purposes-with great sensitivity in electric meters and with great
force in electric motors.

Electric Meters
The simplest meter to detect electric current is a m agnetic
compass. The next simplest m eter is a compass in a coil of
wires (Figure 7.40). W hen an electric current passes through
the coil, each loop produces its own effect on the needle, so
FIGURE 7 . 40 even a very sm all current can be detected. Such a current-
A very simple galvanometer. indicating instrument is called a galvanometer.
A more common design is shown in Figure 7.41. It employs more loops of
wire and is therefore more sensitive. The coil is moumed for movement, and the
m agnet is held stationary. The coil turns against a spring, so the greater the cur-
• rem in its windings, the greater its deflection. A galvanometer may be calibrated
to measure current (amperes), in which case it is called an ammeter, or it may
be calibrated to measure electric potential (volts), in which case it is called a
voltmeter (Figure 7.42).

FIGURE 7 . 41 Electric Motors

A common galvanometer design.
If we change the design of the galvanometer slightly, so that deflection m akes
a complete turn rather than a partial rotation , we h ave an electric m otor. The
principal differens;e is that t~e current in a motor is made to change direction
each time the coil makes a half rotation. T his happens in a cyclic fashion to pro-
duce continuous rotation, which has been used to run clocks, operare gad gets,
and lift heavy loads.

FIGURE 7 . 42
Both the ammeter and rhe volrmeter are basically galvanometers. (The electrical resist-
ance of the instrument is designed to be very low for the ammeter and very high for the
galvano meter.)
 CHAPTER 7 ELE CTRIC ITY A ND MAGNET IS M 169

In Figure 7.43, we see rhe principie of rhe elecuic motor in bare outline. A 1
permanent magnet produces a magnetic field in a region where a rectangular
Rotat i ng loop
loop of wire is mounted to rurn about the axis shown by rhe dashed line. When
a current passes rh rough the loop, ir flows in opposite directions in the upper
and lower sides of the loop. (Ir must do rhis because, if charge flows inro one
end of the loop, ir must flow out the other end.) If the upper portion of rhe loop
is forced to the lefr, then rhe lower porrion is forced ro the right, as if ir were a
galvanomerer. But, unlike a galvanometer, the current is reversed during each
half revolution by means of stationary contacts on rhe shaft. The parts of the
wire that brush against rhese conracrs are called brushes. In rhis way, rhe cur- F 1G U R E 7 . 4 3 /"""'•
rent in the loop alternares so that rhe forces in rhe upper and lower regions do INTERACTIVE FIGURE, (~
not change directions as the loop rotares. The rotation is continuous as long as A simple motor.
current is supplied.
We have described here only a very simple de motor.
In larger morors, de or ac, the permanent magnet is usu- Electrical output

ally replaced by an electromagnet that is energized by the

power source. Of course, more than a single loop is used.
Many loops of wire are wound about an iron cylinder,
called an armature, which then rotares when the wire car-
ries current.
A generator is a motor in reverse (Figure 7.44). In a
motor, electric energy is che input and mechanical energy
is the outpuc. In a generator, mechanical energy is the in-
put and eleccric energy is rhe output. Both devices trans-
form energy from one form to anorher. To understand F 1G U R E 7 . 4 4 /"""'•
how a generaror works, you need to understand electro- INTERACTIVE FIGURE, (~
magnetic induction, the subject of the next section. A simple generator. Voltage is
induced in the loop when it is rotated
in the magnetic field.

ij'j Electromagnetic Induction LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Describe how Faraday's law is
E X P LA 1N T H 1s What is rhe role of motion in elecuomagnetic induction? central to an industria l age.
Motion of what?

n the early 1800s, when electricity and magnetism were topics of much

I scientific research, t he question arose as to whether electricity could be

produced from magnetism. The answer was provided in 1831 by rwo phys-
icists, Michael Faraday in England and Joseph Henry in the United Scates-
each working without knowledge of the other. Their discovery changed rhe
world by making electriciry commonplace.
Faraday and H enry both discovered that electric current could be produced
in a w ire simply by moving a magner inro or out of a coil of wire (Figure 7.45).
No battery or orher voltage source was needed-only che motion of a magnet
in a coi! or a w ire loop. They discovered that voltage is caused, or induced, by
the relacive motion berween a wire and a magnetic field. Whether rhe mag-
netic field moves near a srationary conductor or vice versa, voltage is induced
FIGURE 7 . 45
(Figure 7.46) .
W hen the magnet is plunged into
The greater the number ofloops of wire moving in a magnetic field, the greater che coi!, charges in the coil are set
rhe induced voltage (Figure 7.47). Pushing a magnet into a coil with rwice as in motion, and voltage is induced
many loops induces rwice as inuch voltage; pushing into a coil with ten times in che coi!.
170 PART ON E PHYS ICS

F I GURE 7 . 46
Volcage is induced in the wire loop
whether the magnetic field moves
past che wire or che wire moves
through rhe magneric field .

as many loops induces ten times as much voltage; and so on. Electromagnetic
induction can be summarized by Faraday's law:
MasteringPhysics• The induced voltage in a coil is proportional to the number of loops
VIDEO: Faraday's Law multiplied by the rate at which the magnetic field changes within
VIDEO: Applications of those loops.
Electromagnetic lnduction
We have mentioned two ways in wh ich voltage can be induced in a loop
of wire: by moving the loop near a magnet and by moving a m agnet near the
loop. There is a third way: by changing the current in a nearby loop. All chree
of these ways have the same essential ingredient- a changing magnetic field in
the loop.
The amount of current produced by electromagnecic induction depends on
che resiscance of che coil and che circuir it connects, as well as the induced
voltage.
Electromagnetic induction explains che induction of voltage in a wire, as we
have seen. H owever, che more basic concept of fields is at che root of rhe ind uced
voltages and currents we observe in coils. T he modern view of electromagnetic
induction is that electric and magnetic fields are induced-and these in turn
produce the voltages we have considered. So, induction occurs whether or not a
conducting wire or any material medium is present. In chis more general sense,
Faraday's law states:
An electric field is induced in any region of space in which a magnetic
field is changing with time.
T here is a second effect, an extension of Faraday's law. lt is che same except
chat the roles of electric and m agnetic fields are interchanged. It is one of na-
ture's many symmetries. This effect, which was introduced by British physicist
James Clerk Maxwell in about 1860 is know n as Maxwell's counterpart to
Faraday's law:
A magnetic field is induced in any region of space in which an electric
field is changing with time.

FIGURE 7 . 47
W hen a magnet is plunged inro a coi!
wirh rwice as many loops as another,
rwice as much volrage is induced.
If rhe m agner is plunged inro a coi!
wit h th ree times as many loops, rhree
rimes as much volrage is induced.
 CHAPTER 7 ELECTRI CITY ANO MAGNETISM 171

Generators and Power

Production
Fifty years afrer Faraday and H enry discovered
elecrromagnetic induction, Nikola Tesla and
George Westinghouse put chose findings ro prac-
tica! use. They showed che world chat electriciry
could be generated reliably and in sufficienc quan-
ticies to light enrire cicies.
T esla built generarors much like chose scill in
use. Tesla's generarors were more complicaced chan
che simple model we have discussed. H is genera-
tors had arma tu res made up of bundles of copper
wires. The armamres were forced to spin wichin
su ong magnetic fields by a turbine, which, in mrn, was spun power planes, che en ergy ro heac water ro make sceam is
by che energy of either steam or falling water. The rotating supplied by nuclear fiss ion reactions.
loops of wire in the armature cut through che magnetic field Ic's imporcanc to know that generators don' t creare
of che surrounding electromagnecs. In chis way, chey induced energy-they simply convert energy from sorne ocher form
alcernating volcage and currencs. inro eleccric energy. Energy from a source-whecher fossil
Ir is importanr ro emphasize that che energy put out by oc nuclear fue!, or wind, ot water-is converced inro me-
a turbine is che energy provided by che rushing water in a chanical energy ro drive che mrbine, and then converced
waterfall or by steam. In tradicional sceam power planes, che into electriciry, which chen carries che energy ro where ir
water is heaced to steam by burning fossil fuels. ln nuclear can be used.

In each case, rhe strengrh of rhe induced field is proporrional to the rates of
change of the inducing field. The induced electric and magnetic fields are at
right angles to each other.
Maxwell saw the link between electromagnetic waves and light.* If electric Two centuries ago people got light
charges are set into vibration in rhe range of frequencies thar match rhose of from whale oil. Whales should be
light, waves are produced that are light! Maxwell discovered rhar light is simply glad that humans discovered how
electromagnetic waves in the range of frequencies to which che eye is sensitive. to harness electricity!

You will learn much more about electromagnetic waves in rhe next chapter.

Electromagnetic Induction
in Everyday Technologies
We see electromagnetic induccion all around us. On che
road, we see ir operare when we drive over buried coils of
wire to activare a nearby rraffic light. When the iron parts
of a car move over che buried coils, che effecc ofEarch's
magnecic field is changed, which induces a volcage ro crigger
che changing of che traffic lights. Similarly, when you walk
chrough che upright coils in che securiry system at an airport,
any metal you carry slighrly altees the magnetic field in che
coils. This change induces voltage, which sounds an alarm.
When che magnetic strip on che back of a credit card is
scanned, induced voltage pulses idencify rhe card. Eleccro-
m agnecic induccion is everywhere. As we shall see in che next
chapter, it underlies che electromagnetic waves we cal! light.

* On rhe eve of his discovery, srory has ir rhat Maxwell had a date wich a young woman he was
later co marry. While walking in a garden, his date remarked abour che beaucy and wonder of che
scars. Maxwell asked how she would (eel to know rhar she was walking wich rhe only person in che
world who knew whac srarlighc really was. And rhar was rrue. Ar rhar time, James Clerk Maxwell
was che only person in rhe world who .knew char light of any kind is energy carried in waves of
elecrric and magneric fields char concinuously regenerare each other.
1 172 PART ONE PHYS I CS
For mstructor-assigned homework, go to ww~.masteringphysics.corn
SUMMARY OF TERMS (KNOWLEDGE)
Alternating current (ac) An elecrric currenr chac repearedly
reverses irs direcrion; rhe electric charges vibrare abouc
relacively fixed posirions, 60 H z in che Uniced Scaces.
Conductor Any material having free charged parcicles chac
easily flow chrough ir when an electrical force accs on
chem.
Coulomb The SI unir of elecrric charge. One coulomb
(symbol C) is equal in magnitude to che total charge of
6.25 X 10 18 electrons.
Coulomb's law T he relacionship among force, charge, and
disca nce:
F = kq 1q2
d2
If che charges are alike in sign, rhe force is repelling; if
che charges are unlike, rhe force is attracrive.
Direct current (de) An eleccric currenc chac flows in one
direccion only.
Electric current A flow of charged parricles rhar cransports
energy from one place to anocher, measured in amperes,
where 1 A is che flow of 6.25 X 10 18 eleccrons per sec-
ond, or 1 coulomb per second.
Electric field D efined as force per unir charge, ir can be con-
sidered an energeric aura surrounding charged objecrs.
Abouc a charged poi ne, che field decreases with di scance
according to rhe inverse-square law, like a gravicacional
field. Becween opposicely charged parallel places, che elec-
tric field is uniform.
Electric potential The elecrric potencial energy per amounc
of charge, measured in volrs, and often called voltage:
eleccric potencial energy
Elecrric potencial = - - - - -- - - -
charge
Electric potential energy The energy a charge possesses by
vircue of ics location in an electric field.
Electric power The rate of energy transfer, or rate of doing
work; che amounc of energy per unic rime, which can be
measured by che produce of currenc and volcage:
Power = current X volcage
Eleccric power is measured in watts (or in ki lowaccs).
Electrical resistance The properry of a material rhat resises
che flow of elecuic charge chrough ic; measured in ohms
(fl ).
Electrically polarized D escription of an atom or molecule
in w hich che charges are aligned so char one side has a
slighc excess of posicive charge and che ocher side a slighr
excess of negarive charge.
e
Electromagnet A magnec whose field is produced by an elec-
rric currenc. Ir is usually in che fo rm of a wire coil w irh a
piece of i ron inside che coil.
Electromagnetic induction The induccion of volcage when a
magnetic field changes wich time.
Faraday's law An elecrric field is induced in any region of
space in which a magnetic field is changing wich rime.
The magnitude of che induced elecrric field is propor-
cional to che rare ar which che magnecic field changes.
The direccion of rhe induced field is ac righc angles to the
changi ng magnetic field.
lnsulator Any material with very lircle or no free charged
parricles a nd through which currenr does noc easily flow.
Magnetic domains C luscercd regions of aligned magnecic
aroms. W hen rhese region s chemselves are aligned
wirh one anorher, rhe subsrance concaining rhem is a
magner.
Magnetic field The region of magnecic influence around a
magneric pole or around a moving charged parricle.
Magnetic force (1) Berween magners, it is che acrracrion of
unlike magnetic poles for each ocher and che repulsion
between like rnagnecic poles. (2) Becween a magneric
field anda moving charge, ic is a deflecting force due ro
che motion of che charge; che deflcccing force is perpen-
dicular to che velocity of che ch argc and perpendicular ro
che magnetic field lines.
Maxwell's counterpart to Faraday's law A magneric field is
induced in any region of space in which an elecrric field
is changing wich time.
Ohm's law The amounc of currenr in a circuir varíes in direcc
proporrion to che potencial difference or volcage and
inversely with che resiscance:
volcage
Current = - - -=--
resistance
Parallel circuit An eleccric circuir wich cwo or more devices
connected in such a way chac che same volcage accs across
each one, and any single one completes che circuir inde-
pendencly of ali che others.
Potential difference The difference in eleccric potencial
between two points, measured in volrs; ofcen called volt-
age difference.
Semiconductor A material that can be made ro behave
sometimes as an insulator and sometimes as a conductor.
Series circuit An electric circuir with devices connected in
such a way chac che same electric currenc exists in all
ofthem.

READING CHECK QUESTIONS
7.1 Electrical Force and Charge
l. W h ich pan of an arom is posirively charged , and
which part is negatively charged?
2. What is meanr by saying that charge is conserved?
7.2 Coulomb's Law
3. How is Cou lomb's law sim ilar to Newron's law of
gravity? How is it d ifferem ?
4. H ow does a coulomb of charge compare with the
charge of a single electron?
7.3 Electric Field
5. Give rwo examples of com mon force fields.
6. How is che direction of an elecrric field defined?
7.4 Electric Potential
7. Tn terms of che un its that meas u re rhem, d isringu ish
berween electric potential energy and electric potential.
8. A balloon may easily be charged ro severa! rhousand
volts. Does chat mean ir has severa! thousand joules of
energy? Explain.
7.5 Conductors and lnsulators
9. Whar is rhe difference berween a conducror and an
insularor? Between a conducror anda semiconducror?
10. W hat kind of materials are rhe best conducrors?
Why are chey so good ar conducting electricity?
7.6 Voltage Sources
11 . Whac condition is necessary for heat energy ro flow
from one end of a metal bar ro anorher? For eleccric
charge ro flow?
12. W har condirion is necessary for a suscai ned flow of
elecuic charge chrough a conducting medium?
7.7 Electric Current
13. Why do eleccrons, racher chan prorons, make up rhe
flow of charge in a metal wire?
14 . Discinguish between de and ac.
7.8 Electrical Resistance
15. W hich has more resistance-a chick wire or a rhin
wire of rhe same lengrh? A shorr wire ora long wire?
16. Whar is rhe unir of eleccrical resiscance?
CHAPTER 7 ELECTRICITY ANO MAGNE T ISM 173
( CO M PRE HENS IO N)
1
7.9 Ohm's Law
17. W hat is rhe effecc on che current rhrough a circuir
of steady resistance when che voltage is doubled? W har is
rhe effect on che currem if boch volrage and resisrance are
doubled?
18. How much current does a radio speaker with a
resistance of 8 fl draw when 12 V is impressed across it?
7.10 Electric Circuits
19. Which rype of circuir is favored for operating severa!
elecrrical devices, each independently of che ocher-
series or parallel? Defend your answer.
20. H ow <loes rhe sum of rh e currents through rhe
. branches of a simple parallel circuir compare with che
current char flows chrough rhe volrage source?
7.11 Electric Power
21. What is the relarionship among electric power, cur-
rent, and volcage?
22. Becween a kilowacc anda kilowatt-hour, wh ich is a
unir of energy and wh ich is a unir of power?
7.12 The Magnetic Force
23. H ow is che rule for che inreraccion berween magneric
poles similar ro rhe rule for che inreraccion between elec-
tric charges?
24. How are magnetic poles different from electric
charges?
7.13 Magnetic Fields
25. What produces a magnecic field?
26. Why is iron magnetic and wood is not?
7.14 Magnetic Forces on Moving Charges
27. Whar is che direcrion of che magneric fo rce rhat acts
on a moving charged particle?
28. What is a galvanometer? What is ir called when it is
calibrated ro read current? To read volcage?
7.15 Electromagnetic lnduction
29. What are che three ways in which volrage can be
induced in a wire?
30. (a) What is induced by che rapid alternacion of a
magnetic field? (b) W hat is induced by che rapid alcerna-
tion of an electric field ?
174 PART ONE PHYSIC S
THINK INTEGRATED SCIENCE
7A-Electric Shock
31. High voltage by itself does not produce electric shock.
What does?
32. What is rhe source of the elecrrons rhat shock you
when you touch a charged conductor?
33. If a currenc of one-tench or two-tenchs of an ampere
were ro flow into one of your hands and out rhe other,
you would probably be elecuocuted. But if the same cur-
rem were to flow imo your hand and out ar rhe elbow
above rhe same hand, you could survive, even though
THINK ANO 00 (HANDS - ON APPLICATION)
36. An electric cell is made by placing rwo piares of dif-
ferenr materials that have differem affinities for electrons
in a conducring solution. You can make a simple 1.5-V
cell by placing a strip of copper and a strip of zinc in a
tumbler of salr water. T he voltage of a cell depends on
the materials and the solution they are placed in, nor the
size of the piares. A battery is actually a series of cells.
Paper clip
~".; =::
'--~ . . j
Copper wire
An easy cell to construct is che lemon cell. Stick a
straighrened paper clip and a piece of copper wire into
a lemon. Hold the ends of rhe paper clip and rhe wire
close together, but not touching, and place rhe ends on
PLUG ANO CHUG ( FORM U L A FAMILIARIZAT I ON)
' q1q2
Coulomb s law: F = k ---;J2
39. TWO point charges, each with 0.1 e of charge, are
0.1 m aparr. Given that k is 9 X 109 N · m2 / C 2 (the pro-
portionality constant for Coulomb's law), show that the
force between the charges is 9 X 109 N.
Ohm's law: I =;
40. A toaster h as a heating element of 15 .fl and is.con-
nected to a 120-V outlec. Show rhat the currenc drawn by
the toaster is 8 A.
rhe currem might be large enough to bum your flesh.
Explain.
78- Earth's Magnetic Field and the Ability of
Organisms to Sense lt
34. People have wondered about che "mystery" of animal
migration for generations. Give one possible, very general
explanation as to how a nimals find their way during
migration.
35. W hat is rhe likely cause ofEarch's magnetic field?
your tongue. The slighr tingl e you feel and che metal-
lic taste you experience resulr from a small currem of
elecrricity pushed by rhe cirrus cell through che paper
clip and che wire when you r moist tongue doses the
circuir.
37. An iron bar can be magnerized easily by aligning
it with rhe magnetic field lines of Earth and srriking
it lighdy a few times with a hammer. This works best
if the bar is tilred down to match rhe dip of Earch 's
magnetic field. The hammering josdes the magnetic
domains in the bar so that they can fall incoa better
alignmenc with Earth's magnetic field. The bar can be
demagnetized by srriking it when it is orienced in an
east-west direction.
38. Text or write a letter to Grandma and convince her
that whatever electric shocks she may have received over
the years have been due to che movemenc of electrons
already in her body- not electrons coming from some-
where else.
41. W hen you touch your fingers (resistance 1000 .fl) to
the terminals of a 6-V battéry, show that the small current
moving through your fingers is 0.006 A.
42. Calculare the currem in the 240-.fl filamem of a
bulb connected to a 120-V line.
Power = W
43. An electric toy draws 0.5 A from a 120-V oudec.
Show that the toy consumes 60 W of power.
44. Show that the power consumed by a 120-V device
rhar draws 5 A of currem is 500 W.

THINK ANO COMPARE (A N A LYS I S)
45. The three pairs of metal same-size spheres have dif-
ferent charges on their surfaces as indicated. Each pair is
brought together, allowed to touch, and then separated.
Rank from greatest to least the total amouncs of charge
on the pai rs of spheres after separarion.
80 80 8 0
A B C
46. Rank ci rcuits A, B, and C according to che bright-
ness of the identical bulbs, from brightest to dimmest.
THINK ANO SOLVE (MA THE MA TI CA L APPLICA TI ON)
48. Two point charges are separared by 6 cm. The
.attraccive fo rce berween them is 20 N . Show rhat che
force between chem when they are separated by 12 cm is
5N.
49. A droplec of ink in an industrial ink-jet primer car-
ries a charge of 1.6 X 10-to Candis deflected onto
paper by a force of 3.2 X 10- 4 N . Show that che srrength
of che electric field rhat is required to produce chis force
is 2 X 106 N/C.
50. Find the volcage change (a) when an eleccric field
does 12 J of work on a charge of 0.0001 e and (b) when
che same electric field does 24 J of work on a charge of
0.0002 C.
51. Rearrange chis equation
voltage
C urrent =
resistan ce
THINK ANO EXPLAIN (SY N T H ES I S)
55. With respecc to forces, how are electric charge and
mass alike? H ow are they different?
56. W hen combing your hair, you scuff eleccrons from
your h air omo che comb. Is your hair chen posit ively or
negatively charged? How a~out che comb?
57. T he 5000 billion billion freely moving electrons in
a penny repel one another. Why don't t hey fly out of rhe
penny?
58. Two equal charges exert equal forces on each other.
What if one charge has twice i:he magn itude of anocher?
How do rhe forces rhey exerr ~n each other compare?
CHAPTER 7 ELEC TRI CITY AND MAGNETISM 175
47. The bulbs in circuits A, B, and C are idencical. An
ammeter is placed in d ifferent locarions, as shown. Rank
the currenc read ings in the ammeter from grearest to
leas t.
to express resistance in terms of current and voltage .
T hen con sider the following: A certain device in a 120-V
circuit has a currenc rating of20 A. Show that the resist-
ance of the device is 6 n .
52. Use the fo rmula
Power = current X voltage
to find that the current drawn by a 1200-W hair dryer
connected to 120 V is 10 A. Then, using che method
from Exercise 51, show that the resisrance of the hair
dryer is 12 n.
53. Show rh at it coses $3.36 to operare a 100-W lamp
continuously for a week if rhe power utility rate is
20\t/ kWh.
54. An electric iron connected to 120 V draws 9 A of
current. Show rhat t he amount of heat generated in
1 minute is nearly 65,000 J.
59. Suppose chat the strengrh of che electric field around an
isolated point charge has a certain value at a distance of 1 m.
How will the electric fidd m ength compare at a distance of
2 m from rhe point charge? W har law guides your answer?
60. W hy is a good conductor of elecrricity also a good
conductor of heat?
61. When a ca r is moved into a painting chamber, a mist
of paint is sprayed arou nd it. When rhe body of the car
is given a sudden electric charge and the mist of paint is
attracted to ir, presto-che car is quickly and uniformly
painted. W hat does che phenomenon of polarization have
to do with this?
176 PART ONE PHYSICS

62. Wi ll che currenc in a lighcbulb connecced to a 220-V 67. Why mighc che wingspans ofbirds be a considera-
source be greacer or less chan che currenc in che same cion in determining che spacing between parallel wires on
bulb when it is connecced to a 110-V source? power poles?
63. A re automobile headlights wired in parallel or in 68. As more and more bulbs are connecced in series to a
series? Whac is your evidence? flash light banery, whac h appens ai che brighcness of each
64. A car's headlights dissipace 40 W on low beam and bulb? Assuming chac heacing inside che batcery is negli-
50 W on high beam. Is chere more resiscance or less gible, whac happens to che brighmess of each bu lb when
resistance in che high-beam filament? more and more bulbs are connecced in parallel?
65. To connecc a pair of resistors so that their equivalem 69. Since every iron acom is a tiny magnec, why aren't ali
resiscance will be greacer 1 ./ things made of iron also magnecs?
th an che resistance of either 70. What surrounds a scationary electric charge? A mov-
one, should you connect ing electric charge?
them in series or in parallel?
A 7 1. A scrong magnet attraccs a paper clip to itself wich
66. In che circuir shown, a cercain force. Does che paper clip exert a fo rce on che
how do che brightnesses of strong magnet? If noc, why noc? Tf so, does it exert as
che individual bulbs compare? much force on che m agnec as che magnet exerts on ir?
W h ich light bulb draws che Defend your answers.
mosc current? W hat will hap- 72. Residencs of norchern Canada are bombarded by
pen if bulb A is unscrewed? If more intense cosmic radiation t han are residencs of
e
bulb is unscrewed? M exico. W hy?

THINK ANO DISCUSS (EVALUATION)

73. An eleccroscope is a simple device con- 77. Oiscuss che circuits shown. In which of these circuits
sisting of a metal ball that is attached by a does a current exisc to light che bulb?
conductor to cwo thin leaves of metal foil
protecced from air disturbances in a jar, as
shown. W hen che ball is couched by a charged
body, che leaves, which normally hang straighc -.... 1
dow n, spread apare. W hy?
74. If you place a free eleccron and a free procon in che
same electric field, how will che forces acting on them
compare? How will their accelerations compare? How
will their directions of cravel compare?
78. Sometimes you hear someone say chat a particular
75. You are not harmed by concact with a charged metal appliance "uses up" eleccricity. W hat is it chat che
ball, even chough its voltage may be very high. Is che appliance accually uses up, and whac becomes of ic?
reason for chis similar to che reason you are noc harmed
79. Wai Tsan Lee shows .....----·
by che sparks from a Fourth-of-July sparkler, even rhough
iron nails thac have become
che cemperature of each of those sparks is h igher rhan
induced magnets. Is che
lOOOºC? Oiscuss and defend your answer in terms of che
physics of chis sicuacion
energies that are involved.
similar to chac of che scick-
76. Lillian is charged to sorne 50,000 V bue is unharmed. ing balloon in Figure 7.5?
H er hair, however, stands out. W hy is she noc h armed, Oiscuss a nd defend your
and why does her hair stand out? answer.
80. Can an eleccron ar resc
in a magnecic field be
set into motion by che
magnecic field? Whac if ir
were ar rest in an eleccric
field?
81. A magician places an
aluminum ring on a cable,
underneach which is hidden an eleccromagnec. W hen che
magician says "abracadabra" (and pushes a switch chac
scarcs currenc flowing chrough che coi! under che table),
che ri ng jumps imo che air. Oiscuss and explain his
"trick."
 CHAPTER 7 ELECTR ICITY AND MAGNETISM 177

82. Only a small percencage of che eleccric energy fed

into an incandescenc lamp is transfq_rmed inco light.
Whac happens to che remaining energy?
83. In cerms of heat generared, why are compacc fluores-
cenc lamps (CFLs) more efficienc chan incandescenc lamps?
84. A person in your discussion group says rhac chang-
ing electric and magneric fields generare each other and
chis gives rise to visible light when che frequency of rhe
change marches che frequency of light. Do you agree?
Explain.
85. Anorher person in your discussion group says rhac
a baccery provides noc a source of electrons, bue a means
of moving rhe elecrrons already in che circuir. Do you
1
agree? Defend your answer.
86. Srill anorher person in your discussion group says
rhat adding bulbs in series to a ci rcuir provides more
opposirion to che flow of charge and resulrs in less cur-
renc in more bulbs. Bue adding bulbs in parallel provides
more pathways so rhat rhere is more current in che cir-
cuir. Do you agree? D efend you r answer.

READINESS ASSURANCE TEST (RAT)

Jfyou have a good handle on this chapter, then you should be able to seo re at least 1 out of1O on this RAT Jfyou seo re less than 7, you
need to study Jurther befare moving on.
C hoose che BEST answer ro each of che following: G. In a circuir wirh rwo lamps in parallel, if che currenc in
one lamp is 2 A, che current in the battery is
1. The electric force of accraction between an electron a nd a
proton is grearer on (a) 1 A .
(a) rhe proton. (b) 2 A.
(b) che electron. (c) greater than 2 A.
(c) neicher che proton nor rhe eleccron; borh are (d) none of chese
rhe same. 7. Ifboth che currenc and che voltage in a circuir are doubled,
(d) none of chese rhe power
2. When a pair of charged particles are broughc twice as close (a) remains unchanged if che resisrance is con stant.
ro each other, che force berween chem becomes (b) is halved.
(a) cwice as scrong. (c) is doubled.
(b) four times as strong. (d) is quadrupled.
(c) half as scrong. 8. The essencial physics concept in an eleccric generacor is
(d) one-quarter as srrong. (a) Coulomb's law.
3. An electric field surrounds (b) Ohm's law.
(a) che eleccric charge. (c) Faraday's law.
(b) ali che electrons. (d) Newcon's second law.
(c) ali rhe protons. 9. If you change che magneric field in a closed loop of wire,
{d) ali of these you induce a(n)
4. When you double che volcage in a simple electric circuir, (a) current.
you double (b) voltage.
(a) che current. (c) electric field.
(b) che resistance. (d) ali of rime
(c) borh rhe current and che resistance. 10. T he mutual induction of eleccric and magneric fields can
(d) neicher che current nor che resiscance. produce
5. In a simple circuir consisring of a single lamp a nd a single (a) light.
barrery, when rhe current in rhe lamp is 2 A, rhe currenc (b) sound.
in rhe battery is (c) borh light and sound.
(a) 1 A. (d) neirher light nor sound.
(b) 2 A. ..
(c) dependenr on che interna! barrery resistance. Answers to RAT
(d) More informarion is needed. v -or 'P ·6 'J B 'P L 'J 3 'q ·~ '71 ·fr 'p ·f 'q ·e 'J 1
 CHAPTER 8

Waves-
Sound and
Light
S
8 .1 Vibrations and Waves o u N D 1 s the only thing we can really
TECHNOlOGY
Broadcasting Radio Waves hear, as young violinists Michelle
8 .2 Wave Motion and Miriam remind us. But what is
MATH CONNECTION sound? And light is the only thing we can
Frequency and Wave Speed
really see. But what is light? You may know
8 .3 Transverse and Longitud inal Waves
that light is an electromagnetic wave and that
8 .4 The Nature of Sound
INTEGRATED SCIENC E 8A BIOLOGY it is part of the electromagnetic spectrum-a
Sensing Pitch
continuum of waves including X-rays, radio
8.5 Resonance
waves, microwaves, and others. Where do
8 .6 The Nature of Light
electromagnetic waves come from? What are
8. 7 Reflection
their properties? Do electromagnetic waves
8 .8 Transparent and Opaque Materials
of various lengths really permeate our envi-
8. 9 Color
INTEGRATED SC IENCE 88 BIOlOGY
ronment like vibrating strands of invisible
Mixing Colored Lights spaghetti? Sound, like light, is a wave phe-
8 . 1 O Refraction
nomenon. How do sound waves differ from
8 . 11 Diffraction
light waves? Does che speed of sound differ
8 .12 lnterference
in different materials? Can sound travel in a
8 .13 The Doppler Effect
vacuum? Can one sound wave cancel another,
TECHNOLOGY
Antinoise Technology so that two loud noises combine to make zero
INTEG RATE D SCIENCE se ASTRONOMY
The Doppler Effect and the Expanding Universe noise? Are there technological applications for
8 .14 The Wave-Particle Duality this idea? Many things vibrate-from musical
instrumenrs to atoms to vocal chords-and
when doing so, they produce waves. Waves,
the subject of this chapter, are everywhere!
 CHAPTER 8 WAVES-SOUND AND LIG HT 179

l :j lVibrations and Waves LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Distinguish among amplitude,
1
E X P LA 1N T H 1S How do vibrating electro ns produce radio waves? wavelength, frequency, and
period .

A
nything- from your vocal chords to a pendulum-that moves back and
forth, to and fro, in and out, or up and clown is vibrating. A vibration is
a wiggle. A wiggle that travels is a wave. A wave extends from one loca-
tion to another. Light and sound are both vibrations that propagare throughout MasteringPhysicsº
TUTORIAL: Víbrations and Waves
space as waves, but waves of two very different kinds. Sound is the propagation of
mechanical vibrations through a material medium-a salid, a liquid, or a gas. If
there is no medium to vibrare, then no sound is possible. Sound cannot rravel in
a vacuum. But light can, because light is a vibration of nonmaterial elecrric and
magnetic fields-a vibration of pure energy. Although ligh t can pass through
many materials, it <loes not require a material. This is evident when light propa- UNIFYING CONCEPT
gares through the near vacuum between the Sun and Earth . • Waves
The relationship between a vibration and a wave is shown in Figure 8.1. A
marking pen on a bob attached to a vertical spring vibrares up and clow n and
traces a waveform on a sh eet of paper that is moved horizontally ac conscant
speed. The waveform is actually a sine curve, a graph ical representation of a wave.
Like a water wave, the high points of a sine wave are called crests and the low
poims are rhe troughs. The straighr dashed line represenrs rhe "home" posirion, or
midpoint, of the vibration. The term amplitude refers to the distance from the
Waves carry energy, as anyone who
midpoint to the crest (or to the trough) of the wave. So the amplitude equals the has w itn essed a pounding ocean
maximum displacement from equilibrium. Waves carry energy from one place w ave upon the shore can see.
to another. The amount of energy a wave carries depends on its amplitude. The
larger the amplitude of a wave, che more energy ic has.
The wavelength of a wave is che discance from the top of one crest to the top
of the next crest or, equivalently, the distance between successive identical parts
of the wave. T he wavelengths of waves at the beach are measured in meters, the
wavelengths of ripples in a pond in cemimeters, and the wavelengths of light in
billionrhs of a meter (nanometers). Ali waves have a vibrating source.
How frequently a vibration occurs is described by its frequency. The frequency
of a vibrating pendulum, or of an object on a spring, specifies the number of to-
and-fro vibrations it makes in a given time (usually in 1 second). A complete
ro-and-fro osci llation is one vibration. If the oscillacion occurs in one second, the
frequency is one vibration per second. If two vibrations occur in one second, the
frequency is two vibrations per second.
The unic of frequency is called che hertz (H z), after H einrich H ertz, who
demonstrated the existence of radio waves in 1886. One vibration per second is
1 hertz, two vibrations per second is 2 hertz, and so on. Higher frequencies are
measured in kilohertz (kHz) and still higher frequencies in megahertz (MHz).

F 1G U RE 8 • 1 /"""4•
INTERACTIVE FIGURE, (~
W hen the bob vibrates up and clown,
a marking pen traces out a sine curve
on paper that is moved horizonrally
ar consranr speed.
180 PART ONE PHYSICS

Broadcasting Radio Waves frequencies are rhe frequencies

AM radio waves are usually measured in kilohertz, while FM
radio waves are measured in megahen:z. A sration ar 960 kHz
on rhe AM radio dial, for example, broadcasrs radio waves
thar have a frequency of960,000 vibrations per second. A
station at 1O1 .7 MHz on rhe FM dial broadcasts radio waves
wirh a frequency of 101 ,700,000 hertz. These radio-wave
ar which elecrrons are forced co
vibrare in rhe antenna of a radio
station's rransmirting rower. The
frequency of rhe vibraring electrons
and the frequency of rhe wave pro-
duced are rhe same.

The period of a wave or vibration is the rime ir takes for a complete vibration-
for a complete cycle. Period can be calculared from frequency, and vice versa.
Suppose, for example, that a pendulum makes two vibrarions in one second.
lts frequency is 2 Hz. The rime needed to complete one vibration- thar is, the
period of vibrarion- is ~ second. O r, if the vibration frequency is 3 H z, then the
t
period is second. The frequency and period are the inverse of each other:

1 1
Frequency = - -.-d- or, vice versa, Period = - - - -
pen o frequency

CHECK YOURSELF
1. An electric razor completes 60 cydes every second. {a) What is its fre-
quency? (b) What is its period?
A wave t ransfers energy without
2. Gusts of wind cause the Willis Tower in Chicago to sway back and forth,
t ransfer ring matter. lf matter were
to move along w ith the energy completing a cyde every 10 seconds. {a) What is its frequency? {b) What
in a wave, the oceans would b e is its period?
emptied as ocean w aves travel to
the shore.
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS
1. (a) 60 cycl es p er second, or 60 Hz. (b) to second.
2. (a) ,1o Hz. (b) 10 seconds.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Describe how energy is carried in
l :fl Wave Motion
w aves .
E X P LA 1N T H 1s How does wave speed relate to frequency and wavelength?

I
f you drop a stone in to a calm pond, waves will travel outward in expanding
circles. Energy is carried by the wave, rraveling from one place to another.
The water itself goes nowhere. T his can be seen by waves encountering a
floating leaf. The leaf bobs up and down, but ir doesn't rravel with rhe waves.
The waves move along, not the water. The same is true of waves of wind over a
field of tall grass on a gusty day. Waves rravel across the grass, while the indi-
vidual grass plants remain in place; instead, rhey sw ing to and fro berween defi-
nite limits, but they go nowhere. When you speak, wave motion rhrough rhe
air travels across rhe room ar about 340 meters per second. T he air itself doesn't
rravel across rhe room ar this speed. In these examples, when rhe wave motion
FIGURE 8 . 2 ceases, the water, the grass, and die air return to their inicial positions. Ir is char-
W ater waves. acrerisric of wave morion thar the medium rransporring the wave returns ro irs
 CHAPTER 8 WAVES-SOU ND AN D LIGHT 181

initial condition after the discurbance has passed. Putting all the information Wavelength
about waves together, we can now specifically define what a wave is: A wave is a
disturbance that travels from one place to another transporting energy, but not
necessarily matter, along with it.

Wave Speed
T he speed of periodic wave motion is related to the frequency and wavelength of
the waves. Consider the simple case of water waves (Figures 8.2 and 8.3). Imag-
ine that we fix our eyes on a stationary point on the water's surface and observe
the waves passing by that poim. We can measure how much time passes becween FIGURE 8 . 3
the arrival of one crest and the arrival of the next one (the period), and we can A top view of water waves.
also observe the distance between crests (the wavelength). We know that speed is
defined as distance divided by time. In this case, the distance is one wavelength
and the time is one period, so wave speed = wavelength/period.
For example, if the wavelength is 10 meters and the time between cresrs at a
point on the surface is 0.5 second, then the wave is traveling 10 meters in 0.5 sec-
ond and its speed is 10 meters divided by 0.5 second, or 20 meters per second. The speed of light waves in a vac-
uum, approximately 3.0 x 108 m/ s
Since period is equal to the inverse of frequency, the formula wave speed =
and denoted as e, is nature's speed
wavelength/ period = wavelength X frequency. We usually say: limit . No material objects in the
universe travel faster t han this.
Wave speed = frequency X wavelength
This relationship applies to ali kinds of waves, whether they are water waves,
sound waves, or light waves.
FIGURE 8 . 4 ,,........
INTERACTIVE FIGURE,._ (~
If the wavelength is 1 m, and one
v= 1 m/s wavelengch per second passes che
pole, chen the speed of the
wave is 1 m/s.

Frequency and Wave Speed

lhe frequency of a wave is the same as rhe frequency of Solutions
the vibrating source rhat produces it. lhe speed of a wave l. T he answer is 30 m/ s. We can see this in rwo ways.
equals rhe produce of frequency and wavelength. Ir is (a) According to che definition of speed in Chapter 2,
cuscomary to express chis speed by che equation v =JA, v = 7d = -3 X -1 10
,-
m
= 30 m j s, smce
. 30 m o f tram
. passes
where vis wave speed,/ is wave frequen cy, and A (the you in 1 s. (b) l f we compare our crain to wave mocion,
Greek letter lambda) is wavelengrh. where wavelengch corresponds to 10 m and frequency is
3 Hz, rhen
Probl e ms
l. If a train of freighr cars, each 10 m long, rolls by you at rhe Speed = frequency X wavelength
rare of rhree cars each second, whac is che speed of rhe train? = 3 Hz X 10 m = 30 m/ s
2. If a water wave oscillares up and clown three times each
second and che d isrance between wave cresrs is 2 m, 2. (a) 3 Hz. (b) 2 m. (c) Wave speed = frequency X wave-
whac are che wave's (a) frequency, (b) wavelengch, and lengch = f X 2 m = 6 m/ s. Do you see rhac pares
(c) wave speed? (a) and (b) are given in rhe quescion icself?
3. The sound from a 60-H z electric razor spreads out at 3. (a) 60 H z, as given in rhe question. (b) Period = frcq~ency =
340 mecers per second. (a) What is che frequenc y of che -dos. (e) 340 m/ s, which is given in che question. (d) From
sound waves? Whac are (p) their period, (e) rheir speed, v 340 m/s
V =JA, A = f = GO/s = 5.7 m.
and (d) their wavelengrh?
182 PA RT ONE PHYSI CS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1 :11 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

Distinguish between transverse
and longitudinal waves.
Ex P LA 1N T H 1 s Exacd y what is cransmitted in all kinds of waves?
'••

F
asten one end of a rope to a wall and hold the free end in your hand. Ifyou
MasteringPhysics" shake the free end up and clown, you will produce vibrations that are ar
VIDEO: Longitudinal vs. right angles to che direction of wave rravel. T he righc-angled , or sideways,
Transverse Waves mocion is called transverse motion. This type of wave is called a transverse w ave.
Waves in che strecched srrings of musical inscrumencs are transverse waves. We
will see lacer thac eleccromagnetic waves, such as radio waves and light waves, are
also transverse waves.
A longitudinal wave is one in which che direction of wave travel is along the
direction in which che source vibrares. A Slinky w ich one end fastened to a wall
nicely illustrates chis. Shake che Slinky back and forth along its long axis and you
produce a longitudinal wave (Figure 8.5). T he vibrations are then parallel to che
direction of energy rransfer. Part of che Slinky is compressed, and a wave of com-
pression travels along it. In between successive compressions is a strerched region,
called a rarefaction. Both cornpressions and rarefactions cravel in che same direc-
cion along che Slinky. Togecher they make up che longitudinal wave. You produce
a rransverse wave when you shake che Slinky up and clown.

~·

(a)~~íJa)~
FIGURE 8 . 5
INTERACTIVE FIGURE~ (~
Both waves transfer energy from left
ro righr. (a) When the end of rhe i-- Wavelength --'
Slinky is pushed and pulled rapidly 1 1
along its length, a longitudinal wave
is produced. (b) When its end is
(b)
shaken up and down (or from side to
side), a rransverse wave is produced.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE l :jiThe N~ture of Sound

ldentify compressions and
rarefactions in a sound wave.
E X P LA 1N T H 1 s Why does n'c sound rravel in a vacuum?

º" Q ,,
f (.

O o
·º o
.,o · ·. o
T hink of che ai r molecules in a room as ciny, randomly moving Ping-
Pong balls. If you vibrare a Ping-Pong paddle in che rnidst of che halls,
you'll set them vibrating to and fro (Figure 8.6). T he balls w ill vibrate
in rhythm w ith your vibrating paddle. In sorne regions, they will be momentar-
ily bunched up (compressions), and in ocher region s in becween, chey w ill be

o .º"
o
Q.
\'\ º·º°"º
. "º .o
mornentarily spread out (rarefactions). T he vibracing prongs of a tuning fork do
che sarne co air molecules. Vibrations made up of compressions and rarefactions
spread from che tuning fork chroughouc che air, and a sound wave is prod uced
--~
)j "º (Figure 8.7).
T he wavelength of a sound wave is che disrance becween successive com-
FIGURE 8 . 6
If you vibi:are a Ping-Pong paddle in pressions or, equivalencly, che distance between successive rarefactions. Each
the midst of a lot of Ping-Pong balls, molecule in che air vibrares to and fro abouc sorne equilibrium position as che
rhe balls will vibrare also. waves move by.
 CHA PTE R 8 WAVES-SOUND AND LIGHT 183

Compressions --.....___
,.--- ' """ ~

FIGUR E 8 . 7
Compressions and rarefacrions travel (both ar the same speed and in rhe same
direccion) from che cuning fork chrough che air in the rube.

rJll Integrated Science 8A LEARNING OBJECTIVE

~ BIOLOGY Relate the frequency of sound to

pitch.

Sensing Pitch
EXPLAI N TH 1s How <loes pitch relate to the frequency of sound?

O
ur subjective impression about the frequency of sound is described
as pitch. A high-pitched sound, like the sound from a tiny bell, has a
high vibration frequency. The sound from a large bell has a low pitch
because its vibrations are of a low frequency.
The human ear can normally hear pitches from sounds ranging from about
20 hertz to about 20,000 hertz. As we age, this range shrinks. Sound waves
with frequencies lower than 20 hertz are called infrasonic waves, and those In hospitals, concentrated b eams
with frequencies higher than 20,000 hertz are called uftrasonic waves. We of ultrasound are used to break
up kidney stones and gallstones,
cannot hear infrasonic or ultrasonic sound waves, but dogs and sorne other eli minating the need for surgery.
animals can.
H earing any sound occurs because air molecules next to a vibrating object are
themselves set into vibration. T hese molecules, in turn, vibrate against neighboring
molecules, which, in turn, do the same, and so on. As a resulc, rhythmic patterns
of compressed and rarefied air emanate from che sound source. The resulting
vibrating air sets your eardrum into vibration, which, in turn, sends cascades of
rhythmic electrical impulses along nerves in the cochlea of your inner ear and
into the brain. Thus, when you hear a high-pitched sound, a high-f~equency wave
from a quickly vibrating source sets your eardrum in to fast vibration. Bass guitars,
foghorns, and deep-throated bullfrogs vibrate slowly, making low-pitched waves
that set your eardrums into slow vibration.
Most sound is transmitted through air, but any elastic substance-solid, liq-
uid, or gas- can transmit sound.* Air is a poor conductor of sound compared
with solids and liquids. You can hear che sound of a distant train d early by plac-
ing your ear against che ~<tH· W hen swimming, have a friend at a distance dick
two rocks cogerher beneath che surface of the water while you are submerged.
You will experience how well water conduces the sound.

• An elascic substance is "springy," has resilience, and can cransm ic energy wich lictle loss. Sceel, for
example, is elastic, whereas lead and putty are noc.
184 PAR T ONE PHYSICS
Sound requires a medium. lt can't
travel in a vacuum because t hen
there's nothing t o compress and
stretch.
Small fract al antennas have
rep laced the long antennas of
mobile phones. The fract al antenna,
like other fractals, has a shape that
repeats itself. In any fractal, sim ilar
shapes appear at all levels of magni-
fication. Common fracta ls in nature
include snowflakes, shorelines, and
even cauliflower and broccoli. Due
to its folded, self-similar design, a
fracta l antenna can be compressed
into a small space and be built into
the body of the phone. Yum to t his
technology.
CHECK VOURSE L F
1. A singer sings a hig h-pitched note and t hen a low-pitched note. For
which note are her vocal chords vibrating more rapidly? For which note
is your eardrum vibrating more rapidly? Which note sets the air into
higher-frequency vibrations?
2. Which would you consider to be sound w aves- infrasonic or ultrasonic
w aves?
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS
1. A high-pit ched note is the answer to all these quest ions. A high-freq uency
sound wave arises from a rapidly vibrating source, setting t he air into
higher-frequency oscillations t han a low-pitched sound. This then
vibrates yo ur ea rdrum ata higher frequency.
2. Both; although we can 't hear t hem . lnfrasonic and ultrasound waves are
outside the ra nge of human hearing-but not outside the range of hearing
for cert ain other creatures.
Speed of Sound
If, from a distance, we watch a person chopping wood or hammering, we can easily
see that the blow occurs a noticeable time before its sound reaches our ears. We often
hear thunder seconds after we see a flash of lighming. These common experiences
show that sound requires time to rravel from one place to another. The speed of
sound depends on wind conditions, temperature, and humidity. lt does not depend
on the loudness or the frequency of the sound; all sounds travel at the same speed
in a given medium. T he speed of sound in dry air at Oº C is about 330 meters per
second, which is nearly 1200 kilometers per hour. Water vapor in the air increases
chis speed slighdy. Sound also travels faster through warm air than cold air. This is to
be expected because the faster-moving molecules in warm air bump into each other
more frequendy and, therefore, can transmit a pulse in less time.** For each degree
rise in temperature above OºC, rhe speed of sound in air increases by 0.6 mecer per
second. T hus, in air at a normal room temperature of about 20ºC, sound travels at
about 340 meters per second. In water, sound speed is about four times its speed in
air; in steel, it's about 15 times its speed in air.
CHECK YOURSELF
1. Do compressions and rarefactions in a sound wave t ravel in the same
di rection or in opposite directions from one another?
2. Approximately how fa r away is a thunderstorm when you note a 3-s
delay between the flash of lightning and the sound o f thunder?
CHEC K Y OUR ANSWERS
1. They t ravel in the same direction.
2. Ass uming that the speed of sound in air is about 340 m/ s, in 3 s it w ill
travel (340 m/ s)(3 s) = 1020 m. There is no appreciab le time de lay for the
f lash of light, so the storm is slightly more than 1 km away.
**The speed of sound in a gas is abouc ~ che average speed of ics molecules.
 CHAPTER 8 WAVES-SO UND AND LIGHT 185

l :Jj Resonance LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Distinguish between torced
E X P LA 1N T H 1s Why can a metal surface be set into resonance but not a vibration and resonance.
h andkerchief?

I
f you srrike an unmounted runing fork, its sound is rather faint. Repear
with the handle of the runing fork held agai nsr a table afcer srriking ir, and
the sound is louder. This is because the table is forced to vibrare, and irs
larger surface sets more air in motion. The table is forced into vibrarion by a
fork of any frequency. This is an exam ple of forced vibration. The vibration of
a factory floor caused by the running of heavy machinery is another example of
forced vibration. A more pleasing example is rhe sounding boards of stringed
instruments.
If you drop a wrench and a baseball bar onto a concrete floor, you can easily
norice the difference in their sounds. This is because each vibrates differently
when it strikes the floor. T he objects are not forced to vibrate at a particular
frequency, but, instead, each vibrares at its own characreristic frequency. Any
object composed of an elastic material will, when disrurbed, vi brare at its own
special set of frequencies, which together form its special sound. We speak of an
object's natural frequency, which depends on such factors as the elasticiry and
che shape of rhe object. Bells and tuning forks, of course, vibrare ar rheir own
characreristic frequencies. Imerestingly, most rh ings, from atoms to planets and
almost everything else in between, h ave a springiness to rhem, and they vibrate
at one or more natural frequencies.
FIGURE 8 . 8
W hen rhe frequency of forced vibracions on an object marches che object's Each time Bay Johnson strikes a
natural frequency, a d ramaric increase in amplirude occurs. This phenomenon piano key, a string in che piano is
is called resonance. Purry doesn't resonare because it isn't elastic, and a dropped tapped. Piano strings for low notes
handkerch ief is too limp to resonate. In order for something to resonare, ir needs are heavier, have more inertia, and
vibrare ata lower frequency-a lower
both a force to pull ir back to irs srarring posirion and enough energy to maintain
pitch than lighrer strings of rhe same
its vibration. string tension. Loudness involves
Resonance is not rescricted to wave motion. Ir occurs whenever successive how hard the keys are struck, which
impulses are applied ro a vibrating objecr in rhychm w ith its natural frequency. affects che amplitudes of che vibrat-
Cavalry rroops marching across a foorbridge near Manchesrer, England, in 1831 ing suings. The touch sensitivity of
che piano distinguishes ir from earlier
inadverrently caused rhe bridge to collapse when they marched in rhychm with
keyboard instruments such as the
che bridge's natural frequency. Since then, ir has been customary to order troops harpsichord.
to "break step" when crossing bridges. A more recent bridge disaster was caused
by wind-generated resonance, as shown in Figure 8.9.

Resonance occurs on a swing .

When p umpi ng, you pump in
rhythm with the natural frequency
of t he swing. More important than
the force with which you pump is
the t iming. Even small pumps, or
sma ll pushes from someo ne else,
if delivered in rhythm with the
frequency of the swi nging motion,
produce large amplitudes.

FIGURE 8 . 9
In 1940, fo ur months after ir was completed, rhe Tacoma Narrows Bridge in the state of
Washington was destroyed by win"d-generated resonance. A mild gale produced a fluctu-
ating force in resonance with the natural frequency of the bridge, steadily increasing the
amplitude until the bridge collapséd.
--
186 PART ONE PHYSICS

T he effects of resonance are aH around us. Reso~ance underscores not only

the sound of music but also che color of aucumn leaves, the height of ocean cides,
che operation oflasers, and a vast multitude of phenomena that add to che beaucy
of the world.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE l :d The Nature ofLight

Describe the nature and range of
electromagnetic waves.
E X P LA 1N T H 1s H ow are electromagnetic waves produced?

FIGURE 8 . 10
If you shake an electrically charged
objecr ro and fro, you produce an
electromagnetic wave.
Light is the on ly thing we see.
Sound is the only t hing we hear.
D
uring the day, the primary source of light is che Sun. O ther common
sources are flames, white-hot filaments in lightbulbs, and glowing gases in
glass rubes. What chese sources emit, and what we perceive as light, are
electromagnetic waves with frequencies that fall within a certain range. Recall
from Chapter 7 that an electromagnetic wave is a wave of energy p roduced
when an electric charge oscillates (Figure 8.10). Light is on ly a tiny part of a
larger whole- the wide range of electromagnetic waves called che electromag-
netic spectrum (Figure 8.11).
Light originares from che accelerated motion of electrons. If you shake che end
of a stick back and forth in still water, you'll create waves on che water's surface.
Similarly, if you shake an electrically charged rod to and fro in empty space,
you' ll create electromagnetic waves in space. This is because che moving charge
on che rod is an electric current. Recall from Chapter 7 that a magnetic field sur-
rounds an electric current and che field changes as the current changes. Recall
also that a changing magnetic field induces an electric field-eleccromagnetic
induction. And what does the changing electric field do? It induces a changing.
magnetic field. The vibrating eleccric and magnetic fields regenerare each other
to make up an electromagnetic wave (Figure 8.12).
In a vacuum, ali electromagnetic waves move at the same speed- the speed of
light, 300,000 kilometers per second. We call chis speed of light c. T hese waves

Long wavelength - - - -- -- - - Energy increases - - -- -- - -- - - -+-

103 m lm 106 nm 103 nm l nm

Radiowaves Microwaves lnfrared X-rays Gamma rays

102 Hz 104 Hz 106 Hz 1016 Hz 10 18 Hz 10 2º Hz 1022 Hz 1024 Hz

Low frequency High frequency

FIGURE 8 . 11 ,,-....
INTERACTIVE FIGURE"'- (~
The electromagnetic speccrum is a continuous range of eleccromagnetic waves extend-
ing from radio waves ro gamma rays. The descriptive na mes of che sections are merely a
historical classification because ali che waves are the same in namre, d iffering principally in
frequency and wavelength; ali cravel ar che same speed.
 CHA PTE R 8 WAVES-SOUND AND LIGH T 187

Electric
F 1G U RE 8 • 1 2 /""°"'•
field INTERACTIVE FIGURE"" I~
The elec rric and magnecic fi elds of an
eleccromagnecic wave are perpendicular
ro each orher and to che d ireccion of
che wave.

differ from one another in terms of their frequency. Electromagnetic waves have
been detected w ith a frequency as low as 0.01 hertz (H z). O thers, with frequen- Light is energy carried in an
electromagnetic w ave emitted by
cies of severa! thousand hertz (kHz), are classified as low-frequency radio waves. vibrating electrons in atoms. In air,
One million hertz (1 M H z) lies in the middle of the AM radio band . T he very light travels a million times faster
high frequency (VHF) television band of waves begins at about5 0 million hertz than sound.

(MH z), and FM radio frequencies exrend from 88 to 108 MHz. T hen come ul-
trahigh frequencies (UH F), followed by microwaves, beyond which are infrared
waves. Farther still is visible light, which makes up less than a m illionth of 1o/o of
the electromagnetic spectrum.

R~
The lowest frequency of light we can see with our eyes appears red. T he highest
visible frequencies, which are nearly twice the frequency of red light, appear
violet. Still higher frequencies are ultraviolet, wh ich are invisible to the human
eye. These higher-frequency waves are more energetic and can cause sunburns.
Beyond ultraviolec light are che X-ray and gamma-ray regions. T here is no sharp G~
boundary becween regions of the spectrum; they actually grade continuously
into one another. T he spectrum is divided into these arbitrary regions for the
/~ / \\J'r\\ //"\\
I
Violet v
sake of classification.
T he frequency of the electromagnetic wave as it vibrares through space is iden- FIGURE 8 . 13 /""°"'•
INTERACTIVE FIGURE"" I~
tical with the frequency of the oscillating electric charge that generares it. Dif-
Relative wavelengths of red, green ,
ferent frequencies result in different wavelengths -low frequencies produce long
and violet light. Violec light has
wavelengths and high frequencies produce short wavelengths. The higher the nearly twice the frequency of red
frequency of che vibrating charge, the shorter the wavelengch of the radiation.* light and half the wavelength.

CHECK YOURSELF
Are we correct in saying that a radio wave is a low-frequency light wave
and that a radio wave is a sound wave?

CHECK YOUR ANSWER

Yes and no; both radio waves and light waves are electromagnetic waves
emitted by vibrati ng electrons. Radio waves have lower frequencies than
light w aves, so a radio w ave might be considered a low-frequency light
wave (and a light w ave might b e consid ered a high-freq uency radio wave).
But a sound wave is a mechanica l vibrat io n of matter and is not electroma g-
netic. A sou nd wave is f undamentally different from an electrom agnetic
wave. So, a radio wave is def i nitely not a so un d wave. (Don't conf use a
radio wave with the sound th at a loudspea ker emits.)

*The relationship is e= JA, where e is the speed of light (constant),j is the frequency, and A is
the wavelength. lt is common to describe sound and radio by frequency and light by wavelength .
In this book, however, we'll .use.the single concept of frequency in describing light.
188 PART ONE PH YS IC S

LEARNING OBJECTIVE l :fl Reílection

State the law of reflection.
Ex P LA 1 N T H 1 s Where is your image when you look ar yourself in a plane
mirror?

I
f you look carefully at che waves in a swimmi ng pool, you will see rhat
they bounce back when rhey hit che side of che pool. This is an example
of reflection- che rerurning of a wave to che medium from which it ca me
when it strikes a barrier.
1 Water waves reflecc off a surface in much che same way chat
1
a ball bounces back when ir srrikes a surface. When che ball hics
¡, An9le of _ ; Angle of A
"C'1Q-~ inc1dence E1 reflection ~ \'<> a surface and bounces back, che angle of incidence (che angle at
\.~
/'Jt ~, which che ball scrikes che surface) equals che angle of rebound.
ra;- \ ~1 f J ~'(,~'(,e;
\
Waves behave che same way. This is che law of reflection, and
1
it holds for all angles:
The angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.
Mirror
The law of reflection is illusrrated with light rays (with arrows
FIGURE 8 . 14 ,.-... represencing che direction of light wave travel) in Figure 8.14.
INTERACTIVE FIGURE"- {~ Inscead of measuring che angles of incident and reflected rays
The law of reflection. from che reflecting surface, it is customary to measure chem
from a line perpendicular to che plane of che reflecring surface.
Mirror This imaginary line is called che normal. The incidenr ray, che normal, and che
reflecred ray ali lie in che same plane.
If you place a candle in fronr of a mirror, rays of light radiare from che flame
in all directions. Figure 8.15 shows only four of che infinire number of rays leav-
ing one of che infinice number of poim s on che candle. When these rays meec
che mirror, chey reflecc ar angles equal to their angles of incidence. The rays
diverge from che flame. Note chac chey also diverge when reflecting from che
mirror. These divergent rays appear to emanare from behind che mirror (dashed
FIGURE 8 . 15
lines). You see an image of che candle at chis point. The light rays do noc actually
A virtual image is locaced behind the
mirror and is at che posicion where
come from chis point, so che image is called a virtual image. The image is as far
the extended reflected rays (dashed behind che mirror as che object is in from of che mirror, and image and objecc are
lines) converge. che same size. W hen you view yourself in a mirror, for example, che size of your

FIGURE 8 . 16
Marjorie's image is as far behind che
mirror as she is in from of ir. Note
chat she and her image have che same
!
color of clorhing- evidence that 1
light doesn'c change frequency upon
reflection. lmerestingly, her left- 1
right axis is no more reversed chan 1
her up-and-down axis. The axis thac
is reversed, as shown to che right, is
her from-back axis. That's why .it
appears chat her left hand faces che
l..
- -.:.lo.o

right hand of her image.

 CHAPTE R 8 WAV ES-SOUND AND LIGHT 189

image is the same as the size your rwin would appear to be iflocated as far behind 1
the mirror as you are in front, as long as the mirror is flat.
Only part of the light that strikes a surface is reflected. For example, on a sur-
face of clear glass and for normal incidence (light perpendicular to che surface),
only about 4% is reflected from each surface. On a clean and polished aluminum
or silver surface, however, abour 90% of the incident light is reflected. T he light
that is not reflected by a surface penetrares the surface and is either absorbed there FIGURE 8 . 17
(if the material is opaque) or transmitted- absorbed and reemitted (if the mate- Diffuse reflection. Although reflec-
tion of each si ngle ray obeys the
rial is transparent).
law of ?eflecrion, the many differ-
ent surface angles that the light
rays encoumer in striking a rough
Diffuse Reflection surface produce reflection in ma ny
directions.
When light is incident on a rough or granular surface, the light is reflected in many
directions. This is called dijfuse reflection (Figure 8.17). If the surface is so smooth
that the distances between successive elevarions on the surface are less than about
one-eighth the wavelength of the light, there is very little diffuse reflection and
the surface is said to be polished. A surface therefore FIGURE 8 . 18
may be polished for radiation of long wavelengths The open-mesh parabolic dish is a
but rough for light of short wavelengths. The w ire- d iffuse reflector for short-wavelength
mesh "dish" shown in Figure 8.18 is very rough light but a polished reflector for long-
for light waves and is hardly mirrorlike. But, for wavelength radio waves.
long-wavelength radio waves, it is polished and is
an excellent reflector.
· T his page is smooth to a radio wave, but to a
light wave it is rough, so the light reflecting from
this page is diffuse. Rays oflight suiking this page
encounrer millions of tiny flat surfaces facing in
all directions. The incidenr light, therefore, is
reflected in all directions. T his is a desirable cir-
cumstance. Ir enables us to see this page and other
objecrs from any direction or position . You can see the road ahead of your car at
night, for instance, because of diffuse reflection by che rough road surface. W hen
the road is wet, however, it is smoother with less diffuse reflection and therefore
more difficult to see. Most of our environmenr is seen by diffuse reflecrion.
FIGURE 8 . 19
A magni fied view of che surface of
Reflection of Sound ordi nary paper.
We call the reflection of sound an echo. The fraction of sound energy reflected
from a surface is la rge if the surface is rigid and smooth, bur it is less if the sur-
face is soft and irregular. The sound energy that is not reflected is transmitted
or absorbed.
Sound reflects from a smooth surface in the same way rhat light reflects-the
angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Sometimes, when sound
reflects from the walls, ceiling, ~nd floor of a room, the surfaces are too reflec-
tive and the sound becomes garbled. This is due to multiple reflections called
reverberarions. In conrrast, if rhe reflective surfaces are too absorbent, the sound
level is low and the room may sound dull and li feless. Reflected sound in a room
makes it sound lively and full, as you have probably experienced while singing
in rhe shower. In rhe design of an auditorium or concert hall, a balance must be FIGURE 8 . 20
found between reverberarion and absorprion. T he study of sound properties is T he angle of incidem sound is equal
called acoustics. · to che angle of reflected sound.
 190 PART ONE PHYSICS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Describe the process in which
light travels through transparent
materia Is.
FIGURE 8 . 21
Jusc as a sound wave can force a sound
receiver into vibracion, a light wave
can force the electrons in macerials
inco vibracion .
•
FIGURE 8 . 22
T he electrons of atoms have cercain
nacural frequencies of vibration, and
these can be modeled as particles
connecced co che acomic nucleus by
springs. As a result, atoms and mol-
ecules behave somewhac like opcical
tuning forks.
1 :1:1 Transparent and Opaque Materials
E X P LA 1 N T H 1 s W hy don't the photons that strike a pa~: of glass travel
through it?
L
ight is energy carried in an electromagnetic wave emitted by vibrating
elecrrons in atoms. W hen light is incidenc upan matter, sorne of the elec-
trons in che matter are forced into vibration. In chis way, vibrations in che
emitter are transformed into vibrations in the receiver. This is similar to che way
in which sound is transmitted (Figure 8.21).
Thus the way a receiving material responds when light is incidenc upan it de-
pends on che frequency of che light and on the natural frequency of the electrons
)
in the material. Visible light vibrares at a very high rate, sorne 100 trillion times
per second (1014 hertz). If a charged object is to respond to these ultrafast vibra-
tions, it must have very, very little inercia. Electrons are light enough to vibrate
at this rate.
Such materials as glass and water allow light to pass through them in straight
lines. We say they are transparent to light. To understand how light penetrares a
transparent material, visualize the electrons in an atom as if they were connected
by springs (Figure 8.22).* W hen a light wave is incidenc upon them, the electrons
are set into vibration .
Materials that are sp~ingy (elastk) respond more to vibrations at sorne frequen-
cies than to vibrations at other frequencies. Bells ring at a particular frequency,
tuning forks vibrare at a particular frequency, and so do che electrons of atoms and
molecules. The natural vibratlon frequencies of an electron depend on how strongly
it is attached to its atom or molecule. Different atoms and molecules have differenr
"spring strengths." Electrons in glass have a natural vibration frequency in the ul-
traviolet range. W hen ultraviolet rays shine on glass, resonance occurs as che wave
builds and maincains a large amplitude of vibration of the electron, just as push-
ing someone at che resonanc frequency on a swing builds a large amplitude. T he
energy that atoms in the glass receive may be passed on to neighboring atoms by
collisions, or che energy may be reemicred. Resonating atoms in the glass can hold
onto the energy of the ultraviolet light far quite a long time (about 100 millionths
* Electrons, of course, are noc really con necced by springs. We simply presenc a "spring model "
of che acom ca help us underscand che inceraccion of lighc and maccer. Sciencists devise such
concepcual models to underscand nacure, particularly ac che submicroscopic leve!. The value of a
model lies noc in whether ir is "crue" but whether ir is useful- in explaining observarions and in
prediccing new ones. If predicrions are concrary to new observacions, chen rhe model is usually
eicher refined or abandoned.
 CHAPTER 8 WAVES-SOUND AND LIGHT 191

FIGURE 8.23
A light wave incident upon a pane of
1
glass sets up vibrations in rhe molecules
that produce a chain of absorptions and
reemissions that pass the light energy
chrough the material and out che other
side. Because of the time delay between
absorptions and reemissions, the light
cravels through che glass more slowly
than chrough empty space.

of a second). During this time, rhe atom makes about 1 million vibrations, collides
with neighboring atoms, and transfers absorbed energy as heat. Thus, glass is not
transparem to ultraviolet. Glass absorbs ultraviolet.
At lower wave frequencies, such as rhose of visible light, elecrrons in rhe glass
are forced into vibrations of lower amplitudes. The aroms or molecules in the
glass hold the energy for less rime, with less chance of collision with neighboring
atoms and molecules, and wirh less of the energy being transformed into heat.
The energy of vibrating electrons is reemitted as light. Glass is transparent ro ali
the frequencies of visible light. The frequency of rhe reemitted light rhat is passed
from molecule ro molecule is identical to the frequency of the light that produced
the vibration originally. H owever, there is a slight time delay between absorption
and reemission.
Ir is this time delay that res ults in a lower average speed of light through
a transparent material (Figure 8.23). Light travels ac different average speeds FIGURE 8 . 24
chrough different materials. We say average speeds because the speed of light When a ball hits che array of balls, che
in a vacuum, whether in interstellar sp ace or in che space berween molecules ball chat emerges at che opposite side is
not rhe ball rhat iniciares the transfer
in a piece of glass, is e (a conscant 300,000 km/ sor 186,0 00 mi/s). The speed
of energy. Likewise, light that emerges
of light in the atmosphere is slighcly less than it is in a vacuum, but it is usu- from a pane of glass is not rhe same
ally rounded off as c. In water, light rravels at 75% of its speed in a vacuum, light that was incident on rhe glass.
or 0.75c. In glass, light rravels at about 0.67c, depending on rhe type of glass.
In a diamond, light travels at less than half its speed in a vacuum, only 0.4lc.
When light emerges from these materials imo the air, it travels ac its original
speed.
Infrared waves, which have frequencies lower than those of visible light,
vibrare nor only the electrons but also che entire molecules in the scruccure of
the glass and in many other materials. This molecular vibration increases che
thermal energy and temperature of the material, which is why infrared waves
produce temperature increases in these materials. Glass is transparent to visible
light, but notro ulcraviolet and infrared light (Figure 8.25).

FIGURE 8 . 25
Clear glass blocks both infrared and ulrraviolet light, but it is transparem to ali frequencies
of visible light. ·
192 PA RT ONE PHY SICS
Ditferent su bst ances have dif-
fe rent molecular structures a nd
t herefore a bsorb o r refle ct light
differently over various spectral
ranges.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Describe how co lo r depend s o n
t he freque ncy of light.
FIGURE 8 . 26
T he rose appears red because ir
reílects light in chis frequency range.
CHECK VOURSELF
1. Pretend that, while you are ata social gatheri ng, you make several
momentary stops across the room to greet people who are "on your
w ave length ." How is this analogous to light tra~·él ing through glass?
2. In what w ay is your behavior at a party not analogous to light t raveling
through glass?
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS
1. Your average sp eed across th e room is slow ed because of t he time delays
associated w ith your momentary st ops. Likew ise, t he speed of l ight in
glass is slow ed beca use of t he t i me delays caused by interactions with
atoms along its path.
2. As you w al k across th e room, you ar e t he one who both b egi ns the wa lk
and completes the wa lk. Th is is not ana logous to the similar ca se of light
b ecause (according t o our model for light passing th rou gh a transparent
material) the light that is ab sorbed by an electron that has been made to
vibrat e is not t he same l ight t hat is ree mitted- even though the t w o, like
identica l t w ins, are indist i nguishable.
Most objects around us are opaque- they absorb light withour reemitting it.
Books, desks, chairs, and people are opaque. Vibrations given by light to cheir
atoms and molecules are turned into random kinetic energy- inco chermal energy.
They become slightly warmer.
l :d Color
Ex P LA 1N T H 1s W hy do red, green, and blue com bined make whire on your
TV screen?
oses are red and violers are blue; colors intrigue artists and sciencists too.
R T he colors we see depend on che frequency of che light we see. Different
frequencie~ of light are perceived as different colors; che lowest frequency
we dececc appears, to most people, as che color red, and che highest appears as
violet. Berween them range che infinite number of hues that make up che color
spectrum of che rainbow. By convemion, chese hues are grouped into seven colors:
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, índigo, and violer. These colors combined appear
whice. T he wh ice light from che Sun is a composice of all che visible frequencies.
Selective Reflection
A rose, for example, doesn't emit light; it reflects light. If we pass sunlight
through a prism and then place a deep -red rose in various pares of che spectrum,
che rose will appear brown or black in ali regions of the spectrum excepc in the
red region. In che red pan of che spectrum, che petals also will appear red, but
the green scem and leaves will appear black. T his shows chat che red rose has che
abilicy to reflecc red light, bue it cannot reflecc ocher colors; che green leaves have
che ability to reflecc green light and, likewise, cannot reflect ocher colors. When
the rose is held in whice light, che petals appear red and the leaves appear green
because che pecals reflecc che red pare of che wh ice light and che leaves reflect che
green part of the whice light.
 CH A PTER 8 WAV ES-SOUND AN D LIG HT 193

Usually, a material will absorb light FIGURE 8 . 27

of sorne frequencies and reflecr the T he square on the left reflects ali the
colors illuminating it. In sunlight, it
rest. If a material absorbs most of the is whire. When illuminated with blue
light and reflects red, for example, the light, it is blue. The square on the right
material appears red. If it reflects light absorbs ali the colors illuminating
of all the visible frequencies, like the it. In sunlight, it is warmer than che
white pan of this page, it will be the white square.

same color as the light rhat shines on it.

If a material absorbs light and reflects
none, then it is black (Figures 8.27 and 8.28).
lnterestingly, the petals of most yellow flowers, like daffodils, reflect red and
green as well as yellow. Yellow daffod ils reflecr a broad band of frequencies. The
reflected colors of most objects are not pure single-frequency colors but rather a
mixture of frequencies.
An object can reflect only those frequencies that are present j.n the illuminating
light. The appearance of a colored object, therefore, depends on the kind of light
that illuminates it. An incandescent lamp, for instance, emits light of lower average
frequencies than sunlight, enhancing any reds viewed in this light. In a fabric that has FIGURE 8 . 28
only a lirde bit of red in it, the red is more apparent under an incandescent lamp than T he bunny's dark fur absorbs ali
the incoming sunlight and rherefore
it is under a fluorescem lamp. Fluorescent lamps are richer in the higher frequencies, appears black. Fur on orher pares of
and so blues are enhanced in their light. For this reason, it is difficult to tell the true its body reflects light of ali frequencies
color of objects viewed in artificial light (Figure 8.29). and therefore appears whire.

FIGURE 8 . 29
Color depends on the light source.

Selective Transmission
The color of a transparent object depends on the color of the light it transmits.
A red piece of glass appears red because it absorbs ali the colors of white light
MasteringPhysics•
except red, so red light is transmitted. Similarly, a blue piece of glass appears blue
TUTORIAL: Color
because it transmits primarily blue and absorbs the other colors that illuminate
it (Figure 8.30). Colored pieces of glass concain dyes or pigments- fine particles
that selectively absorb light of particular frequencies and selectively transmit oth-
ers. Ordinary w indow glass doesn't h ave a color because it transmits light of ali
visible frequencies equally well.

F I GURE 8 . 30
Red Blue glass Only energy thar has che frequency
ofblue light is transmirred; energy of
Oran e j the orher frequencies is absorbed and
Yellow warms the glass.
Green
Blue
Violet
194 PART ONE PHYSICS

CHECK YOURSELF
1. When illuminated with green light, why do the petals of a red rose
appear black?
2. lf you hold a match, a candle flame, or any small so'urce of white light
between you and a piece of red glass, you'll see two reflections from
the glass: one from the front surface of the glass and one from the back
surface. What color reflections will you see?

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

1. Th e pet a Is absorb rathe r than reflect the green light. Since green is
t h e only co lor i ll um inatin g th e rose, and green contains no red to be
refl ect ed, the rose refl ect s no color at ali and appears black.
2. You wi ll see w hite refl ect ed fro m th e top surface. You'll see red reflected
from the back surface because only red reaches t he back surface and
reflect s from t here .

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ~ Integrated Science 8B

Relate colo rs to lig ht frequ e ncies.
~ BIOLOGY
Mixing Colored Lights
MasteringPhysics·
VIDEO: Colored Shadows E X P LA 1 N T H 1s What three colors of light combine to produce whi te light?
VIDEO: Yellow-Green Peak
of Sunlight

Every artist knows t hat if you mix
red, green, and blue paint, the
result will not be white but a muddy
dark brown. The mixing of pigments
in pa ints and dyes is a process called
subtractive color mixing and is
entirely different from mixing light
of different colors.
Y
u can see rhat white light from the Sun is composed of all the visible frequen-
cies when you pass sunlight through a prism. The white light is dispersed into
a rainbow-colored spectrum. T he distribution of solar frequencies is uneven
(Figure 8.31), and the light is most intense in the yellow-green pan of the spectrum.
How fascinating it is that our eyes have evolved to have maxim um sensitivity in this
range. That's why many füe engines are painted yellow-green, particularly at airporrs,
where visibility is vital. Our sensitivity to yellow-green light is also why we see bet-
ter under the illumination of yellow sodium-vapor lamps at night than we do under
incandescent lamps o~ the same brightness.
All the colors combined produce white. lnterestingly, we also see white from
the combination of only red, green, and blue light. We can understand this by
dividing the solar radiation curve into three regions, as in Figure 8.32. Three

t
Vl
Vl
Q.J
e
......
..s:::::
en
·;:::
1
co
- Visible light __.:
1
1

Frequ ency ---- Frequency _____,_

F l G U RE 8 . 31
T he rad iation curve of sunlighr is a graph of
brighmess against frequency. Sunlighr is brighresr
in the yellow-green region, which is in the middle
of che visible range.
FIGURE 8 . 32 1, '
The radiation curve of sunlight divided into
three regions- red, green, and blue (RGB).
These are the additive primary colors, which
combine to produce white.
 CHAPTER 8 WAV ES-SOUND ANO LIGHT 195

types of cone-shaped receptor cells in our eyes ("eones") perceive

color. (For more on chis, see Chapter 19.) Each cone cell is stimulaced
only by certain frequencies of light. Light of lower visible frequencies
stimulaces che eones that are sensitive co low frequencies and appears
red. Light of m iddle frequencies stimulates che eones chat are sensi-
tive to midfrequencies and appears green. Light of h igher frequen-
cies stimulates che eones thac are sensitive to high frequencies and
appears blue. W hen all chree types of eones are stimulared equally,
we see white.
Project red, green, and blue lights aneo a screen and, where chey all FIGURE 8 . 33 1"""""4•
overlap, white is produced. If cwo of che chree colors overlap, or are INTERACTIVE FIGURE"'- (~
added, then another color sensation is produced (Figure 8.33). By adding various Color addirion. When rhree projectors
amouncs of red, green, and blue, the colors to which each of our three types of shine red, green, and blue light onto
eones are sensitive, we can produce any color in che spectrum. Far chis reason, a whire screen, the overlapping pares
produce differenr colors. Red and
red, green, and blue are called che additive primary colors (~nown as RGB in
blue light combine to make magenta;
color monitors). H ere's what happens when any two of the primary colors are red and green light combine to make
combined: yellow; and blue and green light com-
bi ne ro make cyan. W hite is produced
Red+ Blue = Magenta where all three overlap.
Red + Green = Yellow
Blue + Green = Cyan
We say chat magenta is che opposite of green, cyan is che opposite of red, and yellow
is che opposite of blue. The addition of any color to its opposite color results in
white. Two colors that add togecher to produce white are known as complemencary
colors:·
Magenta + Green = White (= Red + Blue + Green)
Cyan + Red = White (= Blue + Green + Red)
Yellow + Blue = Whice (= Red + Green + Blue)
Note che complemencary colors in the shadows produced by che boy when
he is illuminated by red, green, and blue lamps (Figure 8.34). Cyan, yellow, and
magenta are che subtractive primary colors because chey resulc when light of par- FIGURE 8 . 34
ticular frequencies subtract from whice light. Inks of che subtractive primaries Carlos Vasquez displays a variery
of colors when he is illuminated by
are used in printing. Ink-jet printers, for example, deposit various combinations only red, green, and blue lamps. Can
of cyan, magenta, yellow, and black inks. This is CMYK printing (K indicares you see where complemenrary colors
black). appear in rhe shadows?

CHECK YOURSELF
1. From Figure 8. 33, find t he complements of cyan, of yellow, and of red.
2. Red + blue = ?
3. White - red = ?
4 . White - blue = ?

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

1. Red, blue, cyan
2. Magenta FIGURE 8 . 35
3. Cyan The color green on a prinred
4 . Yellow page consists of cyan and
yellow dots.
196 PART O N E PHYSICS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE l :lul Refraction

Describe how refraction is caused
by changes in wave speed. Ex P LA 1N T H 1 s Why <loes a fish in water appear closer to th e surface than ir
acrually is?

\ speed can cause the wave to bend. T he bending of waves due ro a change
\
\
\1 Top view
~ of~sid ewal k
1 Grass
1
~ The right wheel m aintains its higher speed while on the sidewalk. lt pivots about
FIGURE 8 . 36
T he direction of roll ing wheels
ch anges when one w heel slows before
rhe ocher one does.
FIGURE 8 . 37
T he direccion of light waves changes
when one part of che wave slows
before the ocher pan slows.
FIGURE 8 . 38
W hen light slows down in going from
on e medium to anorh er, as ir does
in going from air to water, it bends
toward che normal. W hen ir speeds
up in traveling from one med ium
to another, as it does in going from
water to air, ir bend s away from che
normal.
T
he speed of a wave changes when the medium changes. T his change in
in wave speed is called refraction.
A simple way ro understand refraction is to compare che. motion of a wave
to che motion of a pair of coy cart wheels, as shown in Figure 8.36. The wheels
roll from a smooth sidewalk omo a grass lawn. If rhe wheels meet che grass at an
angle, as the figu re shows, they are deflected from rheir srraight-line course. Note
thar the !efe wheel slows first when it comes in contact with che grass on che lawn.
the slower-moving left wheel because it travels farther in the same time. So, che
di rection of the rolling wheels is bent toward the normal, the black dashed line
perpendicular to the grass-sidewalk border in Figure 8.36.
Figure 8.37 shows how a light wave bends in a similar way. Note the direc-
tion oflight, indicaced by the blue arrow (che light ray). Also note the wavefronts
drawn at righc angles to the ray. (If che light source were close, che wavefronts
would appear circular, but if che disram Sun is the
source, che wavefronts are practically straight lines.)
The wavefronts are everywhere ar right angles to che
light rays. In the figure, che wave meets che water
surface at an angle. T his means that che left por.tion
of che wave slows down in che water while che re-
mainder in the air travels at the full speed of light, c.
T he light ray remains perpendicular to the wavefront
and therefore bends at che surface. lt bends like che
wheels bend when they roll from che sidewalk onto
che grass. In both cases, the bending is caused by a
change of speed.*
Figure 8.38 shows a beam of light entering water at che left and exiting ar the
right. The path· would be che same if the light entered from che right and exited
at che left. The light paths are reversible for both reflection and refraction . If you
see someone's eyes by way of a reflective or refractive device, such as a mirror or
a prism, then that person can see you by way of che device also.
Refraction causes many illusions. One of them is the apparent bending of a
stick that is partially submerged in water. T he submerged part appears closer to
che surface than it actually is. The same is true when you look at a fish in water.
The fish appears nearer to che surface and closer than it really is (Figure 8.39). If
we look straight clown into water, an object submerged 4 meters beneath the sur-
face appears ro be only 3 mecers deep. Because of refraction, submerged objects
appea r to be magnified.
*The quantitarive law of refracrion, called Snell's law, is credired ro Willebrord Snell, a 17rh-cenrury
Durch ascronomer and marhematician: n 1sin 01 = n2sin (Ji, where n 1 and n2 are rhe indices of
refracrion of the media on eirher side of rhe surface, and 0 1 and 02 are che angles of incidence and
refraction, respecrively. Tf rhree of these values are known, rhe fourth can be calculared from chis
relacionship.
 C HA PTER 8 WAVES - SOUND ANO LIGHT 197

FIGURE 8 . 39
Because of refraction, a submerged
object appears to be nearer to the
surface than it acmally is.

Sound waves refract when parts of the wave fronrs travel at different speeds. MasteringPhysics•
T his may happen when sound waves are affected by uneven winds, or when VIDEO: Refraction of Sound
sound is traveling through air of different temperatures. O n a warm day, the air
near the ground may be appreciably warmer than rhe air above, so the speed of
sound near the ground increases. Sound waves therefore tend to bend away from
rhe ground, resulting in sound thar <loes not seem to transmit well (Figure 8.40).

\
FIGURE 8 . 40

\ L\.. \ Sound waves are bent in air as speed

changes with d ifferent temperatures.

::::> - -=- -

Dispersion
Recall that light that resonares with the .electrons of atoms and molecules in a ma-
terial is absorbed. Such a material is opaque to light. Also recall that transparency
occurs for light of frequencies near (but not at) the resonant frequencies of the mate-
rial. Light is slowed dueto the absorption/ reemission sequence, and the closer to the
resonant frequencies, the slower the light, as was shown in Figure 8.23. The grand
result is that high-frequency light in a transparent medium travels slower than low-
frequency light. Violet light travels about 1% slower in ordinary glass than red light.
Light of colors between red and violet travel at their own respective speeds in glass.
Because light of various frequencies travels ar different speeds in transparent
materials, different colors of light refract by different amounts. When whire light
is refracted twice, as in a prism, the separation oflight by colors is quite noticeable. FIGURE 8 . 41
T his separation of light into colors arranged by frequency is called dispersion Dispersion by a prism makes the
(Figure 8.41). Because of dispersion, there are rainbows! components of white light visible.

Rainbows
We see a rainbow when the Sun shines on d rops of water in a cloud or in falling
rain. The drops act as prisms that disperse light. When you face a rainbow, the
Sun is behind you, in the opposite part of the sky. Seen from an airplane near
 198 PART ON E PHYSICS

midday, the rainbow forros a complete circle. All rainbows would be completely
round if the ground were not in che way.
Note how a raindrop disperses light in Figure 8.42 . Follow the ray of sunlight
as it enters che drop near its top surface. Sorne. is reflected (not shown) and the
remainder refracts into the water where the light is dispersed into its spectrum
colors, red being deviated the least and violet the most. Upon reaching the op-
posite side of the drop, each color is panly refracted out into the air (not shown)
and partly reflected back into che water. Arriving at the lower surface of the drop,
each color is again partly reflected (not shown) and partly refracted back into
FIGURE 8 . 42 the air. This refraction at the second surface, like that in a prism , increases the
Dispersion of sunlight by a single dispersion already produced at the first surface.
raindrop. Although each drop disperses a foil spectrum of colors, an observer is in a
position to see only a single color from any one drop (Figure 8.43). If violet light
from a single drop reaches an observer's eye, red light from the same drop is
incident elsewhere toward rhe observer's feer. To see red light, one muse look to
a drop higher in rhe sky. T he color red will be seen where rhe angle between a
beam of sunlight and the dispersed light is 42º. The color violet is seen where the
angle between the sunbeams and the dispersed light is 40º.

FIGURE 8 . 43
Sunlight incidenc on rwo raindrops,
as shown, emerges from chem as
d ispersed light. T he observer sees che
red light from che upper drop and
che violet light from rhe lower drop.
Millions of drops produce the emire
spectrum of visible light.

A rainbow is not the flat two-dimensional are it appears to be, but is actually a
three-dimensional cone of dispersed light (Figure 8.44). T he apex of this cone is
at your eye. The rhicker .the region containing water' drops, rhe rhicker the coni-
cal edge you look chrough and the more vivid the rainbow.

FIGURE 8 . 44
W hen your eye is located between
rhe wacer-drop region and the Sun
(not shown, off to che left), the
rainbow you see is rhe edge of a
rhree-dimensional cone rhac exrends
through the water-drop region.
Violer is dispersed by drops thar
form a 40º conical surface; red is Sun
· seen from drops along a 42º conical
surface, with orher colors in between.
~-­
--
(Innumerable layers of drops form
innumerable two-dimensional ares,
like the four sets suggested here.)
 CHAPTER 8 WAV ES- SO UN D ANO LIGH T 199

FIGURE 8 . 45
Two refractions anda reflection in
water droplets produce light ar all
angles up ro about 42°, with che
imensity concentrated where we see
che rainbow at 40º to 42º. Light
doesn'r exir the water droplec at angles
grearer than 42º unless it undergoes
rwo or more reflections inside che
drop. Thus che sky is brighter inside
che rai nbow than outside it. Notice
che weak secondary rainbow.

It is interesting that a rainbow always faces you squarely. W hen you move, the
rainbow appears to move with you. So you can never approach rhe side of a rain-
bow or see it end-on as in rhe exaggerated view of Figure 8.44. You can't reach
its end. Thus the saying "looking for the pot of gold at the end of the rainbow"
means pursuing something you can never reach.
Often a larger, secondary bow with its colors reversed can be seen arching at a
larger angle around rhe primary bow. We won't treat this secondary bow except
FIGURE 8 . 46
to say that it is formed by similar circumstances and is a result of double reflec- Double reflection in a drop produces
tion within the raindrops (Figure 8.46). Because of this extra reflection (and a secondary bow.
extra refraction loss), the secondary bow is much dimmer and reversed.

Lenses
When you think of lenses, think of sets of glass prisms arranged as shown in
You r cone of vision int ersects the
Figure 8.47. They refract incoming parallel light rays so that the rays converge cloud of drops and creates your
to (or diverge from) a point. The arrangement shown in Figure 8.47a converges rainbow. lt is ever so slightly dif-
the light, and we have a converging Lens. Notice rhat it is thicker in the middle. ferent from the rain bow seen by a
person nearby. So, w h en a friend
In the arrangement shown in Figure 8.47b, the middle is thinner than the edges. says, " Look at the pretty rainbow,"
Because this lens diverges the light, we have a diverging lens. Note that the prisms you can reply, "Okay, move aside
in (b) diverge the incident rays in a way that makes them appear to originare from so 1can see it, too." Everybody sees
his or her own personal rain bow.
a single point in front of the lens.
In both lenses, the greatest deviation of rays occurs at the outermost prisms
because they have the largest angle between the two refracting surfaces. No de-
viation occurs exacd y in the middle because in rhat region the two surfaces of

FIGURE 8 . 47
A lens may be thought of as a set of
blocks and prisms. (a) A converging
lens. (b) A diverging lens.

(a) (b)
200 PART ONE PHYSICS
FIGURE 8 . 48
Wave froms travel more slowly in
glass than in air. (a) T he waves slow
more through the cemer of rhe lens,
and convergence results. (b) T he
waves slow m ore at che edges, and
divergence results.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Describe the spreading of waves
that pass through openings of
various w idths.
F I GURE 8 . 49
The osci llating meterstick makes plane
waves in the tan k of water. Water oscil-
lating in the opening accs as a source of
waves that fan out on the other side of
the opening. Water diffracts through
the opening.
the glass are parallel to each other (light doesn't deviate when it passes through
glass w ith parallel surfaces, like window glass). A real lens is not made of prisms,
of course. lt is made of a solid piece of glass w ith surfaces ground usualiy to a
circular curve. In Figure 8.48, we see how smooth lenses refract waves.
1:111 Diffraction
Ex P LA 1N T H 1 s Do small openings or large openings produce more diffraction?
W
hen you touch your finger to the surface of stili water, circular ripples
are produced. W hen you touch the surface with a straightedge, such
as a horizonrally held meterstick, you produce aplane wave. You can
produce a series of plane waves by successively dipping a meterstick into the surface
of the water (Figure 8.49).
T he photographs in Figure 8.50 are top views of water ripples in a shallow glass
tank (called a ripple tank). A barrier with an adjustable opening is in the tank. When
plane waves meet the barrier, they conrinue through with sorne distortion. In the left
image, where the opening is wide, the waves continue through the opening almost
without change. At rhe two ends of the opening, however, the waves bend. This
bending is called diffraction. (Any bending oflight by means other than reflection
and refraction is diffraction.) Notice in Figure 8.50 that as the opening is narrowed
the waves spread more. Smaller openings produce greater diffraction. Diffraction is
a property of ali kinds of waves, including sound and light waves.
Diffraction is not confined to narrow slits or to openings in general but can be
seen around the edges of ali shadows (Figure 8.51). On close examination, even
the sharpest shadow is blurred slightly at its edges (Figure 8.52).
(b) (e)
FIGURE 8 . 50
Plane waves passing chrough openings of various sizes. The smaller the opening, che
greater che bending of the waves at the edges- in other words, the greater the diffraction.
 CHAPTER 8 WAV ES-SOUND AND LIGHT 201

1
we :¡
"'

~
(a) (b) (e)
FIGURE 8.51
(a) Waves tend to spread into the shadow region. (b) When che wavelength is abom the size
of the object, the shadow is soon filled in. (e) When the wavelength is short compared with
che object, a sharp shadow is cast.
FIGURE 8 . 52
Oiffraction fringes are evident in the
shadows of monoch romatic (single-
Diffraction poses a problem when you are viewing very small objects wich a frequency) light. These fringes would
light microscope. If che size of an objecc is abouc che same as che wavelength of be filled by multitudes of other
fringes if the source were wh ite light.
light, diffraction blurs the image. If che object is smaller chan the wavelengch
of light, no structure can be seen. The entire image is lost, due to diffraction.
No amount of magnification or perfection of microscope design can defeat this
fundamental diffraction limit. H owever, the eleccron microscope is useful far
viewing ultraciny objects, as described in C hapter 15.

l :jfj Interference LEAR NI NG OBJECT I VE

Describe how interference is a
property of all w ave behavior.
E X P LA 1 N T H 1s In what way can boch sound and light be canceled?

A
n intriguing property of all waves is interference- the combined effect
of two or more waves overlappi ng. C onsider transverse waves: When che
crest of one wave overlaps the crest of another, their individual effects
add cogether. T he resulc is a wave of increased amplitude. This is construccive
interference (Figure 8.53, left). W hen che crest of one wave overlaps the trough
of another, their individual effects are reduced. The high part of one wave simply
fills in the low pan of che other. T his is destructive interference (Figure 8.53,
right).

FIGURE 8 . 53
Constructive and destructive interfer-
Cancel lation ence in a t ransverse wave.

Wave interference is easiest to observe in water. In Figure 8.54, we see the

interference patcern produced when two vibrating objects touch the surface of
water. We can see che regions in which che crest of one wave overlaps che crough
of another to produce a region of zero amplitude. At points along such regions,
the waves arrive Out of step. We say they are out of phase with one another.
202 PA RT O NE PHYSICS

FIGURE 8 .5 4
Two sets of overlapping water waves
produce an incerference pattern. T he
Jefe image is an idealized drawing of
the expanding waves from cwo sources.
T he right image is a photograph of an
actual interference pattem.

I nterference is a property of ali wave motion, whether the waves are water
waves, sound waves, or light waves. We see a comparison of interference for
tran sverse and for longitudinal waves in Figure 8.55. In the case of sound, the
crest of a wave corresponds ro a compression and the trough of a wave corre-
sponds to a rarefaction.

FIGURE 8 . 55
The top two panels show construc-
tive wave incerference in tran sverse
and lo ngitudinal waves. T he bot-
+
t0m panels illustrate destructive
interference.
The superposition of two ide ntical t ransverse waves in phase produces a wave of
increased amplitude.

The superposition of t wo identical longitudinal waves in phase produces a wave of

fV\/\J +V\JVj ....,..··'•.......,....,,. ..

increased int ensity.

., ·: ....... ,
9 . ..... .. ,."'-· ' .. ........ . ... ..
~

• • ,• t ~ ' ' • .,,., ••

Two identical t ransverse waves that are out of phase destroy each other when they are
superi mposed.

+
Two identica l longitudinal waves that are out of phase destroy each other when they
are superim posed.
 C HA PTE R 8 WAVES-SOUND ANO LIG HT 203

1:1@1 The Doppler Effect LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Relate the shortening and length-
E X P LA 1N T H 1s When does che pitch of an ambulance siren chan ge? ening of waves dueto motion to
the Doppler effect.

C
onsider a bug in che middle of a quiet pond . A pattern of water waves is
produced when it jiggles its legs and bobs up and clown (Figure 8.56).
T he bug is not traveling anywhere but merely treads water in a station-
ary position. T he waves it creares are concentric circles because wave speed is the
same in all directions. If the bug bobs in rhe water at a constant frequency, the
distance between che wave crests (the wavelength) is che same in all d irections.
A B
Waves encounter point A as frequently as they encounter point. B. T herefore,
che frequency of wave motion is the same at points A and B, or anywhere in
che vicinity of the bug. This wave frequency remains the same as the bobbing
frequency of che bug.
Suppose che jiggling bug moves across the water at a speed less than the wave FIGURE 8 . 56
Top view of water waves made by a
speed. In effect , che bug ch ases pare of rhe waves it has produced . T he wave stationary bug jiggling on che surface
pattern is distorted and is no longer concentric circles (Figure 8.57). T he center of scill water.
of the outer wave originated when the bug was at che center of that circle. The
center of the next sm aller wave originated when che bug was at rhe center of
that circle, and so forch. T he centers of che circular waves move in che direc-
tion of che swimming bug. Although che bug maintains che same bobbing Wave 1
frequency as before, an observer at B would see the waves coming more often.
T he observer would measure a higher frequency. T his is because each succes-
sive wave has a shorter distance to travel and therefore arrives at B sooner than
A B
if the bug weren't moving toward B. An observer at A , on the other hand , meas-
ures a lower frequency because of the longer t ime between wave-crest arrivals.
T h is occurs because each successive wave travels far ther to A as a result of the
bug's motion. This change in frequency of a wave as measured by an observer
FIGURE 8.57
d ue to che motion of che source (or due to che motion of che observer) is called Water waves made by a bug swim-
the Doppler effect (after the Austrian physicist and mathematician Christian ming on che surface of still wacer
Johann Doppler, 1803-1853). toward poim B.
Water waves spread over the flat surface of the water. In concrast, sound and
light waves travel in three-dimensional space in all directions, like an expanding
balloon . Just as circular waves are closer together in front of the swim ming bug,
spherical sound or light waves ahead of a moving source are closer together and
reach an observer more frequendy. The Doppler effect holds for ali types of waves.
The Doppler effect is evident when you hear che changing pitch of an ambu-
lance or fire-engine siren. W hen rhe siren is approaching you, the crests of t he
MasteringPhysics•
sound waves encounter your ear more frequendy, and the pitch is higher than
TUTORIAL. The Doppler
normal. And when che siren passes you and moves away, the crests of the waves Effect
encounter your ear less frequendy, and you hear a drop in pitch (Figure 8.58). VIDEO: The Doppler Effect

F 1G U R E 8 • 5 8 r '•
INTERACTIVE FIGURE~ ( ~
The picch of sound increases when che sourcc of che sound moves coward you, and ir
decreases when che source moves away.
204 PART ONE PHYSICS

Antinoise Technology compressions) in the earphones. .

D estructive sound interference is at the heart of antinoise lhe combination of signals cancels
technology. Such noisy devices as jackhammers are being the jackhammer noise. Anánoise
equipped with microphones that send the sound of the de- devices are becoming more com-
vice to electronic microchips that creare mirror-image wave mon in aircraft, which today are
patterns of che sound signals. For che jackhammer, this much quieter inside than before
m irror-image sound signa) is fed to earphones worn by che chis technology was introduced.
operator. Sound compressions (or rarefactions) from the Are automobiles next, perhaps
jackhammer are canceled by mirror-image rarefaccions (or eliminacing the need for muffiers?

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ~ Integrated Science 8C

Relate the Doppler effect to
astronomy. L.::.J ASTRONOMY
The Doppler Effect and the Expanding Universe
Ex P LA 1N T H 1s Whac is meanc by a red shift and a blue shift for astronomical
objects?

T he Doppler effect also occurs for light waves. W hen a light source
approaches, there is an increase in its measured frequency; when it
recedes, there is a decrease in its frequency. An increase in light frequency
is called a blue shift because the increase is toward a higher frequency, or toward
the blue end of the color spectrum. A decrease in frequency is called a red shift,
referring to a shift toward a lower frequency, or toward the red end of the color
spectrum. A rapidly spinning star, for example, shows a red shift on the side turn-
ing away from us and a relative blue shift on che side turning toward us. This
shifting of frequencies enables us to calculare che star's spin rate.
Galaxies, too, show a red shif~ in the light they emit. This observation was
first made by American astronomer Edwin Hubble. W hen Hubble observed
galaxies through his telescope, he noticed that the colors of the light emitted
by their elements seemed to be red-shifted. This implied that the galaxies must
be moving away from Earth. Further, Hubble's observations established that
the farther a galaxy is from Earch, che faster it is moving away. This is che basis
of our current belief that the universe is ever-expanding. (You will learn more

- about Hubble and his fundamenrally important contributions to astronomy in

Chapter 28.)

CHECK VOURSELF
1. lf Hubble had observed that the light from distant galaxies was blue-
shifted, would this be evidence for an expanding or a shrinking universe?
Explain.
2. Explain why, in terms of the bunching together of waves, light from a
receding source is red -shifted.
 CHAPTER 8 WAVES-SOU ND AND LIGHT 205

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

1. Blue-shifted atomic spectra would indicate that the source was approaching
t he observer; if all surrounding galaxies showed blue-shifted atomic spectra,
this would be evidence for a shrinking universe.
2. Light from a receding source should be red-sh ifted beca use, just like the
bug on the pond, w ave crests grow successively farther apart and thus
have a lower frequency.

l :liji The Wave-Particle Duality LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Relate how light can be seen as
Ex P LA 1N T H 1sWhich experiments favor a particle view of light and which composed of particles and as
composed of waves.
favor a wave view?

e have described light as a wave. The ea~liest ideas a bout the nature

W of light, however, held that light was composed of tiny particles. In

ancient times, Plato and other Greek philosophers believed in a particle
view of light, as <lid Isaac Newton, who first became famous far his experiments
with light in the early 1700s. A hundred years later, the wave nature of light was
demonstrated by Thomas Young in his imerference experimems. The wave view
was reinforced in 1862 by Maxwell's finding that light is energy carried in oscillat-
ing electric and magnetic fields of electromagnetic waves. The wave view of light
was confirmed experimemally by Heinrich H ertz 25 years later.
Then, in 1905, Albert Einstein published a Nobel Prize- winning paper
rhat cha llenged the wave theory of light. Einstein stated that light in its
interactions with matter was confined not in continuous waves, as Maxwell
a nd others had envisioned, bm in tiny particles of energy called photons.
Low-frequency
Einstein's particle model of light explained a perplexing phenomenon of that light does not
time- the photoelectric effict. eject e l ectro n~

The Photoelectric Effect

W hen light shines on certain metal surfaces, electrons are ejected from those
surfaces. This is the phoroelectric effect, which is put ro use in electric eyes, in
~
light meters, and in motion-picture sound tracks. W har perplexed investigators High- frequency
at the turn of the 20th century was that ultraviolet and violet light imparted light does eject
sufficient energy to knock electrons from rhose metal surfaces, while lower- electrons
. .v t rt ·
frequency light did not-even when the lower-frequency light was very bright. 1\• '1
Ejection of electrons depended only on the frequency of light, and che higher
che frequency of the light, che greater the kinetic energy of che ejected electrons.
Very dim high-frequency light ejected fewer electrons, but it ejecred each of FIGURE 8 . 59
r:'- ~
them with the same kinetic energy of electrons ejected in brighter light of the The phoroelectric effect depends on
same frequency (Figure 8.59) . frequency.
Einsrein's explanation was that the electrons in che metal were being bom-
barded by "particles of light"-by photo ns. Einstein stated thar the energy of
each photon was proporcional to its frequency- that is,
E~f

So Einstein viewed light as a hail of photons, each carrying energy proporcional

to its frequency. One photon is completely absorbed by each electron ejected
from the metal.
206 PART ONE PHYSI CS

Ali attempts to explain the photoelectric effect by waves failed. A light wave
has a broad front, and its energy is spread out along this front. For the light wave
to eject a single electron from a metal surface, ali its energy would somehow have
to be concentrated on that one electron. But th is is as improbable as an ocean
wave hitting a beach and knocking only one single seashell far inland with an
energy equal to the energy of the whole wave. Therefore, the photoelectric effect
suggests that, instead of thi nking of light encountering a surface as a continu-
ous train of waves, we should conceive of light encountering a surface, or any
detector, as a succession of particle-like photons. The energy of each photon is
proporcional to the frequency of light, and that energy is given completely to a
single electron in the metal's surface. The number of ejected electrons has to do
with che number of photons-the brightness of the light.
Experimental verification of Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect
was made 11 years later by che American physicist Roben Millikan. Every aspect
of Einstein's interpretation was confirmed. The photoelectric effect proves conclu-
sively that light has particle properties. A wave model oflight is inconsistent with
che photoelectric effect. On the other hand, interference demonstrates convinc-
ingly that light has wave properties, and a particle model of light is inconsistent
with interference.
Evidendy, light has both a wave nacure and a particle nature-a wave- partide
duality. It reveals itself as a wave or partide depending on how it is being observed.
Simply stated, light behaves as a stream of photons when it interacts with a sheet of
metal or other detector, and it behaves as a wave in traveling from a source to the
place where it is detected. Light travels as a wave and hics as a stream of photons.
T he fact that light exhibits both wave and particle behavior is one of the most in-
teresting surprises that physicists discovered in the 20th century.

For ínstructor-assigned homework, go to www.masteringphysics.com e

SUMMARY OF TERMS (KNOWLEDGE)

Amplitude For a wave ora vibration, the maximum displace-
mem on either side of the equilibrium (m idpoint) position.
Diffraction Any bending of light by means other rhan
reflection and refraction.
Dispersion T he separation oflight into colors arranged by
frequency.
Doppler effect The change in frequency of a wave due to
che morion of the source (or due to the motion of the
receiver).
Electromagnetic spectrum The continuous range of elec-
tromagnetic waves th at exrends in frequency from radio
waves to gamma rays.
Electromagnetic wave An energy-carrying wave produced
by an oscillating electric charge.
Forced v ibration The sening up of vibrarions in an object by
a vibrating source.
Frequency For a vibrating body, the number of vibrations
per unir time. For a wave, che number of crests rhat pass
a particular point per unit time.
. Hertz Th~ SI unir of frequency; one hertz (symbol H z)
equals one vibration per second.
lnterference The combined effect of two or more waves
overlapping.
Law of reflection T he angle of reílection equals che angle of
incidence.
Longitudinal wave A wave in which che medium vibrares
in a direction parallel (longitud inal) to the direction in
which the wave rravels.
Natural frequency A frequency ar which an elasric object
nacura lly rends ro vibrare.
Opaque Description of materials rhat absorb light wirhour
reemission.
Period The rime required for a vibration ora wave to m ake
one complete cycle.
Reflection The returning of a wave to the medium from
which ir carne when ir hits a barrier.
Refraction The bending ofwaves dueto a change in wave speed.

Resonance A dramatic increase in the amplitude of a wave
that results when the frequency of forced vibrations
marches an object's natural frequency.
Transparent D escription of materials that allow light to pass
chrough them in stra ighc lines.
Transverse wave A wave in which the medium vibrares in a
direction perpendicular (transverse) to che direction in
which che wave travels.
READING CHECK QUESTIONS
8.1 Vibrations and Waves
1. Distinguish among amplitude, wavelength, frequency,
and period.
2. Whar is the source of ali waves?
8.2 Wave Motion
3. In one word, whar is it that moves from source to receiver
in wave motion?
4. Does che medium in which a wave rravels move with che
wave?
5. What is che relarionship among frequency, wavelength,
_and wave speed?
8.3 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
6. In what direction are the vibracions relative to the direc-
tion of wave travel in a cransverse wave? In a longitudinal
wave?
7. Oistinguish between a compression and a rarefacrion.
8.4 The Nature of Sound
8. D efine the wavelength of sound in terms of successive
compressions of air.
9. Can sound travel through a vacuum? W hy or why not?
8.5 Resonance
10. Why does a struck tuning fork sound louder when its
handle is held againsc a rabie?
11. Distinguish between forced vibrarions and resonance.
8.6 The Nature of Light
12. W har is the principal diffe rence berween a radio wave
and light? Between light and X-rays?
13. How does che frequency of an electromagnetic wave
compare with che frequency of rhe vibraring elecrrons
that produces ir? · 28. Distinguish between constructive interference a nd
8.7 Reflection
14. What is rhe law of reflection?
15. D oes the law of reflection hold for diffuse reflection?
Explain .
CHAPTER 8 WAVES-SOUND AND LIGHT 207
Wave A disturbance thar travels from one place to anocher trans-
porting energy, but nor necessarily matter, along with ir.
Wavelength The dista nce from the top of one cresc to
the top of che next cresc or, equivalenrly, che disrance
between successive identical pares of the wave.
Wave-particle duality T he exhibition of boch a wave nature
and a particle nature of light.
(COMPR E HENS I ON)
8.8 Transparent and Opaque Materials
16. The sound coming from one tuning fork can force
ªnocher to vibrace. What is the analogous effect for light?
17. (a) What is che face of che energy in ulcraviolec light inci-
dent on glass? (b) Whac is che face of che energy in visible
light incidem on glass?
18. H ow does rhe average speed oflighc in glass compare
with its speed in a vacuum?
8.9 Color
19. What is che relarionship between the frequency oflighc
and its color?
20. Disringuish berween che white of chis page and the black
of chis ink, in cerms of what happens to the white light
thar falls on boch.
8.10 Refraction
21. What causes che bending oflight in refracrion?
22. Does a single raindrop illuminated by sunlight deflect
light of a single color, or <loes it disperse a ~pectrum of
colors?
23. Does a viewer see a si ngle color or a spectrum of colors
coming from a single faraway drop?
24. Disringuish berween a converging lens and a diverging
lens.
8.11 Diffraction
25. For an opening of a given size, is diffraction more pro-
nounced for a longer wavelength or a shorter wavelengch?
26. Does diffraction help or hinder viewing with a light
m icroscope?
8.12 lnterference
27. W hat kinds of waves exhibir imerference?
destructive interference.
8.13 The Doppler Effect
29. Why does an observer measure waves from an approach-
ing source as having a higher frequency than if che source
were stationary?
208 PART ONE PHY SICS
8.14 The Wave- Particle Duality
30. What evidence can you cite for rhe particle narure of
light? The wave narure of light?
31. Which are more successful in dislodging electrons from a
metal surface-photons of violer light or photons of red
light? W hy?
THINK INTEGRATED SCIENCE
8A- Sensing Pitch
33. How does the pirch of sound relate to its frequency?
34. A cat can hear sound frequencies up to 70,000 H z.
Bats send and receive ultrahigh-frequency squeaks up
to 120,000 H z. Which hears sound of shorter wave-
lengths-cats or bats?
88- Mixing Colored Lights
35. Explain how you are able to see a wide ra nge of colors
even chough there are only chree kinds oflight-sen sicive
cells ("eones") in your eyes.
36. Stare ac a piece of colored paper for 45 seconds or so.
Then look at a plain whice surface. What do you see now?
THINK ANO 00 (HANDS-ON APPLICAT ION )
39. Suspenda wire grill from a refrigerator or an
oven from a string, holding the ends of che
scring to your ears. Let a friend gently stroke
the grill with pieces ofbroom scraw and with
other objects. The effect is bese appreciared
when you are in a relaxed condition wich
your eyes closed. Be sure to try chis!
40. Set up two pocket mirrors at right angles,
and place a coin between them. You'll see four coins.
Change rhe angle of che mirrors, and see how many images
of the coin you can see. Wich che mirrors at right angles,
look at your face. T hen wink. W hat do you see? You now
see yourself as others see you. Hold a primed page up to che
double mirrors and compare its appearance with che reflec-
tion of a single mirror.
Left
eye
Right
eye
41. Make a pinhole camera, as illustrated here. Cut out one
end of a small cardboard box, and cover che end with cis-
sue or wax paper. Make a clean-cut pinhole at the ocher
32. W hen does light behave as a particle? W hen does it
behave as a wave?
Can you explain what you see? (Him: To figure chis out,
you need to know char rhe eones in you r retina chac are
receptive to che color of the paper become fatigued.)
8C- The Doppler Effect and the Expanding
Universe
37. Swing a buzzer of any kind over your head in a circle.
Ask sorne friends to stand off to the side, listen to the
buzzer, and repon cheir observations. Then switch places
so you too can hear che buzzer as ic moves. How does the
sound of che buzzer change? W hy?
38. H ow does the Doppler effect provide evidence chat we
live in an expanding universe?
end. (If the cardboard is thick, make the hole chrough
a piece of aluminum foil placed over an opening in
che cardboard.) Aim che camera ac a bright object in a
darkened room, and you see an upside-down image on
the tissue paper. W hen phorngraphic film was in vague,
studem s replaced che t issue paper with unexposed pho-
tographic film, covering che back so ic was light cight,
and covering che pinhole with a removable flap, ali ready
to cake a picrure. Exposure times d iffered, depend-
ing principally on che kind of film and the amount of
light. Lenses on today's commercial cameras are much
bigger than pinholes and therefore admit more light in
less time-hence the term snapshot. For now it will be
enough to view images on che tissue or wax paper. Poim
your camera toward the Sun. And if you do so during a
solar eclipse, you'll marvel at the clear crescents on your
viewing screen.
,-----:: .:
tr -- -- -e,,, =- - - -
-----
1
42. Write a letter to Grandpa explaining why we now say
that light is not just a particle, and not just a wave, bue in
fact is both-a "wavicle"!
---
PLUG ANO CHUG (FORMULA FAMILIARIZATION)
1 1
Frequency = ---·
period'
Period = frequency
43. A pendulum swings to and fro every 3 s. Show chac ics
frequency of swing is ~ H z.
44. Anocher pendulum swings to and fro at a regular rate of
2 times per second. Show thac its period is 0.5 s.
Wave speed = frequency X wavelength = JA
THINK ANO COMPARE ( ANA LYSIS)
48. The siren of a fire engine is heard when the fire engine is
traveling in three diffe rent situations: A, toward che lis-
tener ar 30 km/ h ; B, toward che liscener ac 50 km/ h; and
C, away from che liscener ac 20 km/ h. Rank the pitches
heard, from highesc to lowest.
49. Three shock waves are produced by supersonic aircraft.
Rank their speeds from highesc to lowest.
50. A woman looks at her face in che handheld mirror. Rank
the amoum of her face she sees in che ch ree sicuations A,
B, and C, from greacest to least (or <loes she see the same
amount in all positions?).
51. Wheels from a toy cart are rolled from a concrece side-
walk omo th ree surfaces: A, a paved driveway; B, a grass
THINK ANO SOLVE (M A THEMATI CA L AP PLI CA TION)
53. W hat is t he frequency, in hertz, that corresponds to each
of chese periods: (a) 0.10 s, (b) 5 s, (c) -Jos?
54. The nearest star beyond che Sun is Alpha Centauri,
which is 4 X 10 16 m away. If we were to receive a radio
message from chis star coday, show chac it would h ave
been sem 1.4 X 108 s ago (4 .4 yr ago).
55. Blue-green light has a frequency of about 6 X 10 14 H z. Use
the relationship e = p . to show that che wavelengch of this
light in air is 5 X 10- 7 m. How <loes this wavelength com-
pare with che size of an atom , which is about 10- 1o m?
56. A certain blue-green light has a wavelength of 6 00 nm in
air. Show chat ics wavelengch in water, where light travels
CHAPTER 8 WAVES - SOUND AND LIGHT 209
45. A 3-m-long wave oscillates 1.5 times each second. Show
chac che speed of the wave is 4.5 m /s.
46. Show that a certain 1.2-m-long wave with a frequency of
2.5 Hz has a wave speed of 3.0 m/s.
47. A tuning fork produces a sound with a frequency of 256
Hz and a wavelength in air of 1.33 m. Show chat che
speed of sound in che vicinity of the fork is 340 m/ s.
lawn; ande , a close-cropped grass on a golf-course put-
ting green. Each sec of wheels bends ac che boundary due
to slowing and is deflected from ics inicial straighc-line
course. Rank che surfaces accord ing to the amount each
set of wheels bends ac che boundary, from greatest amount
of bending to leasc.
52. ldentical rays oflight enter three cransparent blocks
composed of differem m aceria ls. Light slows down
when it enters the blocks. Rank che blocks according to
che speed light t ravels in each, from highest to lowest.
ac 75 % of its speed in air, is 450 nm. Show chat its speed
in Plexiglas, where light travels at 67% of ics speed in air,
is 400 nm. (1 nm = 10-9 m)
57. A certain radar installation that is used to crack airplanes
transmits electromagnecic radiation with a wavelen gth
of 3 cm. (a) Show thac che frequency of chis radiation,
measured in billions of hertz, is 10 G H z. (b) Show chat
che time required fo r a pulse of radar waves to reach an
airplane 5 km away and return is 3.3 X 10- 5 s.
58. Suppose you walk toward a mirror at 2 m /s. Show that
you and your image approach each other at a speed of
4 m/s (and not 2 m /s).
 210 PART ONE PHYSICS
THINK ANO EXPLAIN (SYN TH ESIS)
59. W har k ind of morion should you impart to a srretched
coiled spring (or to a Slinky) to produce a rransverse
wave? To produce a longitudinal wave?
60. Whar does ir mean to say thar a radio station is "at 101.1
on your FM dial"?
61. In che stands ar a racerrack, you norice smoke from che
starter's gun before you hear ir fire. Explain.
62. What is the danger posed by people in the balcony of an
auditorium stamping rheir feet in a steady rhyrhm?
63. W hat is rhe fundamental source of electromagnetic
radiacion?
64. W h ich has the shorrer wavelengths-ultravioler or infra-
red? Which has che higher frequencies?
65. Do radio waves travel ar rhe speed of sound, ar rhe speed
of light, or ar sorne speed in between?
66. What determines whether a material is rransparent or
opaque?
67. You can get a sunburn on a cloudy day, but you can'r gec
a sunburn even on a sunny day if you are behind glass.
Explain.
68. Suppose that sunlighr falls on boch a pair of reading
glasses anda pair of dark sunglasses. Which pair of
glasses would you expecc to become warmer? Defend
' your answer.
69. Fire engines used ro be red. Now many of rhem are
yellow-green. Why was che color changed ?
70. A woman's eye ar point P looks into che m irror. W hich of
rhe numbered cards can she see reflected in the mirror?
¡.....,¡
_,, _____ f -
~ -===>""
Mirror
71. Cowboy Joe wishes to shoor h is assailant by ricochet-
ing a bullet off a mirrored metal piare. To do so, should
he simply aim at che mirrored image of his assailam?
Explain.
THINK ANO OISCUSS (EVALUAT I ON)
81. The wavelength of light changes as light goes from
one medium to another, while che frequency remains
rhe same. Is che wavelength longer or shorter in
water tban in air? Explain in terms of che equation:
Speed = frequency X wavelengrh.
82. The sirar, an Indian musical instru mem, has a set of
scrings that vibrare and produce music, even though che
player never plucks those strings. T hese "sympathetic
strings" are identical to the plucked strings and are
mounted below them. W hat is your explanation?
83. A railroad locomotive is ar rest with its whistle shriek-
ing, and then it starts moving toward you. (a) Does che
72. What happens to light of a certain frequency when it
is incident on a material whose natural frequency is rhe
same as che frequency of che light?
73. Two observers standing apare from each orher do not see
rhe "same" rainbow. Explain.
74. An ocean wave is cyan. W hat color(s) of light does it
absorb? Whar colors does ir reflecr?
75. A rainbow viewed from an airplane may forma complete
circle. Where will che shadow of rhe airplane appear?
Explain.
76. A bar ílying in a cave emits a sound and receives its echo
0.1 s later. How far away is the cave wall?
77. Why do radio waves diffract around buildings whereas
light waves do not?
78. Suntanning produces cellular damage in che skin. Why
is ultraviolet radiation capable of producing this damage
whereas visible radiation is noc?
79. Why doesn'c che sharpness of che image in a pinhole
camera depend on the position of che viewing screen ?
80. If you poinr the pinhole camera ofExercise 79 ar rhe Sun,
you will see a clear and brighr solar image on che viewing
screen. How does rhis relate to the circular spots that sur-
round Lillian beneath che sunlit cree shown in the photo?
frequency rhat you hear increase, decrease, or scay the
same? (b) How abour the wavelengch reaching your ear?
(c) How abour che speed of sound in che air between you
and che locomorive?
84. The radiacion curve of che Sun (see Figure 8.31) shows
chac che brighcest light from che Sun is yellow-green.
Why rhen do we see rhe Sun as whicish instead of
yellow-green?
85. If, while stand ing on rhe bank of a stream, you wished to
spear a fish swi mming in che water out in from of you,
wou ld you airo above, below, or direcrly at che observed
fish to make a direct hit? If you decided instead to zap
 CHAPTER 8 WAVES-SOUND AND LIG HT 211

the fish wíth a laser, would you aim above, below, or 89. Explain briefly how the
directly at the observed fish? Defend your answers. photoelectric effect is
86. A rule of thumb for estimating the dístance in kilometers used in che operation of
between an observer and a lighmíng strike is co d ivide ac least two of the fol-
the number of seconds in che interval between the flash lowing: an electric eye,
and che sound by 3. Show that chis rule is correct. a photographer's light
meter, the sound track
87. If a single disturbance sorne unknown discance away
of a motion picture.
sends out both transverse and longitudinal waves chac
travel at discinctly different speeds in che medium, such 90. Does che photoeleccric
as che ground during earthquakes, how could the origin effect prove that light
of che discurbance be located? is made up of particles?
Do interference experi-
88. The photo ac righc shows Eanh science author Suzanne
ments prove that light
Lyons with h er son Triscan wearíng red and her daughter
is composed of waves?
Simone wearing green. Below chat is che negative of che
(Is chere a distinccion
photo, which shows chese colors differently. What is your
between what some-
explanation?
thing is and how it
behaves?)

READINESS ASSURANCE TEST (RAT)

lfyou have a good grasp ofthis chapter, ifyou reaíly do, then you shouíd be abíe to score at least 7 out of JO on this RAT lfyou score Less
than 7, consider studyingforther befare moving on.
Choose che BEST answer ro each of che following: 6. Refracced light chac bends away from che normal is light
chat has
l. W hich of these does N OT belong in che family of
electromagnetic waves? (a) slowed clown.
(a) light (b) speeded up.
(b) sound (c) bounced .
(c) radio waves (d) diffracted.
(d) X-rays 7. The colors on che cover of your physics book are due ro
2. The source of electromagnetic waves is vibrating (a) color addition.
(a) electrons. (b) color subcraction.
(b) aroms. (c) color interference.
(c) molecules. (d) scaccering.
(d) energy fields. 8. The redness of a sunup or sunsec is due mosd y to light
that hasn't been
3. The slowing of light in transparent materials has ro do wich
(a) absorbed.
(a) the time for absorption and reemission of che light.
(b) t ransmicced.
(b) che densicy of materials.
(c) scattered.
(c) different frequency ranges in materials.
(d) polarized.
(d) che fundamental difference between light and sound.
9. A rainbow is che result oflight in raindrops thac undergoes
4. Whecher a particular surface accs as a polished reflector
or a diffuse reflecror depends on che (a) interna! reflection.
(a) color of reflecced light. (b) dispersion.
(b) bright ness of reflecced light. (c) refraction.
(c) wavelengch of light. (d) ali of these
(d) angle of incoming light. 10. Light has boch a wave nature and a parcicle nature. Light
behaves primarily as a particle when it
5. When a light ray passes at ari angle from water into che
air, che ray in che air bends (a) rravels from one location to anocher.
(a) toward che normal. (b) interaccs with matter.
(b) away from che normal. (c) boch
(c) eicher away from or ro_vvard che normal. (d) neicher
(d) parallel ro che normal.
Answers to RAT
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