FNE - Microwave

MICROWAVE SYSTEMS
CONCEPTS AND DESIGN
MURWAN OWAIS
July – 2001
© 2001 Flextronics Network Services
CONTENTS
1 What is Microwave?....................................................................................................6
1.1 Overview .............................................................................................................6
2 Field (Site and Path) Survey........................................................................................7
2.1 Definition.............................................................................................................7
2.2 Equipment used for Field Survey ........................................................................7
2.3 Information Gathered During Field Survey.........................................................7
3 Line of Sight (LOS).....................................................................................................9
3.1 Definition.............................................................................................................9
3.2 Optical LOS.........................................................................................................9
3.3 Radio LOS ...........................................................................................................9
4 Path Profiling and Clearance Criteria........................................................................11
4.1 Definition...........................................................................................................11
4.2 Overview ...........................................................................................................12
5 Antenna......................................................................................................................14
5.1 Definition...........................................................................................................14
5.2 Parabolic Antenna..............................................................................................14
5.3 Characteristics and terms...................................................................................15
6 Modes of operation....................................................................................................17
6.1 Non Protected (NP) ...........................................................................................17
6.2 Monitored Hot StandBy (MHSB)......................................................................17
6.3 Diversity Systems ..............................................................................................17
6.3.1 Definition...................................................................................................17
6.3.2 Overview ...................................................................................................17
6.3.3 Space Diversity..........................................................................................17
6.3.4 Frequency Diversity ..................................................................................18
7 Repeaters ...................................................................................................................19
7.1 Active Repeater .................................................................................................19
7.2 Passive Repeater ................................................................................................19
8 Microwave Radio Propagation ..................................................................................22
8.1 Characteristics Of Microwave Transmission ....................................................22
8.2 Refraction ..........................................................................................................22
8.3 Atmospheric Duct..............................................................................................23
8.4 Multipath ...........................................................................................................23
8.4.1 Overview ...................................................................................................23
8.4.2 How to overcome multipath? ....................................................................24
8.5 Diffraction .........................................................................................................25
8.6 Reflection...........................................................................................................26
8.7 Fading ................................................................................................................28
9 Microwave Path Losses And Gains...........................................................................31
9.1 Definition...........................................................................................................31
9.2 Free Space Loss .................................................................................................31
9.3 Link Budget .......................................................................................................33
9.4 System Gain.......................................................................................................34
9.4.1 Plane Reflector Insertion Loss...................................................................34
Page 2 Proprietary & confidential, not for use or disclosure outside Flextronics Network Services, without prior written permission.
Fixed Network Engineering
Microwave Systems
9.4.2 Back-to-Back Antenna Insertion Loss.......................................................35

9.5 Fade Margin.......................................................................................................37
9.6 Reliability or Availability..................................................................................38
9.6.1 Unavailability Standards............................................................................38
9.6.2 Causes Unavailability ................................................................................38
9.6.3 Unavailability calculation for loop protected network ..............................39
9.7 Report ................................................................................................................39
9.8 Design Optimization..........................................................................................40
10 Network Topologies ..............................................................................................41
10.1 Star Topology ....................................................................................................41
10.2 Ring Topology...................................................................................................41
10.3 Implications to topology....................................................................................41
10.4 Implications of rain on loop topology ...............................................................41
11 Frequency Planning ...............................................................................................43
11.1 Definition...........................................................................................................43
11.2 Causes of Interference .......................................................................................43
11.2.1 Internal Causes ..........................................................................................43
11.2.2 External Causes .........................................................................................43
11.3 Effects of Interference .......................................................................................43
11.3.1 Co-channel Interference ............................................................................43
11.3.2 Adjacent-channel interference ...................................................................43
11.4 Frequency Channel Planning.............................................................................43
11.4.1 Basic ITU Arrangements ...........................................................................43
11.4.2 High/Low Arrangements ...........................................................................44
11.4.3 Alternate Polarization ................................................................................44
11.5 Frequency Re-Use .............................................................................................44
11.5.1 Two-Frequency (One-pair) Plan................................................................44
11.5.2 Four-Frequency (Two pairs) Plan..............................................................45
11.5.3 Sex-Frequency (Three pairs) Plan .............................................................45
11.6 Antenna Considerations.....................................................................................45
11.7 Overcoming frequency interference ..................................................................45
12 Practices Using Software Planning Tool ...............................................................47
Proprietary & confidential, not for use or disclosure outside Flextronics Network Services, without prior written permission. Page 3
Figures
Figure 1 Block Diagram Of A Microwave Radio System...............................................6

Figure 2 Tower ................................................................................................................8
Figure 3 Path Profile......................................................................................................11
Figure 4 Different Ways Of Representing Path Profiling .............................................12
Figure 5 Different Types Of Parabolic Antennas ..........................................................14
Figure 6 Antenna Beam width And Lobes ....................................................................15
Figure 7 Active Repeaters .............................................................................................19
Figure 8 Passive Repeater: Flat Reflector .....................................................................21
Figure 9 Atmospheric Ducting ......................................................................................23
Figure 10 Multipath As a Result Of Reflection From The Ground Surface And
NOT From Ducting ...................................................................................................24
Figure 11 Terrain Shielding To Cancel Multipath ........................................................27
Figure 12 Antenna Polarization.....................................................................................29
Figure 13 Received Power From An Isotropic Antenna ...............................................31
Figure 14 Antenna Radiation Pattern ............................................................................32
Figure 15 Different Types Of Waveguides ...................................................................36
Figure 16 Network Topologies......................................................................................41
Figure 17 Two-Frequency Plan .....................................................................................45
Figure 18 Four-Frequency Plan With Alternated Polarization......................................45
Figure 19 Four-Frequency Plan With Alternated Frequency ........................................45
Microwave Systems
Tables
Table 1 Equipment used for Field Survey ...................................................................7

Table 2 Information Gathered During Field Survey....................................................8
Table 3 Radius Of First Fresnel Zone For different Frequencies And Distances .....10
Table 4 Relation Between Antenna Gain and Both Frequency And Antenna Size...16
Table 5 Values Taken for Clearance % and k-factor According To Frequency And Distance 26
Table 6 Frequency And Fading .................................................................................29
1 What is Microwave?
1.1 Overview
Microwave in the context of this document refers to point-to-point fixed links that operate in duplex mode.
Duplex operation means that each radio frequency (RF) channel consists of a pair of frequencies for the
transmit and receive directions, respectively. The baseband signal, which contains the user information,
occupies a limited bandwidth depending on the modulation scheme used. This signal is modulated onto an RF
carrier and is transmitted over the air as an electromagnetic waveform. The microwave radio links cover the
frequency spectrum from 300 MHz to approximately 60 GHz. Figure 1 shows the Microwave Radio System.
Multiplex Modulate
PCM inputs using FSK Up-Convert Path
MUX and adds or QAM to RF
services
Demultiplex
Path Down- Demodulate To tributaries
Convert to baseband and services
Figure 1 Block Diagram Of A Microwave Radio System
Microwave Systems
2 Field (Site and Path) Survey

2.1 Definition
The field survey is a detailed investigation of the sites and the path where the system will be deployed. In other
words it’s the assembling of pertinent geographical and environmental data required to design a radio
communication system.
2.2 Equipment used for Field Survey
Equipment Use / Description

1:50,000 or better. Alternatively, computer based Path Profile analysis software. For
urban links, three-dimensional map photographs, usually on a 1:10,000 scale, can be
Topographic used to identify possible repeater sites and identify possible obstructions. Alternatively,
map(s) computer based Path Profile analysis software with digital maps –can be used. These
digital maps are based on pixel sizes of 200 m by 200 m resolution, however in many
cases a resolution of 50 m by 50 m or better is available.
Route Map Used to investigate various route options.
Digital Camera Used to take pictures for sites, tower, potential obstructions, road, airport, etc.
Used to determine if optical LOS (Line Of Sight) exists. Whether one site (proposed
Binoculars antenna location) is visible from the other site. Used when we have clear weather and
the distance between the sites is reasonable.
Mirror Used to determine if optical LOS exists when we have bright sun.
Strobe Light Used to determine if optical LOS exists when the weather conditions are foggy or hazy.
High-power
Used to determine if optical LOS exists during the night.
Flashlight
Compass
Used to measure the co-ordinates and distance between sites (it has certain accuracy).
Hand-held GPS
Also it is used in determining the distance to potential obstructions and whether or not
(Global Positioning
they are within the first Fresnel zone. In most cases site coordination need to be
System)
accurate to within 10 m to 20 m.
Used to measure the elevation of the sites AMSL (Above Mean Sea Level). Some types
Altimeter
of GPS’s provide this information.
Spectrum Analyzer Used to evaluate the general RF (Radio Frequency) environment during site survey.
Measuring Tape
Safety hat
Ladder
Table 1 Equipment used for Field Survey
2.3 Information Gathered During Field Survey
Data Contents
Name, Call Sign (If Available), Address, General Directions, Latitude, Longitude, UTM
Coordinates (Calculated), Elevation (AMSL), Description, Power (If Available), County,
Site Data
Nearest Town, Topographical Map Name, FCC / FAA Data (If Available), General Security
(Gates).
Road Data Type, Condition, Access, Type of Vehicle Required, Description, General Grade / Slope.
Airport Data Nearest Airport, Airport Name, Airport Location, Airport Distance & Bearing.
Tower Data (If Current Structure, Type, Width at Base, Height, Overall Height, Joint Length, Cross Member
Existing) Height, Steel Type (Angle / Round), Painting Description, Lighting, Number Of Guy Points,
Grounding, Safety Equipment, Cable Ladders, Cable Bridges, Cable Mount Type, Existing
Cables, Microwave Dishes (Size & Height), 2-Way & Cellular Antennas (Size & Height),
Other Antennas (Height), Lighting, Height of Lighting, Strobes / Beacons, Near Field
Obstructions. See Figure 2.
Figure 2 Tower
Wave Guide
Data (If Type, Condition, Mounting, Description, Entry Type (If Available), Entry Capacity.
Existing)
Exterior
Building Data Type, Condition, Exterior Size, Distance from Tower, Outer Material, General Description.
(If Existing)
Interior Current Equipment Location, Batteries, Chargers, Power, Type of Racks, Floor Plans,
Building Data Electrical Outlets, Grounding Points, Movable Objects, Non-Movable Objects, Cable Bridges
(Optional - If & Ladders, Punch-block locations, Dehydrators, Dehydrator Capacity, Safety Stations, Inside
Existing) Dimensions, Security, General Descriptions.
Table 2 Information Gathered During Field Survey
Microwave Systems
3 Line of Sight (LOS)

3.1 Definition
Propagation in which the direct ray from the transmitter to the receiver is unobstructed, i.e., the transmission
path is not established by or dependent upon reflection or diffraction. The need for LOS propagation is most
critical at VHF (Very High Frequency) and higher frequencies (e.g. Microwave).
3.2 Optical LOS
Confirmed using Binoculars, Mirror, high-power Flashlight, Strobe light and/or topographical or digital maps
(Pathloss uses digital maps to confirm the optical LOS).
3.3 Radio LOS
Confirm if the Fresnel Zones exist as co-axial ellipsoids connecting the two antennas. The maximum diameter
of each ellipsoid is located at the center point of the ellipsoid’s axis, and increases as the distance between the
antennae increases. Typically, for optimally designed microwave paths, at least 60% of the first Fresnel Zone
must be free of obstructions. Any further clearance will yield negligible improvement in the received signal level
and increases multipath. Radio LOS is done using microwave link planning software tools through path profiling.
Fresnel Zone
The Fresnel zones are a series of concentric ellipsoids surrounding the radio path. The
First Fresnel zone is the surface containing every point for which the sum of the
distances from that point to the two ends of the path is exactly 1/2 wavelength longer
than the direct end-to-end path.
Fresnel Zones are areas in which, if the radio wave is reflected back toward the other end
of the microwave path, this radio wave would arrive in some relative phase as the original
(non-reflected). If the radio wave is in-phase with the original waves than the radio waves
have an adding effect (We don’t want this, The receiver has a maximum input power). On
the other hand, if the radio wave arrives in an out-of-phase relation to the original, the
radio waves have a canceling effect. This is commonly known as multi-path fading. In
other words, all even (2, 4, 6, 8, etc.) reflected Fresnel zones cancel while all odd (1, 3, 5,
7, etc.) reflected Fresnel zones add from a reflected point in a path.
The first Fresnel radius F1 can be expressed as:
F1 = λ ∗ (d 1 ∗ d 2 ) ∗ (d 1 + d 2 )
Where:
d1 distance of the point from transmitter at site 1 (m)
d2 distance of the point from receiver at site 2 (m)
λ wavelength (m)
The subsequent nth Fresnel zone can be determined as

F1 = F1 n , n is integer
At the midpoint the radius will be at its maximum (d1=d2).
Table 3 shows the radius of first Fresnel zone for different frequencies and distances.
Distance (km)
2.5 5 10 20
Frequency (GHz) Radius of first Fresnel zone (m)
2 9.7 13.7 19.4 27.4
7 5.2 7.3 10.4 14.6
18 3.2 4.6 6.5 9.1
38 2.2 3.1 4.4 6.3
Table 3 Radius Of First Fresnel Zone For Different Frequencies And Distances
Microwave Systems
4 Path Profiling and Clearance Criteria
4.1 Definition
Path profile: A graphic representation of the physical features of a propagation path in the vertical plane
containing both endpoints of the path, showing the surface of the Earth and including trees, buildings, and other
features that may obstruct the radio signal (see Figure 3). Profiles are drawn either with an effective Earth
radius simulated by a parabolic arc (in which case the ray paths are drawn as straight lines) or with a "flat
Earth"-- in which case the ray paths are drawn as parabolic arcs. Figure 4 shows the two different ways used in
representing the path profile.
Figure 3 Path Profile

Path clearance: In microwave line-of-sight communications, the perpendicular distance from the radio-beam
axis to obstructions such as trees, buildings, or terrain. The required path clearance is usually expressed, for a
particular k-factor, as some fraction of the first Fresnel zone radius.
Effective Earth Radius
The radius of a hypothetical Earth for which the distance to the radio horizon, assuming rectilinear
propagation, is the same as that for the actual Earth with an assumed uniform vertical gradient of
atmospheric refractive index. For the standard atmosphere, the effective Earth radius is 4/3 that
of the actual Earth radius.
Figure 4 Different Ways Of Representing Path Profiling
k-factor
k-factor is the curvature correction factor to compensate for atmospheric diffraction. k-factor is the
ratio of the effective Earth radius to the actual Earth radius. The k-factor is approximately 4/3
typically 4/3 for most radio propagation applications.
4.2 Overview
In microwave link planning; the transmitter and receiver must have a LOS path between them. This means that
there must be no obstructions between the antennas of the transmitter and receiver. In addition to this the LOS
path between the receiver and transmitter must be a minimum height above objects in the path.
In most radio applications, atmospheric refraction is considered. Therefore, sufficient antenna heights should be
used in order to ensure microwave path performance. Given the proposed antenna heights, the microwave
planning software determines whether a path meets a set of clearance criteria above the terrain and any above
ground obstructions. Clearance requirements are usually stated as a combination of a percentage of the first
Fresnel zone radius and a k-factor. For example, a common requirement is that 60% of the first Fresnel zone
radius should be clear of all obstructions at a k factor of 4/3.
The refractivity of any medium (like the atmosphere) depends on its density, so changing atmospheric
conditions can change the effect on radio waves. The problem comes from the relative earth curvature as it
applies to the radio wave and atmospheric anomalies such as "ducting" and "layering". During certain parts of
the day and night the atmosphere causes the radio wave to "bend" more or less due to atmospheric conditions.
This is noticed at even a greater measure when comparing Autumn, Winter, Spring and Summer months. For
this reason, microwave path planners often consider other effective earth curvature values. Therefore, it is often
Microwave Systems
advisable to check the path at both 4/3 and another value, which is calculated by some microwave design
softwares (e.g. PathLoss).
Clearance is IMPORTANT but NEVER over estimate it; remember the multipath, which always increases as the
height of the antenna above ground increases. Therefore; make your design so that the MINIMUM heights are
chosen to meet the clearance criteria.
Also, for a range of possible antenna heights at one end of a path, a trade-off analysis can be provided that
shows the corresponding antenna heights that are required at the other end. This is related to installation
limitations or to minimize the multipath.
5 Antenna
5.1 Definition
Antenna: Any structure or device used to collect or radiate electromagnetic waves.
5.2 Parabolic Antenna
An antenna consisting of a parabolic reflector and a radiating or receiving element at or near its focus (Figure
5). A parabolic antenna is used in microwave systems to concentrate radiated energy into a narrow beam for
transmission through the air. This results in the most efficient transmission of radiated power with a minimum of
interference. An effective gain of 25 to 48 dB over an omni-directional antenna is possible depending upon the
size of the antenna and the microwave frequency used.
Figure 5 Different Types Of Parabolic Antennas
Microwave Systems
Radomes
A radome is a protective covering used to prevent snow, ice, water, or debris from accumulating
on a microwave antenna. Heated radomes are available for use in areas where severe ice and
snow conditions exist. The use of a radome results in lower antenna gain.
5.3 Characteristics and terms

Radiation Pattern: The variation of the field intensity of an antenna as an angular function with respect to the
axis. A radiation pattern is usually represented graphically for the far-field conditions in either horizontal or
vertical plane.
Beam width: In the radio regime, of an antenna pattern, the angle between the half-power (3-dB) points of the
main lobe, when referenced to the peak effective radiated power of the main lobe. Beam width is usually
expressed in degrees. It is usually expressed for the horizontal plane, but may also be expressed for the vertical
plane. The beam width is of special importance when we deal with antenna alignment, multipath and frequency
planning and interference. Figure 6 shows the antenna beam width and lobes.
Figure 6 Antenna Beam width And Lobes
Lobe: An identifiable segment of an antenna radiation pattern. A lobe is characterized by a localized maximum
bounded by identifiable nulls.
Main Lobe: Of an antenna radiation pattern, the lobe containing the maximum power (exhibiting the greatest
field strength). The horizontal radiation pattern, i.e. , that which is plotted as a function of azimuth about the
antenna, is usually specified. The width of the main lobe is usually specified as the angle encompassed
between the points where the power has fallen 3 dB below the maximum value. The vertical radiation pattern,
i.e. , that which is plotted as a function of elevation from a specified azimuth, is also of interest (for antenna
alignment and multipath considerations) and may be similarly specified.
Side Lobe: In a directional antenna radiation pattern, a lobe in any direction other than that of the main lobe.
The Side Lobe is of special importance when we deal with multipath and frequency planning and interference.
Antenna Gain: The ratio of the power required at the input of a loss-free reference antenna to the power
supplied to the input of the given antenna to produce, in a given direction, the same field strength at the same
distance. Parabolic antenna gain can be represented by:
4 ∗ π ∗ Ae
G= Equation 1
λ2
4 ∗ π ∗ Ae ∗ f 2
G= Equation 2
c2
Where:
G directive gain of the antenna
f wavelength of the radio wave
8
c speed of light 3x10 m/sec
λ wavelength of the radio wave
Ae antenna effective area
2 GHz 4 GHz 6 GHz 11 GHz

Antenna Size (foot) Gain
4 25 31 35 40
6 29 35 38 43
8 31 37 41 46
10 33 39 43 48
Table 4 Relation Between Antenna Gain and Both Frequency And Antenna Size
Antenna Effective Area: The functionally equivalent area from which an antenna directed toward the source of
the received signal gathers or absorbs the energy of an incident electromagnetic wave. Antenna effective area
is usually expressed in square meters. In the case of parabolic and horn-parabolic antennas, the antenna
effective area is about 0.35 to 0.55 of the geometric area of the antenna aperture.
Effective Radiated Power (ERP) (in a given direction): The power supplied to an antenna multiplied by the
antenna gain in a given direction. If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum gain is assumed.
The type of reference antenna must be specified.
Front-to-Back Ratio: Of an antenna, the gain in a specified direction, i.e., azimuth, usually that of maximum
gain, compared to the gain in a direction 180° from the specified azimuth. Front-to-back ratio is usually
expressed in dB.
Isotropic Antenna: A hypothetical antenna that radiates or receives equally in all directions. Isotropic antennas
do not exist physically but represent convenient reference antennas for expressing directional properties of
physical antennas.
Reference Antenna: An antenna that may be real, virtual, or theoretical, and has a radiation pattern that can be
used as a basis of comparison with other antenna radiation patterns.
Effective Height: The height of the center of radiation of an antenna above the effective ground level.
Microwave Systems
6 Modes of operation
6.1 Non Protected (NP)
The non-protected configuration is a single standalone terminal.
6.2 Monitored Hot StandBy (MHSB)
In communications systems operations MHSB is used to pertain to a power-saving condition or status of

operation of equipment that is ready for use but not in use. An example of a standby condition is a radio station
operating condition in which the operator can receive but is not transmitting. Pertaining to spare equipment that
is placed in operation only when other, in-use equipment becomes inoperative. Hot standby equipment, which is
warmed up, i.e., powered and ready for immediate service, and which may be switched into service
automatically upon detection of a failure in the regular equipment.
Some models with an MHSB configuration provide the option to use an equal power splitter (3dB) or unequal
coupler (10 dB, used to increase the system gain) at the receiver side. Some models also include the option to
use a dual antenna set, in MHSB configuration, in order to reduce branching losses to nearly zero.
6.3 Diversity Systems
6.3.1 Definition
Diversity: The property of being made up of two or more different elements, media, or methods. In
communications, diversity is usually used to provide robustness, reliability, or security.
6.3.2 Overview
A diversity scheme is a method that is used to develop information from several signals transmitted over
independent fading paths. This means that the diversity method requires that a number of transmission paths
be available, all carrying the same message but having independent fading statistics. The mean signal
strengths of the paths should also be approximately the same. The basic requirement of the independent
fading is received signals are uncorrelated. Therefore, the success of diversity schemes depends on the degree
to which the signals on the different diversity branches are uncorrelated.
Proper combining the multiple signals will greatly reduce severity of fading and improve reliability of
transmission. Because deep fades seldom occur simultaneously during the same time intervals on two or more
paths. The simplest combining scheme is selection combining, which is based on the principle of selecting the
best signal among all of the signals received from different branches.
6.3.3 Space Diversity
For improvements in propagation reliability, a space diversity antenna arrangement can be used. In a space
diversity system, one transmitter and its associated antenna radiates on a transmit frequency. This signal is
received by two receivers, which are tuned to the same frequency but connected to separate antennas located
at different positions on the tower. The receiver output signals can be combined to give a composite output, or
switching can be done between receivers, keeping the receiver with the best Bit Error Ratio (BER) (in the case
of a digital radio system) connected to the line. Vertical spacing between the two receiving antennas should be
approximately 60 to 80 feet at 2 GHz, 30 to 40 feet at 6 GHz and 25 to 30 feet at 11 GHz. Space diversity
provides a substantial increase in reliability, especially over highly reflective surfaces such as water or desert.
The necessity of two receiving antennas, two receiving waveguide runs, strong towers because of the two
antennas and a taller tower required to give the necessary antenna spacing tends to make space diversity a
more expensive means of increased path reliability.
The criteria that is followed to decide the height of the two antennas is: While one of the antennas is having a
maximum received signal the other one should have a minimum received signal and vice versa. This is
simulated using a Microwave Link Design software (Pathloss®).
6.3.4 Frequency Diversity
A frequency diversity arrangement can be used at microwave frequencies above 2 GHz when equipment and
propagation reliability is desired and required communications cannot practically be achieved by other means.
This method increases the total system reliability by providing both path and equipment duplication. Two
transmitters are on the air simultaneously and both are modulated with the same baseband signal but are tuned
to different radio frequencies. The different frequencies can be either within the same operating frequency band,
or in two different operating frequency bands. Both transmitters are connected to the same antenna, which
radiates the signals to the far-end of the path. At the far-end of the path there are two receivers and each
receiver accepts the one incoming signal to which it is tuned. Each receiver then provides as an output the
signal, which modulated the transmitters. The two outputs are then combined using a combiner device to
provide one output signal to the multiplex.
Either space or frequency diversity can be used to overcome the multipath fading, but because of the spectrum
limitations and to reduce the interference in the network, we use space diversity.
Note: space and frequency diversity are NOT used to overcome the Rain fading. We overcome Rain fading by
using Path diversity (have two different routes that connect the two sites, one of these routes can be fiber
optics) or by increasing the Fade Margin.
Microwave Systems
7 Repeaters
7.1 Active Repeater
A digital device that amplifies, reshapes, retimes, or performs a combination of any of these functions on a
digital input signal for retransmission. The distance covered by a microwave link can be increased through the
use of active repeaters, which AMPLIFY a microwave signal. In some cases they use Solar system as a power
supply.
There are basically two types of active repeaters: baseband and IF. The baseband repeater must receive the
signal and convert it all the way back to baseband before retransmission, where an IF repeater only converts
the signal to IF where it is amplified (Figure 7). IF repeater advantages: low cost and simple hardware.
Baseband repeater advantages: regenerate digital signals.
RF Amplifier
IF Repeater Microwave and Microwave
Receiver Equalizer Transmitter
Microwave Microwave
Receiver Transmitter
RF Amplifier RF Amplifier
Base band and and
Equalizer Equalizer
Repeater
Demodulate Multiplex Modulate
Equipment
Figure 7 Active Repeaters
7.2 Passive Repeater
An unpowered device used to route a microwave beam over or around an obstruction. Examples of passive
repeaters are (a) two parabolic antennas connected back-to-back and connected by a short feeder cable, and
(b) a flat metal reflector used as a mirror (Figure 8). A passive repeater is sometimes required when there is an
obstacle such as a high mountain in the line-of-sight microwave path, where the cost, maintenance and power
requirements for an active repeater would be prohibitive. The passive repeater is located in such a position as
to act as a microwave mirror, reflecting the microwave signal as a mirror reflects a light beam, to bypass the
obstruction. The passive repeater is used to RE-DIRECT a microwave signal.
Microwave Systems
Figure 8 Passive Repeater: Flat Reflector
The passive repeater supports any frequency band because it is a wideband device. The passive repeater is
100% efficient compared to back-back repeaters that are typically only 55% efficient.
The reflector gain increases with reflector size. Reflectors as big as 12 m by 18 m are readily available. Passive
repeaters have the following advantages over active repeaters:
1. No power is required
2. No regular road access is required
3. No equipment housing is needed
4. They are environmentally friendly
5. Little or no maintenance is required.
8 Microwave Radio Propagation

8.1 Characteristics Of Microwave Transmission
Microwave frequencies are generally defined as those frequencies, which have a wavelength short enough to
display many of the properties of light waves. A wavelength of 30 centimeters (approximately a foot) or less is
considered to be in the microwave region. Microwave energy may be refracted, diffracted, reflected, or
absorbed. The direct rays of the radiated energy travel essentially in a straight line and there is little reflection
from the ionospheric layers in the upper atmosphere. Because of the short wavelength of microwaves, the
radiated energy can be concentrated by relatively small antennas into a narrow beam similar to that of a
searchlight. Microwave energy can be obstructed or attenuated by solid objects such as trees, buildings, and
mountains. It is for these reasons that microwave communication is almost always limited to unobstructed line-
of-sight paths.
8.2 Refraction
Refraction
Retardation, and--in the general case-- redirection, of a wavefront passing through (a) a
boundary between two dissimilar media or (b) a medium having a refractive index that is
a continuous function of position. For two media of different refractive indices, the angle
of refraction is closely approximated by Snell's Law.
Refraction is one of the factors that must be considered when determining microwave path clearance. Under
normal propagation conditions refraction results in the bending of the microwave beam beyond the optical
horizon in the direction of the earth's curvature.
As a radio wave front moves forward, it will travel in a straight line if all points on the front travel at the same
velocity. In air of uniform pressure, temperature and relative humidity all points on a wave front would travel at
the same velocity. Since the pressure, temperature and relative humidity of the atmosphere are not uniform, but
normally decrease with height, the upper portion of the wave front travels slightly faster than the lower portion
as it moves forward. The difference in velocity causes the wave, under normal conditions, to be bent or
refracted toward the earth. This is the reason that when a path profile is plotted, the radius of the earth must be
corrected for refraction by the appropriate k-factor.
The greater the difference in velocity between the upper and lower portions of the wave front, the more a wave
will be bent toward the air having the highest index of refraction. The amount of bending thus depends upon the
index of refraction of the air through which the wave front passes. The index of refraction varies with relative
humidity, temperature, pressure, movement of air and other factors. The variation of these factors from minute-
to-minute and day-to-day causes the amount of bending of a wave front to fluctuate.
Since normal atmospheric refraction results in the microwave beam being bent downward, this effect is the
same as a change in the earth's radius and is expressed in terms of an equivalent earth radius factor k. The
actual earth's radius multiplied by the k factor represents a fictitious earth with a radius, which accounts for the
refractive index. A factor of k = 1 would be the case where the curvatures of the actual earth and the effective
earth are equal. A factor greater than k = 1, for example k = 4/3, would indicate that the effective earth has less
curvature or is flatter than the true earth. It is also possible when abnormal propagation conditions exist for the
beam to be bent upward, which would indicate a k factor less than 1. The k factor varies for different
atmospheric conditions, but at microwave frequencies in the 4 GHz, 6 GHz, and 11 GHz common carrier bands
a factor of k = 1 or k = 2/3 is used for most areas of the United States. For frequencies in the 2 GHz band a
factor of k = 4/3 is normally used. The selection of the k factor is dependent on path location and path length.
Microwave Systems
8.3 Atmospheric Duct

A horizontal layer in the lower atmosphere in which the vertical refractive index gradients are such that radio
signals (a) are guided or focused within the duct, (b) tend to follow the curvature of the Earth, and (c)
experience less attenuation in the ducts than they would if the ducts were not present. See Figure 9.
The reduced refractive index at the higher altitudes bends the signals back toward the Earth. Signals in a higher
refractive index layer, i.e., duct, tend to remain in that layer because of the reflection and refraction encountered
at the boundary with a lower refractive index material.
Figure 9 Atmospheric Ducting
8.4 Multipath
8.4.1 Overview
Multipath
The propagation phenomenon that results in radio signals' reaching the receiving
antenna by two or more paths. Causes of multipath include atmospheric ducting and
reflection from terrestrial objects, such as mountains and buildings. The effects of
multipath include constructive and destructive interference, and phase shifting of the
signal.
Figure 10 Multipath As a Result Of Reflection From The Ground Surface And NOT From
Ducting
Multipath propagation is a phenomenon that can be caused by irregular changes in the index of refraction. This
may occur on a still night after a hot, humid day when there are both temperature and humidity inversions.
Temperature inversion (increase in temperature with height) is caused by the earth and the air adjacent to it
cooling faster than the warm air above it. To cause a higher index of refraction in the air at some height above
the ground rather than near it, the absolute humidity or vapor pressure at that point must be higher than near
the ground. This is called humidity inversion and usually occurs when the air is super-saturated and the excess
moisture appears as fog or dew.
Multipath propagation occurs when there exists a layer of air some distance above the ground, which has a
higher index of refraction than the air above or below it. Horizontal and vertical variations in temperature,
pressure, and humidity cause more than one propagation path to exist between transmitter and receiver. For
example, beam 1 might be close to a layer with a high index of refraction. While beam 2 could cross the layer at
a greater angle and it would be bent enough by the low-density air near the earth to also arrive at the receiver.
Initially the separation would be slight and the electrical path lengths equal. The signal via each path would
arrive in phase and the total signal received at the antenna would be doubled. However, as the paths become
more divergent with cooling in the lower atmosphere, the signal will decrease until the energy received via both
paths practically cancel. Thus the signal will fluctuate depending upon the difference in the electrical length of
the paths. By morning, the temperature in the layer will become cooler and the two paths will come closer
together until only one path remains. If the two paths still exist by morning, the sun will warm the earth and air
adjacent to it faster than the air in the upper layer so that the temperature inversion will soon cease to exist.
Frequency diversity and fade margin may be used to substantially reduce the adverse effects of multipath
fading. Space diversity may also be used to provide increased propagation reliability.
8.4.2 How to overcome multipath?
Depending on the design at least one of the following methods is used to overcome the multipath fading:
1. Space Diversity
2. Install the antenna so that the path to reflecting surface is obstructed
Microwave Systems
3. Tilt the antenna up

4. Change topology avoiding reflective surfaces e.g. water.
8.5 Diffraction
After correcting the profile of the path to take into consideration the bending of the radio rays by refraction, it is
generally necessary that the rays clear the earth and obstacles along the path by a certain amount to prevent
excessive attenuation of the signal by diffraction.
Diffraction may be considered as a modification which waves undergo as they graze the surface of the earth,
hills, or the edges of any opaque body by which the rays are apparently deflected or bent. The energy diffracted
beyond a given hill will increase as the frequency is decreased.
It was discussed in the previous chapter that the areas or zones around the axial between the transmitter and
receiver that contribute energy either in- or out-of-phase are called Fresnel zones. The first Fresnel zone is
bounded by points through which the distance between the transmitter and receiver is 1/2 wavelength longer
than the direct ray. The second Fresnel zone is bounded by points through which the distance is one
wavelength longer than the direct ray.
The areas of all zones are equal. The energy received from each zone, however, decreases with distance from
the primary ray. About one-fourth of the energy received from an unobstructed wave is in the first Fresnel zone.
The energy received from the second and other even-numbered Fresnel zones is negative with respect to
energy received from the odd Fresnel zones. About half of the total energy received from an unobstructed wave
is cancelled by the waves received from the even numbered Fresnel zones. A sharp obstruction such as a
sharply pointed hill, which cuts off most of the energy below the first Fresnel zone, would permit more energy to
be received than if the obstruction were not there since part of the out-of-phase energy would be cut off by the
obstruction.
If an obstacle cuts off the first Fresnel zone radius (non-line-of–sight path), some energy will be diffracted
around and over the obstacle and will be received in the shadow portion of the radio beam. It is for this reason
that a certain amount of radio energy is present beyond true radio (refracted) line-of-sight when the path is
intercepted by the earth. In general, the lower the frequency, the farther the signal is diffracted beyond the point
of interception.
The radius of the first Fresnel zone varies along the radio path. It is maximum at the midpoint between the
transmitter and receiver and can be calculated by the formula:
1
§d · 2
F = 1140 ∗ ¨¨ ¸¸ Equation 3
© f ¹
Where:
F radius in feet of the first Fresnel zone at the midpoint of the path,
d distance in miles between the receiver and transmitter,
f frequency in MHz.
The first Fresnel zone radius at any point x miles from one end of the path is:
§ x ∗ (d − x ) ·
1
2
F = 2280 ∗ ¨¨ ¸¸ Equation 4
© f ∗d ¹
We use the above formula to determine the necessary antennas height for proper Fresnel zone clearance. It is
desirable to receive as much of the first Fresnel zone energy as possible and still keep the cost of towers as low
as possible. At frequencies of 4 GHz and higher, a clearance of 0.6 first Fresnel zone radius with k = 1 is a good
design objective for most areas of the United States with hops of 25 miles or less. A more conservative design
for hops greater than 25 miles to account for possible upward beam bending (earth bulging) would be 0.3 first
Fresnel zone with k = 2/3. At 2 GHz, a value of k = 4/3 with a 0.6 first Fresnel zone clearance is a typical
design. A summary is given in Table 5.
f (GHz) d (miles) ≤ 25 > 25

≥4 Fm = 0.6, k = 1 Fm = 0.3, k = 2/3
2 Fm = 0.6, k = 4/3
Table 5 Values Taken for Clearance % and k-factor According To Frequency And Distance
8.6 Reflection
Reflection
The abrupt change in direction of a wave front at an interface between two dissimilar
media so that the wave front returns into the medium from which it originated. Reflection
may be specular (i.e., mirror-like) or diffuse (i.e., not retaining the image, only the energy)
according to the nature of the interface.
If the terrain between the antennas reflects radio waves efficiently, it is possible to receive strong reflected
waves, either in- or out-of-phase with the direct wave, depending on the difference in the lengths of the direct
and reflected wave paths. If we assume complete reflection with the reflected wave equal in magnitude to the
direct wave, the resultant energy received would vary, depending on the location of the point of reflection,
between zero and twice that of the direct path energy according to the following formula:
§ 2∗d · d
*
E = 2 ∗ Ed ∗ sin¨ ¸∗ Equation 5
© λ ¹ 2
Ed direct ray field strength

d* geometric length difference between the direct and reflected wave paths.
E & Ed are in the same units, such as microvolts/meter.
λ Wavelength, is in the same units as d*.
If only the first Fresnel zone reflected signal is received (the reflecting plane is in the first Fresnel zone), the
reflected signal would then be added to the direct signal. The path difference d* is approximately:
§ hr ∗ ht ·
d* = 2∗¨ ¸ Equation 6
© d ¹
Where:
hr and ht are the heights of the receiving and transmitting antennas above the REFLECTING PLANE.
d distance between transmitter and receiver in the same units as hr and ht.
If one of the heights such as hr is varied so that E goes through a maximum and minimum, the difference in the
two values of hr is sometimes used as the spacing between two receiving antennas on a tower.
When two antennas are placed on a tower with this separation, the reception of the two signals and the
selection of the stronger of the two is called space diversity reception. If one antenna is receiving a minimum
Microwave Systems
signal, the other in all probability will be receiving a stronger signal. A particularly difficult problem exists when
the reflection point is over tidewater, which causes variations in the length of the reflected wave path contingent
on the tidal change in water level. The amount of separation used on a space diversity system should be
determined by someone very familiar with this type of design.
Reflections are greatest when the point of reflection is over calm water, level moist earth, desert sand, and
other types of smooth terrain. It is desirable to adjust the tower heights or to reroute the radio path so the
reflection point will be over rough terrain. Radio energy striking rough terrain will be either absorbed or
scattered. Thus the amount of reflected energy reaching the receiver will be only a small percent of the total
energy. The point of reflection can be determined by trial and error from the path plot. At the point of reflection
the angle of incidence will equal the angle of reflection.
Note: In some cases we take advantage of the terrain to reduce the multipath fading. The Figure below shows
how the terrain can reduce multipath fading:
Figure 11 Terrain Shielding To Cancel Multipath
With zero clearance over a non-reflecting obstacle such as a hill covered with trees or brush, the signal will be 6
or 7 dB below the loss that would exist between two antennas in free space. If, however, the top of the hill were
broad and barren and the soil had good reflection characteristics, the loss could be more than 16 dB greater
than free space loss.
Coupling Loss
The loss that occurs when energy is transferred from one medium to another.
Absorption
In the transmission of electrical, electromagnetic, or acoustic signals, the conversion of

the transmitted energy into another form, usually thermal. The conversion takes place as
a result of interaction between the incident energy and the material medium, at the
molecular or atomic level.
Scattering
Of a wave propagating in a material medium, a phenomenon in which the direction,

frequency, or polarization of the wave is changed when the wave encounters
discontinuities in the medium, or interacts with the material at the atomic or molecular
level. Scattering results in a disordered or random change in the incident energy
distribution.
8.7 Fading
Fading is a condition, which occurs during propagation of radio frequency energy that causes a reduction in the
power being received. It may be caused by refraction, diffraction or reflection or by a combination of these
conditions. This combination is usually referred to as multipath fading. In addition to multipath fading a very
severe form of fading may also be caused by rainfall. The effect on the 4 GHz and 6 GHz bands is quite small
and is usually ignored. The attenuation of the microwave radio signals increases substantially as the radio
frequency carrier is increased. This attenuation is definitely noticeable at the 10.5 GHz and 11 GHz bands. It
becomes extremely severe at 18 GHz and 23 GHz.
In the absence of rain, variations in received signals due to multipath conditions are greater in summer than in
winter and greater during nighttime than daytime. These variations are smallest when the air is in a state of
turbulence, which prevents the formation of stratified layers of air.
Radio energy is absorbed and scattered by raindrops. These effects become more pronounced as the
wavelength approaches the diameter of the raindrops. When the size of the drops becomes large enough and
the drops are sufficiently concentrated, this scattering and absorption will attenuate the signal appreciably. In
addition, since the drops represent a lossy dielectric, energy will be absorbed from the signal and converted into
heat. These phenomena are entirely negligible below 3 GHz but will place a limitation on transmission through
rain over appreciable distances at frequencies above 10 GHz.
The amount of attenuation caused by rain depends on the intensity of the rainstorm. The rate of rainfall and not
total rainfall is the determining factor. Areas with high annual rainfall accumulations may seldom experience
rainfall of a rate sufficient to interrupt service. Heavy rainfall rates are likely to accompany thunderstorms, which
may be confined, to an area with a diameter of 1 to 2 miles. The fading margin may not be exceeded unless the
heavy rainfall extends a sufficient distance along the radio path. System outages should be treated on a
probabilistic basis by geographical area. The worst areas occur near the Gulf of Mexico and the part of the
Atlantic Ocean adjacent to the southeastern area of the United States.
At low microwave frequencies, polarization has little or no effect on signal propagation. At frequencies above 10
GHz, rain attenuation becomes the controlling factor, and vertically polarized signals are less subject to rain
attenuation than horizontally polarized signals. A falling drop of rain is not spherical but flattened in the
horizontal plane. This results in a greater attenuation of horizontally polarized waves. Rain attenuation over a
given microwave band is almost independent of frequency.
Table 6 below shows the relation between the frequency and the type of fading multipath/rain that is affecting
the wave:
Frequency Capacity Available Hop Distance Fading
Microwave Systems
7GHz Med-High >30km Multipath

10GHz Low-Med-High 15 – 30km Multipath
13GHz Low-Med-High 15 – 30km Multipath
18GHz Low-Med-High 15 – 30km Rain and Multipath
23GHz All 5 – 15km Rain
38GHz All Within short ranges Up to 5km Rain
Table 6 Frequency And Fading
Polarization
Polarization of an electromagnetic wave, the property that describes the orientation, i.e.,
time-varying direction and amplitude, of the electric field vector. Polarization is important
in frequency interference analysis.
Figure 12 Antenna Polarization
Since vertical space diversity and frequency diversity do not protect a system against rain fading it is important
that good fading margins be obtained in the system design. Reducing the hop length not only reduces the
probability of severe rain fading but also increases the available fade margin.
A digital microwave system always uses regeneration at each intermediate terminal and each active repeater.
Consequently, fading is NOT accumulative over a multi-hop system. Each hop stands alone. This, of course is
true for noise, interference and other physical phenomena as well. Adaptive equalization reduces the multipath
depressive effect. In the absence of specific route information during design, one may allot 50% of the total
outage time to propagation fading (multipath, rain, up fades), 25% to obstruction fading and 25% to equipment
and man-made failures. Up fading refers to the constructive (rather destructive) effects of multipath and
introduces some additional problems.
The magnitude of the received signal varies continuously. This variation could cause a higher BER however if
the system is designed with an adequate fade margin, this will be infrequent and not objectionable. Under
extreme conditions a fade can cause service failure, but transmission usually returns to normal in a short time.
The adverse effects of fading can be reduced through the use of horizontal space diversity and by provision of
adequate fade margin to protect against both multipath and rain fades.
Microwave Systems
9 Microwave Path Losses And Gains

9.1 Definition
Path loss: In a communication system, the attenuation undergone by an electromagnetic wave in transit
between a transmitter and a receiver. Path loss may be due to many effects such as free-space loss, refraction,
reflection, aperture-medium coupling loss, and absorption. Path loss is usually expressed in dB.
9.2 Free Space Loss

The signal attenuation that would result if all absorbing, diffracting, obstructing, refracting, scattering, and
reflecting influences were sufficiently removed so as to have no effect on propagation. Free-space loss is
primarily caused by beam divergence, i.e. signal energy spreading over larger areas at increased distances
from the source.
Typically when calculating free space loss it is assumed that the signal is being transmitted from a type of
antenna called an isotropic radiator. A simple way to visualize this is to imagine that a signal is being
transmitted from a single point. Since free space loss is distance dependent, the power of the signal is equal at
all points equi-distant from the transmitting point. This can be visualized as a sphere whose surface represents
equal signal powers. Figure 1 illustrates this spherical radiation of the transmitted signal's energy.
Figure 13 Received Power From An Isotropic Antenna
The density of signal power distance d from the transmission point is given by the equation:
Pt
P(d ) = Watts m 2 Equation 7
4 ∗π ∗ d 2
Where:
Pt transmitted power in Watts,
d distance in meters
From this equation it can be seen that the density of the transmitted signal's power drops with the square of the
distance.
Equation 7 represents transmitted signal power as a density, much like flux in electromagnetics.
In order to compute the received power we must know the area of the receiving antenna. Representing antenna
effective area by Ae the received power is given by the following equation:
Pt ∗ Ae
Pr = Watts Equation 8
4 ∗π ∗ d 2
It is evident from the previous section that an isotropic radiator is very inefficient for transmitting signals. The
problem is that most of the transmitted signal's energy is not radiated towards the receiver. If, somehow, the
transmitted signal's energy could be focused in the direction of the receiver, the power of the received signal
should be increased dramatically. In fact, this is what is done in microwave we use directional antenna.
MaximunPowerIntensity
G= Equation 9
AveragePowerIntensity (4 ∗ π )
Where G directive gain of the antenna. his gives a measure for how well the antenna collects and
focuses the transmitted signal's energy.
Because the antenna amplifies the transmitted signal, the power of the signal radiating from the antenna is
called Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP).
EIRP = Pt ∗ Gt Watts Equation 10
Figure 14 Antenna Radiation Pattern
Because EIRP represents the power of the signal being emitted by the transmitting antenna it can replace Pt in
Equation 8:
EIRP ∗ Ae
4 ∗π ∗ d 2
Note that G is given by:
4 ∗ π ∗ Ae
G= Equation 12
λ2
Where λ wavelength of the radio wave.
By assuming that the receiving antenna is isotropic (G=1) we can replace the Ae term in Equation 11. Doing this
yields the following equation:
Microwave Systems
EIRP ∗ λ2
(4 ∗ π ∗ d ) 2
If the receiving antenna isn't isotropic then the amount of power received by the antenna can be found by
multiplying Equation 12 by the receiving antenna's gain, Gr. Equation 13 becomes:
λ2
Pr = EIRP ∗ Gr Watts Equation 14
(4 ∗ π ∗ d ) 2
or
λ2
Pr = Pt ∗ Gt ∗ Gr Watts Equation 15
(4 ∗ π ∗ d ) 2
Expressing Equation 14 and Equation 15 in dB:
§ λ ·
Pr(dB) = EIRP(dB) + Gr (dB) − 20 ∗ log¨ ¸
© 4 ∗π ∗ d ¹
Equation 16
or
§ λ ·
Pr(dB) = Pt (dB) + Gt (dB) + Gr (dB) − 20 ∗ log¨ ¸
© 4 ∗π ∗ d ¹
Equation 17
2
§ λ ·
The collection of terms ¨ ¸ is called Free Space Loss.
© 4 ∗π ∗ d ¹
dB
Abbreviation for decibel(s). One tenth of the common logarithm of the ratio of relative
powers. The ratio in dB is given by:
where P 1 and P 2 are the actual powers.
dBm
Abbreviation for dB referenced to one mill watt.
9.3 Link Budget
A link budget is a term used to identify the gains and losses in a wireless communication system. The goal of a
link budget is to balance the system gains and losses to achieve a desired performance objective at the
receiver. One method of performing a link budget is to view the gains and losses of a communication system as
a single system gain.
Mathematically, system gain is:
Gs = Pt − C min dB Equation 18
Where:
Gs is system gain in dB
Pt is the transmitter output power in dBm
Cmin is the minimum receiver input power (dBm) for a given quality objective.
9.4 System Gain

In its simplest form, system gain is the difference between the nominal output power of a transmitter and the
minimum input power required by a receiver. System gain must be greater than or equal to the sum of all the
gains and losses incurred by a signal as it propagates from a signal source to a receiver. The system gains and
losses are shown below:
Gs = Pt − C min ≥ Fm + Lp + Lf + Lb − Gt − Gr dB Equation 19
Where:
Gains:
Gt transmit antenna gain relative to an isotropic radiator [dBi]
Gr receive antenna gain relative to an isotropic radiator [dBi]
Losses:
Lp free-space path loss between antennas [dB]
Lf waveguide feeder loss between the distribution network and antenna [dB]
Lb total coupling or branching loss in the coupler and filters [dB]
Fm fade margin for a given reliability objective
9.4.1 Plane Reflector Insertion Loss
When using passive repeater in the Microwave link –the required system gain should be obtained by a
combination of increasing passive gain and the gain of the two antennas at the end of the link. The Plane
Reflector insertion loss can be calculated as:
IL = Lp − (Lp1 + Lp 2 ) + G dB Equation 20
Where:
IL Insertion Loss [dB]
Lp overall free-space path loss [dB]
Lp1 free-space path loss of the hope from site 1 to the passive site [dB]
Lp2 free-space path loss of the hope from site 2 to the passive site [dB]
G Reflector Gain relative to an isotropic radiator [dBi]
G = 42.8 + 40 ∗ log f + 20 ∗ log A + 20 ∗ log cos(θ 2 )

a dB Equation 21
Microwave Systems
Where:
f frequency in GHz
2
Aa Area of the reflector in m
θ True angel between the paths
9.4.2 Back-to-Back Antenna Insertion Loss
The Back-to-Back insertion loss can be calculated as:
IL = Lp − (Lp1 + Lp 2 ) + 2 ∗ G dB Equation 22
G Antenna Gain relative to an isotropic radiator [dBi]
Transmission Lines
Transmission lines provide the means of coupling the transmitter and receiver to the
antenna. There are two types currently available: waveguide and coaxial cable. The
radiated output power of the transmitter will be substantially reduced if the transmission
line is incorrectly used or if its length is too long, so precautions should be taken to use
the correct type of line for the radio equipment used, and to keep all transmission line
lengths short.
Waveguide
A waveguide is a hollow metal duct, which conducts electromagnetic energy. This type of
transmission line can be used for distances of a few feet up to several hundred feet. A
typical type of waveguide has a loss from about 1.7 dB per hundred feet at 6 Gigahertz
(GHz) to about 3.0 dB per hundred feet at 11 GHz. It is used at microwave frequencies
above 2 GHz and can have either a rectangular, elliptical, or circular cross-section,
depending upon the system operation requirements. The length of a waveguide run is
more critical at higher frequencies since attenuation increases with frequency.
Figure 15 Different Types Of Waveguides
Coaxial Cable (coax)
At low microwave frequencies, 2 GHz or less, coaxial cable can be used as the
connecting facility between the transmitter, receiver and antenna instead of waveguide.
The loss of coaxial cable depends on the type of conductor, the cable diameter, the type
of dielectric, and the operating frequency. Coaxial cable with a diameter of one inch or
more should be used for long cable runs; 7/8" diameter coax can be used satisfactorily
for short runs. The coaxial cable can have either a pressurized air or expanded
polyethylene (foam) dielectric between conductors, however, the air dielectric coaxial
cable has less attenuation for a given diameter. In general, pressurized air dielectric
coaxial cable is used with higher capacity systems because the return loss characteristics
of foam dielectric lines may be a significant distortion contributor in such systems. This is
not usually a consideration in systems of low channel capacity. The cost of coaxial cable
is less than waveguide and should be used when possible. Extreme attenuation of radio
signals above 2 GHz in the coaxial cable generally prohibits its use at the higher
microwave frequency bands.
When we have Microwave outdoor units (ODU), coaxial cables are used to connect
Indoor Units (IDU) with outdoor units.
Directional Coupler
A transmission-coupling device for separately sampling (through a known coupling loss)

either the forward (incident) or the backward (reflected) wave in a transmission line. A
directional coupler may be used to sample either a forward or backward wave in a
transmission line. A unidirectional coupler has available terminals or connections for
Microwave Systems
sampling only one direction of transmission; a bi-directional coupler has available

terminals for sampling both directions.
Filter
A device that attenuates certain frequencies and usually has some inherent attenuation
for all frequencies. Filters cause a slight reduction in signal strength for desired
frequencies, while producing a dramatic reduction in signal strength for undesired
frequencies.
9.5 Fade Margin
Essentially, the fade margin is an estimate of the additional power required to meet performance requirements
in a wireless link. The Fade margin is a “fudge factor” included in the system gain that considers the nonideal
and less predictable characteristics of radio wave propagation. Multipath, terrain sensitivity, and abnormal
atmospheric conditions alter the free-space path loss and are usually detrimental to the overall system
performance. For this reason, an additional margin in added to the system loss. One method for estimating the
amount of required fade margin is called the Barnett-Vignant reliability equation.
Barnett-Vignant reliability equation for calculating the fade margin is:
Fm = 30 ∗ log10 (D) + 10 ∗ log10 (6 ∗ A ∗ B ∗ f ) − 10 ∗ log10 (1 − R) − 70 dB Equation 23

Where:
D distance in km
f frequency in GHz
R reliability expressed as a decimal (i.e. 99.999 %)
A roughness factor (smooth = 4, average = 1, very rough = 0.25)
B weather conversion factor (worst month case = 1, hot humid area = 0.5, average inland area = 0.25,
very dry or mountainous area = 0.125)
Miscellaneous losses from circulators, radomes, and antenna system misalignment should be accounted for in
making fade margin calculations.
Field Margin
This is a safety factor, which represents the long-term degradation of antenna orientation
in a practical installation. A typical value would be in the order of 1 dB.
The result of subtracting the losses and adding the gains between the transmitter and receiver will give the
signal power in dBm at the receiver input. The fade margin is the difference between the received power level
and the power level required to produce a given Bit Error Rate (BER). Fade margins for digital radios are based
on Receiver Sensitivity specified in dBm for a particular BER; for example, a certain radio may have a receiver
sensitivity of -74 dBm at a BER of 10 −6 .
Flat or Thermal Fade Margin
Is the difference between the threshold (for a given BER) and the receive level under
normal conditions.
Depressive Fade Margin
Is a number that reflects the response of the radio to multipath interference phenomena.
Depressive fade margin is equipment dependent and is provided by the equipment
-6
manufacturer. A radio may have a Depressive Fade Margin of >49 dB at a BER of 10 .
Composite Fade Margin
Is used for calculations of availability. Composite Fade Margin is the power summation of
the flat fade margin and the depressive fade margin.
9.6 Reliability or Availability
Reliability or Availability of a digital microwave radio path relates to the time a given microwave link is
operational during a specified period of time, typically a year. One should expect to achieve a reliability (or
availability) of 99.999% or better. The following table illustrates the relationship between outage time and
reliability:
Outage time per

Reliability Outage time Year 3 month Month (Avg.) Day (Avg.)
99.9 0.1 8.8 hours 2.2 hours 43 minutes 1.44 minutes
99.99 0.01 53 minutes 13 minutes 4.3 minutes 8.6 seconds
99.999 0.001 5.3 minutes 1.3 minutes 26 seconds 0.86 seconds
99.9999 0.0001 32 seconds 38 seconds 2.6 seconds 0.086 seconds
9.6.1 Unavailability Standards
Unavailability has a special meaning in the ITU standard. According to the ITU-R, the period of unavailable time
begins when, in at least one direction of transmission, one or both of the following conditions occur for 10
-3
consecutive seconds: either the digital signal is interrupted or the BER in each second is worse than 1x10 .
These 10 sec are considered part of the unavailable time.
9.6.2 Causes Unavailability
Unavailability is caused by:
1. Propagation problems
2. Human errors, and
3. Equipment faults.
The Availability of the equipment is give by:
Microwave Systems
A = (MTBF (MTBF + MTTR)) ∗ 100% Equation 24
Where
A Availability
MTBF Mean time before Failure
MTTR Mean Time to Restore
The Availability of a protected equipment is give by:
AHSB = (MTBF (MTBFA A

+ MTTRA )) ∗ (MTBFB (MTBFB + MTTRB )) Equation 25
9.6.3 Unavailability calculation for loop protected network
Unavailability in a loop can be approximated by the formula:
§M · § N ·
PM = ¨ ¦ pi ¸ ∗ ¨ ¦ pi ¸ Equation 26
© i =1 ¹ © i =M +1 ¹
Where
PM Unavailability of station
N Number of hops in loop
M Consecutive number of hop from the hub
P Probability of outage or unavailability of a hop in absolute terms (Propagation, human errors and
equipment faults).
9.7 Report
Here is a report for the design of a Microwave Link:
INPUT DATA
CALCULATED DATA:
9.8 Design Optimization
After using a software to estimate the performance of a path under consideration, you should compare your
results with the predefined quality objectives to determine whether path optimization is required. If you need to
optimize the output, you can adjust antenna sizes and/or power output, or implement the use of space or
frequency diversity.
Microwave Systems
10 Network Topologies
The specific physical, i.e., real, or logical, i.e., virtual, arrangement of the elements of a network. Two networks
have the same topology if the connection configuration is the same, although the networks may differ in
physical interconnections, distances between nodes, transmission rates, and/or signal types. See Figure 16.
10.1 Star Topology

The Star Network's main building blocks are multiple hub sites positioned in strategic locations. The hub site
should usually be limited to serving a maximum of six or seven cell sites to maintain good network reliability.
10.2 Ring Topology

Ring in a network infrastructure provide diverse routing, so increasing the transport system's reliability. As the
network's number of cell sites grows, a system of rings should be established between major hub sites and
switches to increase survivability and reliability. This is part of the SDH/SONET Networks.
Figure 16 Network Topologies
10.3 Implications to topology

The following rules should be followed in the Microwave network design:
1. Even number of sites in a loop

2. The angle between hops > 60°
3. Avoid several consecutive hops in one direction.
10.4 Implications of rain on loop topology
The following rules should be followed in order of avoiding the implications of rain fading:
1. The diameter of a loop > 3 km

2. The angel between hops > 60°
3. Do not cross hops belonging to one loop.
Microwave Systems
11 Frequency Planning1
11.1 Definition
Interference is any unwanted signal that would present itself to the receiver section of a radio for demodulation.
It can be a delayed copy of the radio link’s own signal, an adjacent channel’s signal traveling over the same link,
or a signal from another radio link or RF source.
11.2 Causes of Interference
11.2.1 Internal Causes
Internal causes are those causes that relate to the equipment at the site itself. This includes radio equipment
parameters such as the transmit and receive local oscillator, filter selectivities etc.
11.2.2 External Causes
External causes result from sources from that are seldom under the designers’ control. These include
interference from other systems that are already installed. It also includes interference from a distance site that
forms part of the same route –this aspect can be controlled by the system designer.
11.3 Effects of Interference
In un-faded condition, digital receivers are very robust against interference mechanisms. Unlike analog
systems, however, the main interference problem occurs in a faded condition where the signal levels approach
the receiver threshold values. The interference effect is thus not in terms of its absolute signal amplitude but in
terms of the ratio between the wanted (carrier) signal and the unwanted (interference) signal, expressed as C/I.
11.3.1 Co-channel Interference
Interference resulting from two or more simultaneous transmissions on the same channel. In a digital system
there is a certain minimum C/I ratio (C/Imin) above which the BER is constant and below which the performance
quickly becomes unacceptable. This depends very much on the modulation scheme: A simple example 4 PSK
system requires only 15 dB whereas a 128 QAM system requires at least 30 dB.
11.3.2 Adjacent-channel interference
Extraneous power from a signal in an adjacent channel. Adjacent channel interference may be caused by
inadequate filtering, such as incomplete filtering of unwanted modulation products, improper tuning, or poor
frequency control, in either the reference channel or the interfering channel, or both.
11.4 Frequency Channel Planning
11.4.1 Basic ITU Arrangements
The ITU-R Recommendations specify the center frequency of the band, the T/R spacing, the adjacent channel
spacing and the number of channels.
The center frequency (f0) is the mid-band frequency around which the channels are arranged. A number of
channels with a specific channel spacing are identified across the frequency band of that specific plan. A simple
example in the frequency band 7425 MHz to 7725 MHz using f0 of 7575 MHz is calculated as follows:
1
The book “Microwave Radio transmission design Guide” was used to write this chapter.
f n = f 0 − 154 + 7 ∗ n and f 'n = f 0 + 7 + 7 ∗ n Equation 27
It can be seen that the channel spacing is 7 MHz and the T/R spacing is 161 MHz. Radio equipment’s duplexer
will usually only support one T/R spacing.
11.4.2 High/Low Arrangements
For Radio links one is always working with pairs of channels. A signal is transmitted from Site a to Site b with a
certain transmit frequency and Site A’s receive frequency is the transmit frequency from Site B. These are
termed go and return channels. The go channels transmit in the lower half of the plan and are sometimes
referred to as “transmit low” and are designated as fn, where n is the channel number. The return frequencies
transmit high, and are designed as f’n.
This is very important for the frequency plan. For a specific frequency band all the kinds must transmit either
high or low.
11.4.3 Alternate Polarization
In fully developed routes, alternate polarizations are in the Microwave Network design.
11.5 Frequency Re-Use
Frequency re-use refers to a situation where the same frequency pair is re-used in a route.
11.5.1 Two-Frequency (One-pair) Plan
One needs to consider the interference, which results from using a single of frequencies is used throughout a
route. Two types of interference are there: the interference at the repeater (nodal) site and the problem at sites
further down the route (overshoot).
11.5.1.1 Nodal Sites
The only way to achieve frequency re-use is to use high-performance antennas with a good Front/Back ratio.
11.5.1.2 Overshoot
Overshoot problems are solved by alternating the polarization every two hops. This plan is shown in Figure 17.
1H 1H 1V 1V
_________________________________________________________________
1 2 3 4 5
High band
Low Band
H Horizontal Polarization
Microwave Systems
V Vertical Polarization
Figure 17 Two-Frequency Plan
11.5.2 Four-Frequency (Two pairs) Plan
In this case, the frequency and polarization should be alternated on every second hope. This result in the
overshoot path to the third hop being a different frequency, and the opposite polarization ensures that the
adjacent channel interference is minimized. This is illustrated in Figure 18.
1H 1H 2V 2V 1H
______________________________________________________________________
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 18 Four-Frequency Plan With Alternated Polarization
If the second pair of frequencies is required to overcome antennas with insufficient Front/Back ratio, the
frequencies should be alternated every hop and the polarization alternated every third hop. This is illustrated in
Figure 19.
1H 2H 1V 2V 1H
______________________________________________________________________
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 19 Four-Frequency Plan With Alternated Frequency
With this four-frequency plan, high performance antennas will not normally be required on the alternate sites
where two frequency pairs are being used.
11.5.3 Sex-Frequency (Three pairs) Plan
If both Front/Back and overshoot can’t be solved with the previous plans, then an additional frequency pair will
be required. These will be allocated as frequency pairs 1, 2 and 3 with one polarization, then 1, 2, and 3 with
the alternate polarization, and so on.
11.6 Antenna Considerations
For frequency re-use it is the side Front/Back ratio that is the critical parameter, and for overshoot protection it
is the side-lobe and cross-polar discrimination aspects that are important. High-performance antennas have
excellent Front/Back ratios, typically 10 dB to 20 dB better than standard antennas.
11.7 Overcoming frequency interference
Depending on the interference problem at least one of the following methods can be used to overcome
interference:
1. Polarization
2. Antenna discrimination
3. Attenuating interfering transmitter
4. Topology design.
Microwave Systems
12 Practices Using Software Planning Tool

Practical exercises are done using PathCalc free program, which can be downloaded with the manual from the
following Internet URL:
http://www.dmcstratexnetworks.com/solutions/pathcalc.html
Note: PathCalc is equipment specific software, but it is enough for training purposes.

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MICROWAVE SYSTEMS

CONCEPTS AND DESIGN

9.4.2 Back-to-Back Antenna Insertion Loss.......................................................35

Figure 1 Block Diagram Of A Microwave Radio System...............................................6

Table 1 Equipment used for Field Survey ...................................................................7

Figure 1 Block Diagram Of A Microwave Radio System

2 Field (Site and Path) Survey

2.2 Equipment used for Field Survey

Equipment Use / Description

Table 1 Equipment used for Field Survey

2.3 Information Gathered During Field Survey

3 Line of Sight (LOS)

3.2 Optical LOS

3.3 Radio LOS

The first Fresnel radius F1 can be expressed as:

The subsequent nth Fresnel zone can be determined as

At the midpoint the radius will be at its maximum (d1=d2).

4 Path Profiling and Clearance Criteria

Figure 3 Path Profile

Effective Earth Radius

Figure 4 Different Ways Of Representing Path Profiling

Antenna: Any structure or device used to collect or radiate electromagnetic waves.

5.2 Parabolic Antenna

Figure 5 Different Types Of Parabolic Antennas

5.3 Characteristics and terms

Figure 6 Antenna Beam width And Lobes

2 GHz 4 GHz 6 GHz 11 GHz

The non-protected configuration is a single standalone terminal.

6.2 Monitored Hot StandBy (MHSB)

In communications systems operations MHSB is used to pertain to a power-saving condition or status of

6.3 Diversity Systems

6.3.3 Space Diversity

6.3.4 Frequency Diversity

Figure 7 Active Repeaters

7.2 Passive Repeater

Figure 8 Passive Repeater: Flat Reflector

8 Microwave Radio Propagation

8.3 Atmospheric Duct

Figure 9 Atmospheric Ducting

8.4.2 How to overcome multipath?

3. Tilt the antenna up

f (GHz) d (miles) ≤ 25 > 25

Ed direct ray field strength

Figure 11 Terrain Shielding To Cancel Multipath

In the transmission of electrical, electromagnetic, or acoustic signals, the conversion of

molecular or atomic level.

Of a wave propagating in a material medium, a phenomenon in which the direction,

Frequency Capacity Available Hop Distance Fading

7GHz Med-High >30km Multipath

Table 6 Frequency And Fading

Figure 12 Antenna Polarization

9 Microwave Path Losses And Gains

9.2 Free Space Loss

Figure 13 Received Power From An Isotropic Antenna

EIRP = Pt ∗ Gt Watts Equation 10

Figure 14 Antenna Radiation Pattern

Expressing Equation 14 and Equation 15 in dB:

where P 1 and P 2 are the actual powers.

Abbreviation for dB referenced to one mill watt.

9.3 Link Budget

Mathematically, system gain is:

9.4 System Gain

9.4.1 Plane Reflector Insertion Loss