Gender in Management: An International Journal

Women’s experience of perceived uncertainty: insights from emotional

intelligence
Masood Ul Hassan, Arslan Ayub,
Article information:
To cite this document:
Masood Ul Hassan, Arslan Ayub, (2019) "Women’s experience of perceived uncertainty: insights from
emotional intelligence", Gender in Management: An International Journal , https://doi.org/10.1108/
GM-02-2019-0016
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Insights from
Women’s experience of perceived emotional
uncertainty: insights from intelligence

emotional intelligence
Masood Ul Hassan and Arslan Ayub
Department of Commerce, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Received 2 February 2019
Revised 3 April 2019
3 May 2019
Accepted 3 May 2019
Abstract
Purpose – Few organizational change studies identified the aspects of change that are salient to individuals
and gender in specific and that influence their work outcomes. This paper aims to assess the potential
mediating effect of emotional intelligence and the moderating effect of gender in the relationship of perceived
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change-related uncertainty and work outcomes.

Design/methodology/approach – The study analyzes the measurement model and the structural model
using SmartPLS (v 3.2.7) on a sample of 413 employees working in the telecom sector collected through a non-
experimental face-to-face method.
Findings – The findings support that emotional intelligence mediates the negative relationship between
perceived change-related uncertainty and work outcomes. Moreover, emotional intelligence and gender have a
significant interaction effect on work outcomes.
Research limitations/implications – The study uses the ability-based model of emotional intelligence
to assess its impact on the proposed theoretical framework.
Practical implications – The findings suggest that organizations should hire more females at the
workplace as they are less in number although they are more emotionally intelligent. As well as, females
should be given equal opportunities to reach the top managerial positions by breaking the glass ceiling.
Originality/value – The study adds insights into existing knowledge; for instance, the study reveals that
emotional intelligence competency is a sine qua non to personal control that delivers exceptional results in the
context of perceived change-related uncertainty. The study also investigates the interaction effect of gender
with emotional intelligence to scaffold the emotional intelligence competency over gender differences.
Keywords Gender, Emotional intelligence, Job satisfaction, Job performance,
Perceived change-related uncertainty
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
Research on organizational change has been fueled for the past few decades as the change
has been observed as the most occurring phenomenon in any organization (Cullen et al.,
2014). Competitive pressures compel organizations to engage in the change programs to
meet market demands (Neves and Schyns, 2018). But the question is “are employees ready
for organizational change?” Maurer (1996) argued that two third of change initiatives fail in
every organization. In another study, it is found that the failure rate for large-scale
organizational change is around 40 to 70 per cent (Burns, 2000). As organizational change is
accompanied with perceived change-related uncertainty (Ford and Ford, 2010), therefore, the
perception of having a job but not knowing whether it is secure is classified as the most
stressful burden that an employee can shoulder (Bordia et al., 2004).
In the present study, the authors examine perceived change-related uncertainty and its Gender in Management: An
International Journal
impact on work outcomes. Our proposition is built on the very nature of perceived change- © Emerald Publishing Limited
1754-2413
related uncertainty, as it is the not knowing state of a future event, which means a lack of DOI 10.1108/GM-02-2019-0016
 GM personal control over the event (Paulsen et al., 2005). There arises a dire need to assess the
role of personal control in managing perceived change-related uncertainty. As the roots of
personal control are stemmed in the emotional intelligence literature (Bozionelos and Singh,
2017; Carson et al., 2016; Goleman, 1995; Mayer and Salovey, 1997; Schutte et al., 2013),
thereby, how does emotional intelligence serve the cause is an essential area of concern to be
examined. The current study is an effort to address this dilemma in the telecom sector in
Pakistan, particularly, the study investigates this issue over gender differences.
Over the past two decades, the telecommunications industry is exponentially growing in
Pakistan (Din et al., 2016). Notwithstanding, the sector has undergone major
transformations (Pakistan Telecommunication Authority, 2018). Among these, a recent
merger in the two large companies, namely, Mobilink and Warid, is striking (Junaidi, 2017).
This resulted in the shutdown of 200 franchises, rendering joblessness for thousands of
employees (Sacked Jazz, 2017). Moreover, internet and broadband penetration have spiked
with the introduction of 3G, 4G LTE (Pakistan Telecommunication Authority, 2018). In due
course, these changes require a prompt adaptation, failure to which may result in an
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increased perceived change-related uncertainty among employees (Ford and Ford, 2010).
However, research in this sector is understudied in the developing countries; particularly,
sociotechnical (emotional and technological) factors that impact the process of the telecom
transformation in Pakistan (Gao and Rafiq, 2009).
Concerning women concentration in the job market, Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (2018)
revealed an increase in women employment from 13.35 million in 2014-2015 to 13.54 million
in 2017-2018. The statistics also showed a 6.1 per cent increase in the employment of women
in Punjab, i.e., 9.81 million in 2014-2015 to 10.40 million in 2017-2018. Besides, the trend goes
significantly higher as the digital economy is providing a fast track opportunity to the
working women to become more inclusive in society (Pakistan Telecommunication
Authority, 2018). However, according to the International Labour Organization (2018), the
ratio of female to male labor force participation rate (percentage) in Pakistan is 30:40.
Similarly, the Global Gender Gap Report 2018 found that working women in Pakistan are
proportionately less in number than men, and automation at the workplace is having a
disproportionate impact on the women employment (World Economic Forum, 2018). The
report also reasoned that participation of women is underrepresented in the growing areas
that require increased science and technology, especially, within the artificial intelligence
field, with a total of just 22 per cent of the workforce. Ergo, the authors argue that women
face many challenges at the workplace including less income stability and low security of
employment in Pakistan (Human Development Indices and Indicators, 2018) which is
correlated with the perceived change-related uncertainty (Bordia et al., 2004; Cullen et al.,
2014).
The aims here are threefold. First, the study proposes a theoretical model and empirically
assesses the predictive capability of the proposed model by employing the Partial Least
Square Structural Equation Model (PLS-SEM). The empirical evidence strengthens the
literature of emotional intelligence. As examining its relationship with the work outcomes in
the turbulent work environment is needed, a vital link that has received a limited
examination in the past. Second, the study investigates the interaction effect of gender with
emotional intelligence to scaffold the emotional intelligence competency over gender
differences. There is again limited research on gender differences in emotional intelligence
(Petrides and Furnham, 2000). We expect that women possess more emotional intelligence
than men do in the context of perceived change-related uncertainty. Third, the study
suggests practical implications about the significance of emotional intelligence at the
 workplace. We expect that people high in emotional intelligence are less likely to be suffered Insights from
because of perceived change-related uncertainty. emotional
The remainder of the paper discusses the review of literature and research hypotheses,
methods and techniques for data collection, choice of research tool and analysis, followed by
intelligence
discussion and conclusion.

Literature review
Linking perceived change-related uncertainty, emotional intelligence and work outcomes
The current study adopted the version of Bordia et al. (2004) to investigate perceived
change-related uncertainty, such as job-related uncertainty, structural uncertainty and
strategic uncertainty. According to Bordia et al. (2004), organizational change leads to a
great deal of perceived change-related uncertainty and stress among employees. In line with
this argument, the telecom sector in Pakistan is a factual depiction of the perpetuity of
organizational change (Gao and Rafiq, 2009; Pakistan Telecommunication Authority, 2018).
During the organizational change, employees become more susceptible to the layoffs and the
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changing roles and responsibilities, and the perceived change-related uncertainty intensifies
the stressor-strain relationship which inversely affects performance and satisfaction (Cullen
et al., 2014; Rafferty and Griffin, 2006). In a similar context in the telecom sector in India, the
authors found that employees experience a heightened degree of perceived change-related
uncertainty because of organizational change (Singh et al., 2012).
Germane to perceived change-related uncertainty is the lack of sufficient information or
the inability to differentiate between relevant and irrelevant information (Gifford et al.,
1979); therefore, employees extract cues from their environment about organizational
change (Cullen et al., 2014). Based on the extracted cues, employees develop the perception
which stimulates their attitude and behavior (Bordia et al., 2004). Besides, Allen et al. (2007)
endorsed that lack of information is the main cause of perceived change-related uncertainty.
Such information seeking behaviors because of perceived change-related uncertainty are
guided by uncertainty reduction theory (Berger and Calabrese, 1974) and uncertainty
management theory (Brashers, 2001).
However, increased perceived change-related uncertainty due to lack of information
serves as the stressor which has implications for lowered commitment, reduced satisfaction,
heightened stress, increased intention to leave the organization (Ford and Ford, 2010). Other
empirical evidence endorsed the negative relationship of perceived change-related
uncertainty with job satisfaction (Rafferty and Griffin, 2006) and trust in the organization
(Schweiger and Denisi, 1991). Furthermore, a recent analysis indicated that perceived
change-related uncertainty inhibits employees’ ability to perform effectively at the
workplace (Cullen et al., 2014). A surge of additional studies also found negative relationship
of job-related uncertainty with job performance (Gilboa et al., 2008; Muse et al., 2003; Sverke
and Hellgren, 2002; Tubre and Collins, 2000) and job satisfaction (Amiot et al., 2006; Zhu
et al., 2004). Therefore, we hypothesize that:

H1a. There is a negative relationship between perceived change-related uncertainty and

job satisfaction.
H1b. There is a negative relationship between perceived change-related uncertainty and
job performance.
Borrowing from Salovey and Mayer (1990), it has been long established that emotional
intelligence has the potential to overcome the implications of the job-related stressors. The
first component of emotional intelligence is the ability of self-awareness (Mayer and
 GM Salovey, 1997). Successful recognition of self-awareness helps in understanding others’
emotional awareness (Sverke and Hellgren, 2002). This component of emotional intelligence
is capable of distinguishing between accurate and inaccurate expressions of emotions
(Jordan et al., 2002). Ultimately, it includes the ability to distinguish between honest and
dishonest expressions of emotions in others (Sverke and Hellgren, 2002). In dealing with job-
related stressors, this component serves as a starting point in dealing with the doubtful
perceptions that emerge as a result of job uncertainty (Jordan et al., 2002). Similarly, job
uncertainty can be lessened by understanding the emotions and emotional sincerity in
others (Jordan et al., 2002).
Accordingly, the next component of emotional intelligence is the ability to distinguish
between various emotions which helps in dealing with the feelings associated with it that
affect the thought process (Mayer and Salovey, 1997). In the specific context, the job
stressors may influence certain emotions, e.g. dismay, fear, anger, frustration or grief.
Regulation of emotions in this situation enables individuals to differentiate between various
emotions (Sverke and Hellgren, 2002). This helps employees to focus on why certain feelings
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exist and what are the reasonable emotions in any situation (Jordan et al., 2002). Regulation
of emotions is the ability that individual may focus on multiple perspectives, and from
multiple perspectives, individuals can determine to adopt an appropriate emotional state,
and by doing so, the conflicting emotions can be disengaged (Jordan et al., 2002).
The next component of emotional intelligence is emotional management, i.e. the use of
emotion. It is the ability to connect with the appropriate emotions when necessary and
disconnect with unnecessary emotions and feelings (Mayer and Salovey, 1997). In the
context of job uncertainty, this ability helps individuals to detach themselves from the
feelings of discomfort and anger which impede their performance and reduce satisfaction
(Jordan et al., 2002). In the absence of this ability, it has been found that open anger becomes
the basis for various workplace conflicts and disputes (Fitness, 2000). In a nutshell, the
current study argues that four components of emotional intelligence serve as the mediators
that have implications for job uncertainty during organizational change. Therefore, we
hypothesize that:

H2a. Emotional intelligence mediates the negative relationship between perceived

change-related uncertainty and job satisfaction.
H2b. Emotional intelligence mediates the negative relationship between perceived
change-related uncertainty and job performance.

Moderating effect of gender

Research on gender differences has been growing in emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995;
Mayer and Salovey, 1997; Schutte et al., 2013). However, plentiful literature is found on a
theoretical level, but empirical research is not much accompanied particularly at the
construct level (Petrides and Furnham, 2000). It has been found that earlier studies have
found the empirical analysis in gender differences in the overall estimate of one’s IQ. These
studies found that men possess more general intelligence (IQ) than women do (Beloff, 1992;
Furnham and Rawles, 1995). Other research studies show that a significant gender
difference exists in the opposite direction from one observed on the IQ which indicates
females scoring higher than males in emotional intelligence (Petrides and Furnham, 2000;
Schutte et al., 1998).
Argyle (1990) argued based on interpersonal social skills, which is closely related to
emotional intelligence, and found that women are more perceptive, adaptable and empathic
 than men. Germane to this viewpoint is probably the fact that emotional intelligence deals in Insights from
managing one’s own emotions, as well as of others (Katyal and Awasthi, 2005). And this can emotional
be explained in terms of personality traits as some of their personality characteristics help
them to acquire more emotional intelligence than males (Dunn, 2002). For instance, they are
intelligence
more sensitive to their relationship with parents, siblings and friends (Sandhu and
Mehrotra, 1999).
Fernández-Berrocal et al. (2012) found that women possess more emotional intelligence
than men, while studies also have provided conflicting results about specific dimensions of
emotional intelligence and women performance. Following researchers found significant
gender differences in experiential aspects of emotional intelligence, e.g. emotional
facilitation and perception (Castro-Schilo and Kee, 2010; Kafetsios, 2004). Another stream of
studies has reported fundamental differences in strategic aspects of emotional intelligence
over gender differences, e.g. understanding and managing of emotions (Farrelly and Austin,
2007; Goldenberg et al., 2006). Besides, McIntyre (2010) found that women score more than
men do in all aspects of emotional intelligence including facilitation, perception,
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understanding and the total score of emotional intelligence.

This line of inquiry is further supported by Singh (2006) who argued that women possess
more emotional intelligence than men do. Additionally, Schutte et al. (2013) found women
scoring more than men do in their measure of trait emotional intelligence. Contrariwise, the
findings of Chu (2002) revealed that men have more emotional intelligence than women do.
However, is this notion correct or yet another stereotype that women possess more
emotional intelligence than men do? To address this question, the interaction effect of
gender with the Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale is assessed in this study. The
association between emotional intelligence and work outcomes is already established above
(Goleman, 1995; Wong and Law, 2002; Schutte et al., 2013). Thus, these findings suggest that
women at high/low levels of emotional intelligence have high/low job satisfaction than men.
Additionally, women at high/low levels of emotional intelligence have high/low job
performance than men. Therefore, it is further hypothesized that:

H3a. Emotional intelligence and gender will have an interaction effect on job
satisfaction.
H3b. Emotional intelligence and gender will have an interaction effect on job
performance.

Method
Participants and procedures
We collected data from private and state-owned telecom companies in Punjab, Pakistan. As
the rising pressure of the perpetual change in the telecom sector results in a great deal of
perceived change-related uncertainty among employees (Pakistan Telecommunication
Authority, 2018; Singh et al., 2012). Therefore, the key respondents were employees working
at lower and middle managerial positions, such as key account manager, corporate account
executive, customer experience manager and area retail manager. Total number of
employees are 19,200 in PTCL (Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited, 2019), 2,300
in Mobilink (www.jazz.com.pk/), 1,900 in Telenor (www.telenor.com.pk) and 2,000 in Ufone
(www.ufone.com).
Detailed information on the database of the contact information of employees could not
be accessed from these companies. Therefore, face-to-face interaction helped in selecting
arbitrary cases and introducing the research rationale with the respondents. The research
 GM study thus employed purposive sampling (also known as restrictive sampling) in which
every respondent was chosen arbitrarily for completing the research questionnaire (Cooper
et al., 2006). Neuman recommended the use of purposive sampling when cases are selected
that are particularly informative (Neuman, 2005) because generalization is made about
theory and not about population (Saunders et al., 2009).
Data administration and collection was done in stages. First, the researchers interviewed
a few respondents and discussed research instrument in detail to finalize the instrument.
When the questionnaire was finalized, the researchers hired enumerators who were expert in
the field. Initially, they were briefed about the study and context in specific. A total of 500
questionnaires were distributed out of which 447 questionnaires were returned. In all, 34
questionnaires were found incomplete and were dropped in the analysis. The response rate
was 83 per cent (N = 413). The sample included 294 men and 119 women. More than 50 per
cent of respondents were graduates and were between 26 and 35 years of age.

Measures
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This section presents details about the measurement scales (Table I). The participants were
Urdu speaking; therefore, the questionnaire was translated into Urdu, and then back
translated into English by a bilingual native English-speaking translator as recommended
by Brislin (1980). All the scales were measured on a five-point Likert scale (1 for strongly
disagree and 5 for strongly agree). To avoid self-serving bias, job performance scale was
collected through supervisor rating as recommended by Podsakoff et al. (2000).

Results
Measurement model
The study used a two-stage approach to examine the measurement model and the structural
model. For assessing the measurement model, the study analyzed Cronbach’s alpha and
composite reliability (CR) to determine internal consistency; and convergent validity and
discriminant validity were examined using average variance extracted (AVE), outer
loadings and heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT) correlations ratio (Hair et al., 2017). First,
multicollinearity was assessed to determine the correlation between independent variables.
A high degree of multicollinearity makes it difficult to evaluate reliable estimates for each
measure (Hair et al., 2017). Therefore, multicollinearity was examined through variance
inflation factors and ranged from 1.000 to 3.401 and were all below the acceptable threshold
which is 5 as recommended by Hair et al. (2017).
The psychometric properties to assess the measurement model are presented in Table II.
For internal consistency, CR index was used in addition to Cronbach’s alpha. In our study,
all values exceeded the minimum acceptable threshold value of 0.7 (Hair et al., 2017) with job
performance the lowest (0.872) and emotional intelligence the maximum (0.94). For
convergent validity, AVE metric was used, and all values were above the acceptable
threshold of 0.40 and ranged from 0.53 for perceived change-related uncertainty to 0.579 for

Constructs Measurement items Literature reference

Emotional intelligence 16 Wong and Law (2002)

Job performance 6 Becker et al. (1996)
Table I. Job satisfaction 14 Hackman and Oldham (1974)
Measurement scales Perceived change-related uncertainty 9 Bordia et al. (2004)
 Outer Loadings (l ) Cronbach’s alpha CR AVE
Insights from
emotional
Emotional intelligence 0.930 0.940 0.569 intelligence
EI1 0.653
EI12 0.744
EI13 0.797
EI14 0.762
EI16 0.757
EI2 0.765
EI4 0.619
EI5 0.738
EI6 0.813
EI7 0.833
EI8 0.834
EI9 0.707
Job performance 0.816 0.872 0.579
JP2 0.693
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JP3 0.835
JP4 0.767
JP5 0.819
JP6 0.678
Job satisfaction 0.884 0.909 0.555
JS11 0.761
JS12 0.794
JS13 0.734
JS2 0.817
JS3 0.794
JS6 0.727
JS7 0.688
JS9 0.628
Perceived change-related uncertainty 0.873 0.900 0.530
PCRU2 0.656
PCRU3 0.659
PCRU4 0.752
PCRU5 0.778
PCRU6 0.747
PCRU7 0.801
PCRU8 0.678
PCRU9 0.740
Table II.
Notes: EI: Emotional Intelligence; JP: Job Performance; JS: Job Satisfaction; PCRU: Perceived Change- Psychometric
related Uncertainty properties

job performance (Hair et al., 2017). For individual item reliability, indicators were assessed
using factor loadings. In all, 12 indicators were dropped for the final analysis with loadings
lower than 0.60 (Falk and Miller, 1992).
For assessing discriminant validity, Henseler et al. (2015) advocated that the HTMT
correlations ratio yields more promising results than Fornell–Larcker and cross loadings. In
our analysis, all the HTMT values presented in Table III are below the acceptable threshold
value at HTMT.90 with 90 per cent confidence interval. As HTMTinference relies on one-tailed
tests, therefore, 90 per cent bootstrapped confidence interval was used to warrant an error
probability of 5 per cent, thus indicating no discriminant validity issues in our study
 GM Emotional Job Job Perceived change-related
Factor intelligence performance satisfaction uncertainty

Emotional intelligence
Job performance 0.878
CI0.900
[0.822;0.923]
Job satisfaction 0.895 0.891
CI0.900 CI0.900
[0.844;0.910] [0.866;0.928]
Perceived change-related 0.808 0.779 0.775
Table III. uncertainty CI0.900 CI0.900 CI0.900
HTMT ratio [0.733;0.85] [0.733;0.822] [0.735;0.821]

(Henseler et al., 2015). Thus, the analysis confirmed that the data did not suffer reliability
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and validity issues.

Structural model
The structural model assesses the relationship between latent variables (Hair et al., 2017)
(Table IV). The PLS-SEM primarily assesses the structural model based on heuristic criteria
which are determined by the model’s predictive capabilities. Therefore, the goodness of the
theoretical model is established by the strength of path coefficients and combined
predictiveness (R2) of the exogenous constructs (Hair et al., 2017). Given the role of PLS-
SEM, bootstrapping was done with 5,000 resamples to analyze the t-values of the structural
path. Path coefficients ( b ) values were
0.669 and
0.714 with t-values greater than 2.57,
indicating confidence at 99 per cent, which supports our hypotheses H1a and H1b.
Furthermore, the measure of predictive accuracy indicates a moderate effect and a
substantial effect on job performance and job satisfaction with variance explained by all the
latent exogenous variables by 44.8 and 51.0 per cent, respectively. In addition, blindfolding
procedure was used to establish predictive relevance Q2 and relative predictive relevance q2.
An omission distance of 5 was selected in this study (Henseler et al., 2015). All the values are
significantly greater than 0 (Hair et al., 2017). Besides, effect size F2 shows large effect sizes
for hypotheses H1a and H1b (Hair et al., 2017).
We predicted that emotional intelligence mediates the negative relationship between
perceived change-related uncertainty and work outcomes (H2a and H2b). Considerable
attention has been paid to answering how to test the mediation analysis (Hair et al., 2017).
Baron and Kenny (1986) presented an approach to estimate the mediation analysis.
However, there has been methodological and conceptual problems with Baron and Kenny’s
(1986) approach (Hayes, 2013). An alternative to Baron and Kenny’s (1986) approach, the
current study has adopted mediation approach by Zhao et al. (2010) cited in Hair et al. (2017).
Mediation hypotheses were tested by obtaining point estimates of the indirect effects using
bias corrected and accelerated (BCa) 90 per cent CIs using the bootstrapping method of 5,000
resamples (Hair et al., 2017) (Table IV).
The direct effects of perceived change-related uncertainty on job satisfaction and job
performance were significant with 99 per cent confidence interval between
0.773 and

0.649 for H1a and 99 per cent confidence interval between
0.734 and
0.591 for H2a,
respectively. The indirect effects were also significant with 99 per cent confidence interval
between
0.579 and
0.401 for H2a and 99 per cent confidence interval between
0.588
and
0.319 for H2b, respectively. According to Zhao et al. (2010), complementary mediation
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Indirect Interaction
Hypotheses Path Coeff. ( b ) Direct effect effect effect S.E. t-value BCa 95% CI Effect size VAF R2, Q2 Results

H1a: PCRU!JS
0.714*** — — — 0.032 22.128 [
0.773;
0.649] 1.040(L) — R2: 0.510 Accept
Q2: 0.230
H1b: PCRU!JP
0.669*** — — — 0.038 17.765 [
0.734;
0.591] 0.810(L) — R2: 0.448 Accept
Q2: 0.229
Mediation analysis
H2a: PCRU!EI!JS
0.714***
0.204
0.491*** — 0.044 11.116 [
0.579;
0.401] 0.360(L) 0.6886 R2: 0.688 Partial Mediation
Q2: 0.331
H2b: PCRU!EI!JP
0.669***
0.224
0.443*** — 0.069 6.434 [
0.588;
0.319] 0.440(L) 0.6634 R2: 0.612 Partial Mediation
Q2: 0.312
Moderation analysis
H3a: EI x G!JS — — — 0.216* 0.124 1.739 [
0.038; 0.469] 0.012(M) — R2: 0.698 Accept
Q2: 0.216
H3b: EI x G!JP — — —
0.110** 0.047 2.363 [
0.206;
0.025] 0.035(M) — R2: 0.631 Accept
Q2: 0.320

Notes: EI: Emotional Intelligence; JP: Job Performance; JS: Job Satisfaction; PCRU: Perceived Change-related Uncertainty; G: Gender; *significance p < 0.1 (1.65);
**Significance p < 0.05 (1.96); ***significance p < 0.01 (2.57)

Structural model
Insights from

results and tests of

Table IV.
intelligence

hypotheses
emotional
 GM existed among variables. This was also confirmed by variance accounted for (VAF) as
presented in Table IV. The analysis shows partial mediation as the value of VAF scored
above 68.86 per cent and 66.34 per cent. Thus, lending support to hypotheses H2a and H2b.

The goodness-of-fit index

Global goodness-of-fit (GoF) criterion serves a diagnostic purpose in PLS path model
(Wetzels et al., 2009). GoF (0 # GoF # 1), defined as “the geometric mean of the average
communality and average R2” (Navimipour et al., 2018). The GoF index calculation is as
follows:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
GoF ¼ AVE  R2 (1)
For calculation of the AVE average value, equation (2) is used:
1X n
m AVE ¼ xi (2)
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n i¼1

AVEEI þ AVEJP þ AVEJS þ AVEPCRU

m AVE ¼
4

0:569 þ 0:579 þ 0:555 þ 0:530

m AVE ¼ ¼ 0:558
4

m AVE ¼ 0:558

For calculation of the R2 average value, equation (3) is used:

1X n
m R2 ¼ xi (3)
n i¼1

2
REI þ RJS
2
þ RJP
2
m R2 ¼
3

0:541 þ 0:698 þ 0:631

m R2 ¼ ¼ 0:623
3

m R2 ¼ 0:623

Substituting equations (2) and (3) into equation (1), the GoF value will be:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
GoF ¼ 0:558  0:623 ¼ 0:589

For the complete model, the GoF value of 0.589 is above the cutoff value of 0.36 for the large
effect size of R2; thereby, we conclude that model’s structure and data fit each other (Cohen,
1988).
 Moderation analysis Insights from
The moderation effect is represented by the interaction term (emotional intelligence x emotional
gender) pointing at the endogenous variable and direct relationship from the moderator to
the variable (Figure 1). The two-stage approach was used as recommended by Henseler et al.
intelligence
(2015). At the first step, the size of the moderating effect is measured. The interaction term
M1 and M2 (emotional intelligence x gender) have a positive effect on job satisfaction (0.216)
and negative effect on job performance (
0.110), whereas the simple effect of emotional
intelligence on job satisfaction and job performance is 0.583 and 0.530, respectively
(Table IV).
Simple slope analyses are shown in Figure 2 (b)and 3 (b). The three lines represent the
relationship between emotional intelligence and work outcomes. The middle line shows the
average of the moderating variable. The other two lines show the relationship between
emotional intelligence and work outcomes for higher (i.e. mean value of gender plus one
standard deviation) and lower (i.e. mean value of gender minus one standard deviation)
levels of the gender. The relationship between emotional intelligence and work outcomes is
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positive for all three lines. Thus, higher levels of emotional intelligence go in hand with a
higher level of job satisfaction and job performance.
At the next level, the significance of the interaction terms was assessed using BCa
bootstrapping for 5,000 resamples (two-tailed) (Henseler et al., 2015). The analysis yields
BCa confidence interval [
0.038; 0.469] at 90 per cent significance level for M1 and [
0.206;

0.025] at 95 per cent significance level for M2. The final step was to assess the moderators’
f 2 effect size. The interaction term f2 effect size has a value of 0.012 for M1 and 0.035 for M2.
These values indicate a medium effect (Kenny, 2016). Overall, results provide clear support
to the moderation analysis that women possess more emotional intelligence than men do,

Figure 1.
SEM
 GM
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Figure 2.
Moderating effect 1

and a higher level of emotional intelligence results in increased job satisfaction and job
performance both for men and women (Figure 3).

Discussion
This study was mainly concerned with assessing the predictive capability of the proposed
theoretical framework of perceived change-related uncertainty in the context of
organizational change. Change as discussed earlier accompanies perceived change-related
uncertainty with it (Ford and Ford, 2010), which results in the lack of trust, lower
commitment, turnover and decreased work outcomes (Schweiger and Denisi, 1991). This
results in the withdrawal of work efforts which, ultimately, reduces job satisfaction (Amiot
et al., 2006) and job performance (Gilboa et al., 2008). Our key concern was employees who
possess high emotional intelligence outer-perform others who were low in emotional
intelligence (Wong and Law, 2002). Hence, we proposed the mediating role of emotional
intelligence in the organizational change context. The results of this study strengthened our
proposed theoretical framework, as partial mediations exist between perceived change-
related uncertainty and job satisfaction and between perceived change-related uncertainty
and job performance.
 Insights from
emotional
intelligence
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Figure 3.
Moderating effect 2

Gender as a moderating variable

The second foremost concern of our study was to assess the moderation of gender in the
context of perceived change-related uncertainty. Our analysis confirmed that significant
moderation exists and the interaction effects of emotional intelligence and gender result in
significant job satisfaction and job performance. The results of this study provided
empirical support to the existing theories that women possess more emotional intelligence
than men do (Castro-Schilo and Kee, 2010; Kafetsios, 2004).

Social and biological factors

We highlighted several reasons that women possess more emotional intelligence than men
do. First, literature endorsed that social and biological factors invoke to explain this feminist
vision of emotions (Nolen-Hoeksema and Jackson, 2001). Biologically, there exists a distinct
difference between the cerebral processing of emotions between men and women (Craig
et al., 2009). Women’s brain has certain areas dedicated largely to emotional processing than
men’s (Baron-Cohen, 2003). Additionally, women’s biochemistry is better prepared to
understand emotions than men’s is (Gur et al., 2002). Moreover, Fernández-Berrocal et al.
(2012) argued that both women and men’s brains are structured differently. Women’s brain
is structured predominantly to feel empathy, while men’s brain is structured to seek
understanding and construct systems (Baron-Cohen, 2003). Likewise, research centered at
 GM social aspect endorsed that the brought-up of women is biased in the way that men are
taught to minimize certain emotions related to fear, vulnerability, guilt and sadness as
opposed to women (Brody and Hall, 2000).

Role theory
Another reasonable explanation is earning a livelihood as part of occupation and the role of
men and women in the Asian context. In Asian families, men are the caretakers and the sole
providers to their families, hence making women economically dependent on them (Hood,
1986). A reasonable explanation for this is the patriarchal culture in Pakistan (Hadi, 2017).
Therefore, economic malaise and rising unemployment undermine men’s ability to fulfill
household needs. World Bank report found that a significant share of men in Pakistan
cannot adequately fulfill the economic needs of their households (World Bank, 2018). Thus,
men are more vulnerable than women are and result in negative coping strategies (Holmes
and Jones, 2010). The vulnerability of the households varies depending on the composition
of the families in Pakistan. Household Integrated Economic Survey (HIES, 2015-2016)
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indicated that the national average household size in Pakistan is 6.31 members (Pakistan
Bureau of Statistics, 2016). The findings also presented that an average number of earners
per household is only 1.78. Being the sole providers to their families, perceived job threat
(Ford and Ford, 2010) and career immobility (Nachbagauer and Riedl, 2002) are the major
factors affecting men more than women.

Social and practical implications

The study provides social implication such as, for individuals, the threat of job loss and/or
career immobility can be mitigated when men are not only the sole providers to their
families and their burden is shared by eliminating discrimination for women earning the
livelihood. In addition, the findings of this study provide research implication, for instance,
to the best of our knowledge, research is scant in the Asian context, and the role of men and
women as the breadwinners be examined further. Besides, future studies should investigate
the proposed framework using an experimental research design. From a practical
perspective, the findings of this study exposed that women bear more emotional intelligence
than men do. Despite the fact, studies report too fewer women at the top managerial
positions. For instance, only one woman out of four men is given leadership roles in the
Asia-Pacific region (McKinsey Global Institute, 2018). The study suggests that more women
are required at the senior managerial positions to transform an emotionally intelligent
workforce. Therefore, organizations should consider breaking the glass ceiling and giving
equal opportunities to women to represent the top positions.
The study also provided methodological implication; for instance, more research is
needed to examine how emotional intelligence explains the relationship between perceived
change-related uncertainty and work outcomes. Specifically, trait-based emotional
intelligence should be assessed in a similar context. Moreover, employees’ perception of the
leaders’ emotional intelligence can be examined in the successful implementation of
the change initiatives. Furthermore, the study can be extended in other industries so that the
robustness of the model can be checked.

Conclusion
This paper assesses the potential mediating effect of emotional intelligence and the
moderating effect of gender in the relationship of perceived change-related uncertainty and
work outcomes. The findings suggest that emotional intelligence mediates the negative
relationship between perceived change-related uncertainty and work outcomes. Besides, the
 interaction effect of emotional intelligence and gender significantly moderates work Insights from
outcomes. The study found that women possess more emotional intelligence than men do. emotional
Moreover, the results indicate that at a high level of emotional intelligence, both men and
women are more satisfied, and they perform better and vice versa.
intelligence

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 Further reading Insights from
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Assessment, and Application at Home, School, and in the Workplace, Jossey-Bass.
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Corresponding author
Arslan Ayub can be contacted at: ayub_arslan@ymail.com
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