Mobile Radio Propagation

ECE 8708 Wireless Communications : Propagation – Large-Scale Path Loss
Chapter 4
Mobile Radio Propagation:
Large-Scale Path Loss
Yimin Zhang, Ph.D.

Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Villanova University
http://yiminzhang.com/ECE8708
Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 1

Outlines
Propagation Model - Attenuations

- Free Space
- Reflection
- Diffraction
- Scattering
Log-Normal Shadowing
Practical Link Budget Design

Propagation Models

Mobile Radio Propagation

• Mobile radio channel is an important controlling factor in wireless
communication systems.
• Transmission path between transmitter and receiver can vary in
complexity.
• Wired channels are stationary and predictable, whereas radio
channels are extremely random and have complex models.
• Modeling of radio channels is done in statistical fashion based on
measurements for each individual communication system or
frequency spectrum.

Propagation Models
• Large scale propagation models - To predict the average
received signal strength over large T-R separation distances
(several hundreds or thousands of meters).
Typically, the local average received power is computed by
averaging signal measurements over a measurement track of 5 to
40 wavelengths.
• Small scale propagation models (or fading models) - To
characterize the rapid fluctuations of the receiver signal strength
over very short distances ( a few wavelengths) or short time
durations (on the order of seconds).
In small scale fading, the received signal power may vary by as
much as three to four orders of magnitude (30 to 40 dB).

Electrical Field
Electrical Field
The electric field is expressed as a vector E
G G G G
E = xE x + yE y + z E z
and its magnitude is given by
G
E = E = E x2 + E y2 + E z2
The unit of electrical field is volts/meter.

Units of Received Signal Strength
The standard unit of power is Watt, but dBm is more commonly

used.
P (dBm) = 10 log10 [ P (mW)]
P (mW) P (dBm)
10 10
1 0
10-1 -10
10-2 -20
Minimum usable signal strength to be received at a base station is

typically between -90 dBm -100 dBm.

Propagation Models
• Free Space Propagation: Transmitter and receiver have a
clear, unobstructed LOS path between them.
• Reflection: From the surface of the earth and from buildings
and walls. Usually dimensions of reflecting object are much
greater than wavelength.
• Diffraction: Bending of electromagnetic waves around sharp
edges such as, sharp towers or peaks.
• Scattering: Due to objects in the medium that are small
compared to wavelength and the number of objects is many
(e.g., foliage, street signs, lamp posts, rain, shower).

Radiating Power to Electric Field

Electric and magnetic fields launched from electric current i0
i0 L cos θ 1 c  jω c ( t − d / c )
Er =  2+ 3
e
2πε 0 c d jω c d 
i0 L sin θ  jωc c c 2  − jω c ( t − d / c )
Eθ = 2 
+ 2+ 3
e
4πε 0 c  d d jω c d 
i0 L sin θ  jωc c  jωc (t − d / c )

Hφ =  + 2 e
4πc  d d 
Eφ = H r = H θ = 0
In the near field (d is small), 1/d2 and

1/d3 terms may dominate.

When d is large, 1/d2 and 1/d3 terms becomes negligible, and only
i0 L sin θ  jωc  − jωc (t − d / c )
Eθ = 2   e
4πε 0 c  d 
i0 L sin θ  jωc  jωc (t − d / c )
Hφ =   e
4πc  d 
survive.
Far field regions: regions far away from the transmitter satisfying
d >> df = 2D2/λ (df is called the Fraunhofer distance)
Additionally, to be in the far-field region, df must also satisfy
df >> λ and df >> D
Hereafter, we only consider propagation at far-field regions.

Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP)
EIRP = Pt Gt
where Pt : Transmitter power
Gt : Transmitter antenna gain
EIRP represents the maximum radiated

power available from a transmitter in the
direction of maximum antenna gain, half-wave dipole antenna
compared to an isotropic radiator. radiation pattern
In practice, effective radiated power (ERP) is more commonly used

ERP = EIRP /1.64 or ERP (dB) = EIRP (dB) – 2.15
ERP represents the maximum radiated power available from a
transmitter in the direction of maximum antenna gain, compared to a
half-wave dipole antenna.

Free Space Propagation
Power flux density:
EIRP Pt Gt E2
Pd = = = ( W/m 2 )
4πd 2
4πd 2
η
where η=120π=377 (Ω) is the intrinsic impedance of free space.


It the receiver antenna is modeled as a matched resistive load to the
receiver, then the receiver antenna will induce an voltage into the
receiver which is half of the open circuit voltage at the antenna.
(Vant / 2) 2 Vant2
Pr (d ) = =
Rant 4 Rant


T d R
Pt Gt Gr λ2
Pr (d ) = Pd Ae =
(4π ) 2 d 2 L
Gr λ2
Ae = : effective aperture (of the receiver antenna)
4π
Pr : Received power
D : Max dimension of transmitting antenna
Gr : Receiver antenna gain
L : System loss factor (L ≥ 1, transmission lines etc,
but not due to propagation)
λ= c / f = 3 • 108 / f : Wavelength
(units – f : Hz, c = 3 • 108 : meters/sec, λ: meters)

Path loss: signal attenuation as a positive quantity measured in dB,

is defined as the difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted
power and the received power, and may or may not include the
effect of antenna gains.
(when antenna gains are included)
Pt  Gt Gr λ2 
PL(dB) = 10 log = −10 log  2 2
Pr  ( 4π ) d 
(when antenna gains are excluded)
Pt  λ2 
PL(dB) = 10 log = −10 log  2 2
Pr  ( 4π ) d 

For free space propagation, the path loss exponent is 2.

−2
d 
Pr (d ) = Pr (d 0 ) 
 d0 
or
d 
Pr (d ) (dBm) = Pr (d 0 ) (dBm) − 20 log 
 d0 
 Pr (d 0 ) ( W )  d 
= 10 log   − 20 log 
 0.001 ( W )   d0 
For simplicity of computations, the reference distance d0 for practical
system using low-gain antennas in the 1-2 GHz region is typically
chosen to be 1 m in indoor environment and 100 m or 1 km in
outdoor environments.
Example
Program:
Program: Given
Given aa transmitter
transmitter produces
produces 50W
50W of
of power.
power. IfIf this
this power
power isis
applied
appliedto
toaaunity
unitygain
gainantenna
antennawith
with900
900MHz
MHzcarrier
carrierfrequency,
frequency,find findthe
the
received
receivedpower
powerat ataafree
freespace
spacedistance
distanceof
of100
100mmfrom
fromthe
theantenna.
antenna.
What
What isis the
the received
received power
power at
at 10
10 km?
km? Assume
Assume unity
unity gain
gain for
for the
the
receiver
receiverantenna.
antenna.
Solution:
Solution: fcfc==900 MHz Î
900MHz Î λλ==(3 (3••10108))//(900
(900••10
106))==0.333
0.333m;
8 6
m;
PPt ==50
50W;
W; GGt t==1;1; GGr r==1;1; LL==1;1;
t
At
Atdd==100
100m m
Pt Gt Gr λ2 50 ×1×1× 0.3332 −6 −3
Pr = = = 3. 5 × 10 ( W ) = 3.5 × 10 (mW)
(4π ) d L (4π ) × 100 ×1
2 2 2 2
or
or Pr (dBm) = 10 log( Pr (mW)) = −24.5 (dBm)
At
Atdd==10
10km
km
Pr = 3.5 ×10 −10 ( W ) = 3.5 × 10 −7 (mW) Pr (dBm) = −64.5 (dBm)

Reflection
Electric Properties of Material Bodies
Permittivity ε F/m Æ Farads/m
Permeability µ H/m Æ Henries/m
Conductivity σ S/m Æ Siemens/m
For lossless dielectrics, the permittivity is real and can be

expressed as ε = ε0 εr, where ε0 = 8.85 • 10-12 F/m is the
permittivity of free space, and εr is relative permittivity
(dielectric constant)
For lossy dielectric materials, ε = ε0 εr - j ε’, where
σ
ε '=
2π f

Reflection
For
Foraagoodgood
conductor
conductor
(f<σ/εrεrε0),
(f<σ/ε
0),
terms εεr r
terms
and σσ are
and are
generally
generally
insensitive
insensitive
to
to the
the
operating
operating
frequency.
frequency.
For
For lossy
lossy
dielectrics,
dielectrics,
σσ may
may be be
sensitive to
sensitive to
frequency.
frequency.

Reflection
When a radio wave propagating in
one medium impinges upon another
medium having different electric
properties, this wave is partially Ei Er
reflected and partially transmitted. Dielectric 1
If the second medium is a perfect
conductor, then all incident energy is
reflected back into the first medium ε 1 , µ1 , σ 1
without loss of energy. ε 2 , µ2 ,σ 2
1
Speed of propagation vi = Dielectric 2
µiε i Et
(at free space 3x108m/s)
µi
Intrinsic impedance ηi =
(at free space 120π Ω) εi
Reflection - Polarizations
(vertical polarization) (horizontal polarization)

Reflection – Angle Relationships

Relationship between angles
θi = θ r
Snell’s Law θi = θr
µ1ε 1 sin(90 − θ i ) = µ 2ε 2 sin(90 − θ t )
Ei Er
When µ1=µ2 θi θr
ε 1 sin(90 − θ i ) = ε 2 sin(90 − θ t )
θt
Et

Reflection – Magnitude Relationships
Er
Reflection coefficient =Γ
Ei
Transmission coefficient
Et
= T = 1+ Γ θi = θr
Ei Ei Er
The value of Γ depends on polarization.

E-field in the plane of incident θi θr
Er η 2 sin θ t − η1 sin θ i
Γ || = =
Ei η 2 sin θ t + η1 sin θ i θt
E-field normal to the plane of incident
Er η 2 sin θ i − η1 sin θ t
Et
Γ⊥ = =
Ei η 2 sin θ i + η1 sin θ t

When the first medium is free space, and µ1=µ2
cos 2 θ i
sin(90 − θ i ) = ε r sin(90 − θ t ) sin θ t = 1 − cos θ t = 1 −
2
εr
sin θ t sin θ i
−
E η sin θ t − η1 sin θ i µ 0ε r ε 0 µ0ε 0 sin θ t − ε r sin θ i
Γ || = r = 2 = =
Ei η 2 sin θ t + η1 sin θ i sin θ t sin θ i sin θ t + ε r sin θ i
+
µ0ε r ε 0 µ 0ε 0
cos 2 θ i
1− − ε r sin θ i
εr − ε r sin θ i + ε r − cos 2 θ i
= =
cos θ i
2
ε r sin θ i + ε r − cos 2 θ i
1− + ε r sin θ i
εr
sin θ i − ε r − cos 2 θ i
Γ⊥ =
sin θ i + ε r − cos 2 θ i

Reflection from Perfect Conductor

Ei Er
θi = θr
θi θr
Parallel / Perpendicular /
vertical polarization horizontal polarization
θi = θr θi = θr
Ei = Er Ei = –Er

Ground Reflection – Two-Ray Model
T (transmitter) ETOT = ELOS +Eg

ELOS
Ei R (receiver)
ht Er=Eg
hr
θi θ0
d



General E-field expression in free space
E0 d 0   d 
E (d , t ) = exp jωc  t −  
d   c 
where d0 is a reference distance at the far-field.
Line-of-sight (LOS) wave

E0 d 0   d' 
ELOS (d ' , t ) = exp jωc  t −  
d'   c 
Ground reflection wave
E0 d 0   d"  
Eg ( d " , t ) = Γ exp jωc  t −  
d"   c 

Assume horizontal E-field and perfect ground reflection, Γ= –1.
The combined E-field becomes

E0 d 0   d '   E0 d 0   d"  
ETOT (d , t ) = ELOS (d ' , t ) + Eg (d " , t ) = exp jωc  t −   − exp jωc  t −  
d'   c   d"   c 
The path difference between the LOS and reflected paths is
∆ = (ht + hr ) 2 + d 2 − (ht − hr ) 2 + d 2
When d >> ht+hr,
(ht + hr ) 2 + d 2 = d 1 + (ht + hr ) 2 / d 2 ≈ d + (ht + hr ) 2 /(2d )
(ht − hr ) 2 + d 2 = d 1 + (ht − hr ) 2 / d 2 ≈ d + (ht − hr ) 2 /(2d )

(ht + hr ) 2 (ht − hr ) 2 2ht hr
∆≈ − =
2d 2d d

At some time, say at t=d”/c
d " E0 d 0  ω ∆ E d
ETOT (d , t = )= exp j c  − 0 0
c d'  c  d"
Also note that, when d >> ht+hr,
E0 d 0 E0 d 0 E0 d 0
≈ ≈
d' d" d
Ref :
Denote θ ∆ = ωc (∆ / c) , then cos 2θ = cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ
E0 d 0
ETOT (d ) = (cosθ ∆ − 1)2 + sin 2 θ ∆ = 1 − 2 sin 2 θ
d
Ed
= 0 0 cos 2 θ ∆ − 2 cos θ ∆ + 1 + sin 2 θ ∆
d
Ed Ed θ 
= 0 0 2 − 2 cos θ ∆ = 2 0 0 sin  ∆ 
d d  2

It happens at :
When θ ∆ / 2 is small ( θ ∆ / 2 = ωc (∆ / 2c) < 0.3rad )
20π ht hr 20 ht hr
 θ ∆  θ ∆ ωc ∆ ωc ht hr d> ≈
sin   ≈ = ≈ 3λ λ
 2 2 2c cd
E0 d 0  θ ∆  E0 d 0 2π ht hr k
ETOT (d ) = 2 sin   ≈ 2 2 = 2
d  2 d λ d
Conclusion
For
Forexample,
example,
20 ht hr λλ==0.15m,
For d > 0.15m,hht t==50m,
50m,hhr r==1.5m
1.5m
λ dd==10,000m
10,000m=10km=10km
ht2 hr2
Pr = Pt Gt Gr 4
d
Pr (dB) = 40 log d − (10 log Gt + 10 log Gr + 20 log ht + 20 log hr )

http://home.earthlink.net/~loganscott53/Two_Ray_Propagation.htm

Example

Example

Fresnel Zone Geometry
T h
R
d1 d2
When d1 , d2 >> h, h >> λ, the excess path length (difference between
the direct path and the diffracted path) is
h 2 d1 + d 2
∆≈
2 d1d 2
The corresponding phase difference is

2π∆
2π h 2 d1 + d 2
φ= ≈
λ λ 2 d1d 2

nλd1d 2
rn = is the radius corresponding to the nth Fresnel zone,
d1 + d 2
which has nλ/2 path difference, or nπ phase difference to the LOS.
A rule of thumb is that as long as 55% (many materials say 60%) of the
first Fresnel zone is kept clear, the diffraction loss will be minimal.

http://gbppr.dyndns.org:8080/fresnel.main.cgi

Observations:
nλd1d 2
rn =
d1 + d 2
• rn is dependent of
the wavelength (or
frequency).
• If d1 + d2 is fixed, rn
takes smaller value
when the position is
closer to either end.

Knife-Edge Diffraction Geometry

• Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the curved
surface or propagate behind obstructions.
• Based on Huygen’s principle of wave propagation.




Knife-edge Diffraction Geometry
The field strength at point R

is a vector sum of the fields
due to all of the secondary
Huygen’s sources in the
plane above the knife edge.


Approximate diffraction gain expressions 2(d1 + d 2 )
v=h
λ d1d 2

2(d1 + d 2 )
v=h
λ d1d 2


• When there are multiple obstructions, the problem becomes much
more complicated.
• A simple approach is to use a single equivalent obstacle.

Example

Example

Example

Scattering
• When a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reflected energy
is spread out or diffused in all directions. (e.g., foliage).
• A surface is considered smooth if its minimum to maximum
protuberance h is less than the critical height.
λ
hc =
8 sin θ i
• The surface is considered rough if the protuberance is greater than hc.
rough surface
hc
smooth surface
hc

Scattering
• Modified reflection coefficient for rough surface

Γ rough = ρ s Γ
• Scattering loss factor

by Ament σσh: : standard deviation of
h standard deviation of
the
thesurface
surfaceheight
height
  πσ h sin θ i  2 
ρ s = exp− 8   II0: : Bessel function of the
0 Bessel function of the
  λ   first
first kind
kind and
and zero
zero
order
order
modified by Boithias
  πσ h sin θ i  2    πσ h sin θ i  2 
ρ s = exp− 8   I o 8  
  λ     λ  

Scattering

Scattering

Radar Cross Section (RCS) Model

Power density of scattered wave in direction of receiver
RCS =
Power density of radio wave incident on the scattering object
For a medium and

large size building
located 5-10 km
away, RCS values
is in the range of
14.1 to 55.7 dBm2.

Radar Cross Section (RCS) Model
PT GT λ2 ⋅ RCS
PR =
(4π ) 3 dT2 d R2
PT = Transmitted power (mW)

GT = Gain of transmitting antenna
dT = Distance of scattering object from transmitter
dR = Distance of scattering object from receiver
PR (dBm) = PT (dBm) + GT (dBi) + 20log(λ ) + RCS[dB m 2 ]

− 30 log(4π ) − 20 log dT − 20 log d R

Practical Link Budget

• Most radio propagation models are derived using a combination of
analytical and empirical models.
• Empirical approach is based on fitting curves or analytical
expressions that recreate a set of measured data.
• Advantages:
Takes into account all propagation factors, both known and unknown.
• Disadvantages:
New models need to be measured for different environment or
frequency.

Long-Distance Path Model

• Over many years, some classical propagation models have been
developed, which are used to predict large-scale coverage for
mobile communication system design.
Path loss at d 0 = PT / P (d 0 ) = PL(d 0 )
Path loss at d = PT / P (d ) = PL(d )
n
PL(d )  d 
=  
PL(d 0 )  d 0 
d 
PL(d )[dB] = PL(d 0 )[dB] + 10n log 
 d0 

Long-Distance Path Model

• Long-distance path loss gives only the average value of path loss.
• Surrounding environment may be vastly different at two locations
having the same T–R separation d.
• More accurate model includes a random variable to account for
change in environment.
d 
PL(d )[dB] = PL(d )[dB] + X σ = PL(d 0 )[dB] + 10n log  + X σ
 d0 
Pr (d )[dBm] = Pt (d )[dBm] - PL(d )[dB]
Xσ : Zero mean Gaussian random variable (dB)

σ : Standard deviation (dB)


• Values of n and σ
are computed from
measured data,
using linear
regression such that
the difference
between measured
and estimated path
losses is minimized
in a mean square
error sense over a
wide range of
measurement
locations and T–R
separations.

Q Function
Q function or error function (erf) can be used to determine the
probability that the received signal will exceed (or fall below) a
particular level.
∞
1  x2  1  z 
Q( z ) =
2π ∫z  2  2 
exp −  dx = 1 − erf  
 2 
Q(− z ) = 1 − Q( z )
Q(0) = 0.5
Some results of Q(z) and erf are listed in pages 647 and 649.
Matlab has erf function.

Log-Normal Shadowing Model

The probability that the received signal level (in dB power unit) will exceed
a certain value γ can be calculated from the cumulative density function as
 γ − Pr (d ) 
Pr[ Pr (d ) > γ ] = Q 

 σ 
The probability that the received signal level will be below γ can be
calculated from
 Pr (d ) − γ 
Pr[ Pr (d ) < γ ] = Q 

 σ 

Gaussian Probability Density Function
1  ( x − m) 2 
P( x) = exp − 
σ 2π  2σ 2

Pr (x ≥ x0)
m x0 x

Gaussian pdf-Q Function Relation
1  ( x − m) 2 
P( x) = exp − 
σ 2π  2σ 2

∞
1  ( x − m) 2 
Pr ( x > x0 ) = ∫
x0 σ 2π
exp −
 2σ 2
dx

x−m
Let y =
σ
∞
 x0 − m  1  y2   x0 − m 
Pr  x >
 σ 
= ∫
x0 − m 2π

 2 

exp − dy = Q 
 σ 
 = Q( z )
σ
x0 − m
where z =
σ

Percentage of Coverage Area

• Given a circular coverage area of
radius R...
• There is a desired received signal r R
level γ
• We are interested in computing Area A
U(γ), the percentage of useful
service area (i.e., the percentage of
area with a received power
P R ≥ γ)
2π R
1 1
U (γ ) = 2
πR ∫ Pr[ Pr (r ) < γ ]dA = 2
πR ∫∫
0 0
Pr[ Pr (r ) < γ ]rdrdθ
 γ − Pr (d )  1 1  γ − Pr (d ) 

Pr[ Pr (d ) > γ ] = Q  = − erf  
σ  2 2 σ 2 
   

 γ − Pr (d )  1 1  γ − Pr (d ) 
Pr[ Pr (d ) > γ ] = Q  = − erf 
 


 σ  2 2  σ 2 
1 1  γ − [ Pt − ( PL(d 0 ) + 10n log(r / d 0 ))] 
= − erf  

2 2  σ 2 
1 1  γ − [ Pt − ( PL(d 0 ) + 10n log( R / d 0 ) + 10n log(r / R ))] 
= − erf  

2 2  σ 2 
γ − Pt + PL(d 0 ) + 10n log( R / d 0 ) 10n log e

Let a = , b=
σ 2 σ 2
R
1 1  r
U (γ ) = − 2 ∫ r ⋅ erf  a + b ln dr
2 R 0  R
1  1 − 2ab    1 − ab  
= 1 − erf (a ) + exp 2  1 − erf   
2  b   b  

Example

Example

Example

Outdoor Propagation Models

Radio transmission in a mobile communications system often takes
place over irregular terrain.
The terrain profile of a particular area needs to be taken into account
for estimating the path loss.
Most of the models are based on systematic interpretation of
measurement data obtained in the service area.
Commonly used outdoor propagation models:

• Longley Rice model:
point-to-point communication systems (40MHz–100MHz)
• Okumara model:
widely used in urban areas (150 MHz – 300 MHz)
• Hata model:
graphical path loss (150 MHz – 1500 MHz)

Outlines
Propagation Model - Attenuations

-Free Space
- Near-Field vs. Far-Field
- Reflection
- Two-Ray Model
- Diffraction
- Fresnel Zone
- Scattering
Practical Link Budget Design
- Outdoor Propagation Models

Mobile Radio Propagation

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Mobile Radio Propagation

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ECE 8708 Wireless Communications : Propagation – Large-Scale Path Loss

Yimin Zhang, Ph.D.

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 1

Propagation Model - Attenuations

Practical Link Budget Design

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 2

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 3

Mobile Radio Propagation

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Units of Received Signal Strength

The standard unit of power is Watt, but dBm is more commonly

P (dBm) = 10 log10 [ P (mW)]

Minimum usable signal strength to be received at a base station is

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 7

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 8

Radiating Power to Electric Field

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Radiating Power to Electric Field

Electric and magnetic fields launched from electric current i0

i0 L sin θ  jωc c  jωc (t − d / c )

In the near field (d is small), 1/d2 and

Radiating Power to Electric Field

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 11

Radiating Power to Electric Field

Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP)

EIRP represents the maximum radiated

In practice, effective radiated power (ERP) is more commonly used

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Free Space Propagation

Power flux density:

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Free Space Propagation

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Free Space Propagation

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Free Space Propagation

Path loss: signal attenuation as a positive quantity measured in dB,

(when antenna gains are excluded)

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Free Space Propagation

For free space propagation, the path loss exponent is 2.

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For lossless dielectrics, the permittivity is real and can be

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(vertical polarization) (horizontal polarization)

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Reflection – Angle Relationships

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Reflection – Magnitude Relationships

The value of Γ depends on polarization.

Reflection – Magnitude Relationships

Reflection – Magnitude Relationships

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Reflection from Perfect Conductor

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Ground Reflection – Two-Ray Model

T (transmitter) ETOT = ELOS +Eg

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Ground Reflection – Two-Ray Model

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 29

Ground Reflection – Two-Ray Model