Denim is an icon and one of the most familiar products within the textile industry that

attracts all age groups. In the history of textiles and apparel, no other fabric has
received such a wide acceptance like as denim and it is the fabric of generations,
worn by people of all classes and ages. Denim is a cotton fabric, may be the most
considered article of style today. Denim is cut and sewn in an assortment of clothing
types fit for all ages, seasons and events. Today denim is available in shades of
blue, dark and cocoa; each has diverse impacts produced by washing.

‘Denim’ has been synonymous with ‘jeans’ since time immemorial. It is unrealistic to
separate one word from the other. Denim jeans are only the most commonly worn
form of denim apparel.

The word ‘denim’ refers to a colour, not refer the type of fabric. The shading indigo is
blended with a large group of different hues, for example, blue, dark, white or dark,
to give a variety of hues. At first, denim jeans were just used as easygoing wear;
however denim jeans are currently entering the meeting rooms of vast organizations
as ‘easygoing formals’. In the past denim apparel was considered to be weekend
parlour wears; however individuals now wear them for work as well as gatherings.

Fig: Denim
Now denims are stylish wear for everyone. Today’s denim fashion comes in an
assortment of hues, styles and textures. Without a doubt, fashion designers’ attire is
comparatively more costly, yet most of the time it is justified regardless of the
expense.

There are some solid reasons why some people want to spend more to purchase
famous designer denim than the typical stuff accessible to the market. The foremost
reason is the quality. The fabrics, sewing methods and patterns are special which
used by designers. The designer brands guarantee that their apparels give the best
fit to their clients. Various new trends are launched for every season by designer
brands and are craze among men, ladies and kids. New and innovative patterns, fine
shapes and various hues are the most recent choices to fulfill each client.
Denims for children offer a variety of garments. Thin jeans, obliterated jeans,
sweetheart jeans, shaded jeans and leggings are the most sizzling patterns for
children.

What is denim?
Denim is a hard and durable warp faced 3/1 twill cotton fabric, woven with indigo
dyed warp and white filling yarns, having weights of 14½ ounces per square yard.
Denim is a solid cotton warp confronted material in which the weft goes under two or
more warp strings. This twill weaving produces a corner-to-corner ribbing that
distinguishes it from cotton duck. The most well-known denim is indigo denim, in
which the twist string is coloured whereas the weft string is left white. It is also
considered as the fabric of hard work, expression of youth rebellion and the favourite
of American cowboys.

You can also like: Denim and Jeans Manufacturing Process

Denim is a strong cotton twill material ordinarily used to make jeans, overalls, and
other clothes. To make denim fabric, the weft (flat strings) goes under two or more
twists (vertical strings). This procedure makes the slanting ribbing of denim that
distinguishes it from cotton duck, another twill fabric.

Types of denim:
Although the first denim was a 100% cotton serge material, you can now get it in an
assortment of materials, including mixes that give you the same magnificent look of
100% cotton denim with some extraordinary extra components. Denim’s one of a
kind look originates from the rich indigo blue in some shade woven together with
white strings to give the depth that individuals partner with denim. Today, some
denims no longer use indigo, but instead different hues with the white restricting
strings, delivering denim in a rainbow of shades.

Cotton is now extensively blended with lycra, polyester, lyocell, flax, etc. to develop
special types of denim. Although most of the world production of denim jeans is still
100% cotton, the market for stretch denim is one of the fastest growing segments of
jeans manufacture. Cotton blends that use both lycra and polyester, combining both
strength and stretch properties, are becoming more popular, especially in Europe.
This trend is also significantly growing in other parts of the world.

Types of denim are broadly categorized as:

1. Dry denim
2. Selvage denim
3. Stretch denim
4. Poly denim
5. Ramie cotton denim
6. Organic denim
1. Dry denim:
Dry or crude denim, rather than washed denim, is a denim fabric that is not
washed subsequent to being coloured amid its creation. This denim also
called raw denim. Most denim is washed subsequent to being created into a
piece of attire with the specific end goal of making it gentler and taking out
any shrinkage which could make it not fit after the owner washes it.
Notwithstanding being washed, nondry denim is at times misleadingly
‘troubled’ to accomplish a ragged look. A significant part of the claim for dry
denim is that, with time, the fabric will blur in the way of industrial facility
troubled denim. With dry denim, notwithstanding, such blurring is influenced
by the body of the individual who wears the jeans and the exercise in his or
her everyday life.

This makes what numerous jeans-lovers feel to be a more unique, one of a

kind look than predistressed denim. To encourage the common troubling
procedure, a few wearers of dry denim will frequently refrain from washing
their jeans for over 6 months; however it is no needed for blurring. Prevalently
found in premium denim lines, dry denim speaks to a small specialty in the
general overall market.

2. Selvage denim:
Selvage denim (also called selvedge denim) is a sort of denim which shapes
a perfect regular edge that does not disentangle. It is generally introduced in
the unwashed or crude state. Normally, the selvage edges will be situated
along the outside crease of the jeans, making it obvious when sleeves are
worn. Although selvage denim is not totally synonymous with unwashed
denim, the nearness of selvage ordinarily infers that the denim used is of a
higher quality. ‘Selvage’ originates from the expression ‘selfedge’ and
signifies that denim is made on old-style transport looms. These looms weave
fabric with one continuous cross thread (the weft) that is passed back and
forth all the way down the length of the bolt. As the weft circles once again
into the edge of the denim it makes this ‘selfedge’ or selvage. Selvage is
alluring because the edge cannot shred like lower-quality denims that have
separate wefts which leave an open edge that must be sewn. Transport
approaching is an additional tedious weaving process that produces denim of
a more tightly weave bringing about a heavier weight fabric that endures.
Transport looms weave a smaller bit of fabric, and in this manner a more
extended bit of fabric is required to make a couple of jeans (around 3 yards).
To amplify the yield, customary jean creators use the fabric the full distance
to the selvage edge.

At the point where the sleeve is turned up, the two selvage edges, where the
denim is sewn together, can be seen. The selvage edge is typically sewn with
hued string: green, white, chestnut, yellow and (red is the most widely
recognized). Fabric factories used these hues to separate fabrics.

3. Stretch denim:
Stretch denim is more often than not around 98% cotton and 2% Spandex for
 a touch of that easygoing stretch we love as a whole. This blend gives
wonderful ease of movement and at the same time some support for those
‘trouble spots’ such as around the hips or thighs. Stretch denim jeans are one
of the quickest developing segments for ladies’ jeans manufacturers.

4. Poly denim:
The poly blend is for individuals who love the look of denim yet favor
polyester mixes that wash and dry rapidly and are of lighter weight and
somewhat dressier. As a rule these speak to a somewhat more established
business sector, but on the other hand are discovering support for jeans suits
and so on when the look is intended to be ‘dressy but easy-going’.

5. Ramie cotton denim:

Ramie cotton denim is found in an assortment of blends, with a wide value
difference. Ramie is a plant fibre more often included because it diminishes
wrinkling and adds a luxurious brilliance to the fabric. It is not as solid as
cotton, however, so it must be mixed with this more grounded material with
the goal of standing up as a denim material.

6. Organic denim:
Organic denim is manufactured with 100 percent organic cotton, which is
made to save the earth. Cotton consumption and the use of pesticides to
grow it can harm the earth. All chemicals are excluded out of the process of
making organic denim. Ecological elements such as potato starch are used
instead.

Different Types of Denim Jeans Washing

Techniques
Over the past few decades, different denim washing techniques have been
developed and used on different materials to create a large variety of designs for
trendy denim garments and jeans. Special color effects and washed/vintage looks
are often achieved in denim garments. The hand feel of the washed goods is
relatively superior, which makes them suitable for leisure wear. These effects are
difficult to achieve through other processing techniques.

The results obtained from denim washing represent a combined effect of color
dissolution, destruction of the dye and mechanical abrasion, which sometimes
causes the removal of surface fibers from the materials. Thus surface dyed (ring
dyed effect) colors in denim garments are more easily washed down during the
washing processes.
 Figure: Washed jeans
Traditionally denim is a 3/1 warp faced twill fabric made from yarn dyed warp and
undyed weft yarn. Typical construction of the fabric is 32 × 19; 45 × 54 tex; 310
g/m2. More recently, other weaves have been used with lighter constructions’. Jeans
are defined as ‘A 2/1 or 3/1 warp faced twill fabric used chiefly for overalls or casual
wear with a typical construction of 35 × 24; 32 × 21 tex cotton’. Although by
definition, denim and jeans refer to different things, they now mean the same thing in
the market. Conventionally, warp yarn in denim fabric is dyed with indigo with a ring
dyed effect. As a result, the washing technique and effect described in this chapter
are based on indigo dyed fabric.

Classification of denim washes techniques:

Several types of garment washing for denim fabric are carried out to create varied
effects in denim garments to meet the needs of today’s denim fashion trends.
However each washing technique has its own advantages and limitations. Denim is
either rubbed or worn with stones and other abrasive materials, called mechanical
washing, or treated with bleach and other kinds of colour-altering substances, known
as chemical washing.

Mechanical washes include:

1. Rinse wash
2. Water jet fading
3. Stone wash
4. Whiskering
5. Microsanding including sandblasting
6. Mechanical abrasion
7. Laser treatment
Chemical washing includes:

1. Acid wash, ice or snow wash

 2. Hydrogen peroxide wash or Bleach washing
3. Enzyme wash
4. Ozone fading
5. Spray techniques
6. Overdyeing and tinting
The effects desired for denim goods change every year owing to fashion. Various
washing effects have been popularly obtained by laser, sandblasting and enzymatic
washing processes. In addition to these processes, hypochlorite bleaching (acid
wash) is often preferred, especially for summer denims.

General finishing sequence of denim:

There are almost countless variations of processing techniques used by designers
and textile chemists to achieve fashionable looks that are distinctive and desirable.
Only the basic treatment conditions are addressed in this chapter; the number of
variations is very large and the evolution of chemical and mechanical techniques is
continuing. There often are some secretive and proprietary methods. Regardless of
the specific look and name chosen, the following are the process steps normally
used to attain the desired results.

Flow Chart of Denim Finishing

Desizing
↓
Rinsing
↓
Washing (abrasion)
↓
Rinsing
↓
Softening
↓
Drying
↓
Packing

In denim garments, preparation consists primarily of desizing, which enables

subsequent chemical and mechanical treatments (washing/abrasion) by removing
the previously applied warp size. Untreated denim garments are extremely rigid due
to the size applied at the yarn stage for increasing weaving efficiency, by coating the
yarn with a protective outer layer which retards yarn breakage. The sizing remains in
the yarn after the fabric is woven and, therefore, provides fabric stiffness necessary
for more efficient sewing of garments. Sizing is typically made up of starch (or
polyvinyl alcohol/starch), binders and waxes and lubricants. Additionally, finishes
containing starch and/or polyvinyl alcohol are applied to denim as a topical finish
before the fabric is shipped to the sewing plant.
After desizing, denim garments are rinsed to remove all size materials before
washing/ abrasion. Different washing/abrasion techniques are introduced in the
following sections. Again after the washing/abrasion processes, denim garments are
rinsed to remove unwanted materials from fabric surface. Then a softening process
enhances the hand feel and softness of the denim garments. Finally the denim
garments are dried and packed for delivery.

Desizing:
The most popular method of removing starch from denim garments is to use
amylase enzyme. This product can break down the long starch molecular chains
(water insoluble) into smaller molecules (water soluble) which can be more easily
washed away. The removal of starch from the fabric being desized can also usually
release some quantities of indigo into the bath. Therefore, a neutral pH nonionic
surfactant is used for suspending loose dye in the water, to prevent redeposition
onto the garments as well as to aid penetration of the desizing liquor into the interior
of the fibres. It is also important to follow the desizing bath with a hot water rinse.
Introduction of cold water onto the denim garments at this point can resolidify the fats
and waxes, and tends to redeposit the gelatinous components unevenly on surface.

Rinse wash or Regular washing:

Rinse wash is the simplest type of industrial garment wash. The main aim is to
remove starch, dust and dirt from garments. Sometimes reasons for a normal wash
include softening and giving the garment a used look. For colour garments, removal
of unfixed dyes can be achieved to improve colour fastness. In special cases,
intentional shrinkage in garments can be achieved. Precautions need to be taken
against unwanted shrinkage issue and back staining.

Regular washing is the simplest and most commonly used washing method for
denim garments. It is most basic wash for denim garments. Typically named a dark
wash, the only purpose of this wash is to make the garment wearable. The degree of
color fading using regular washing is comparatively slight, but it provides uniformity,
depending on whether it is deeply dyed classic denim or only moderately dyed with
poor penetration. Generally speaking, detergent is used for regular washing for
about 15 min at temperatures between 60 °C and 90 °C. Softening is applied after
the washing process. Regular washing can improve the softness and comfort
properties of denim garments as well as enhance aesthetic property. Depending on
the time and amount of chemicals used, regular washing can be classified into (1)
light washing (washing time about 5 min); (2) normal washing (washing time about
15 min); and (3) heavy washing (washing time about 30 min). However, there is no
significant distinction between light, normal and heavy regular washing as it depends
on the actual washing conditions.

Flow chart of general regular washing process is as follows:

Wetting
↓
Desizing
↓
 Regular washing
↓
Softening.

A sample recipe for a normal wash is:

If the lot size is 100 kg cotton shirts,

 Material: liquor ratio (M: L ratio)

 Water = 500 L
 Detergent = 1% (based on the weight of the garments)
 Temperature = 40–60°C
 Time = 15–30 min
Back-staining chemical is used if required

Hydrogen peroxide wash or Bleach washing:

Hydrogen peroxide is rarely used as a bleaching agent only when very little loss of
colour is required or if the fabric is coated with sulphur, because it takes longer to
achieve the desired effect. Hydrogen peroxide has a prime role in the bleach wash
technique. In an alkaline medium, hydrogen peroxide breaks up and gives off some
perhydroxyl ions, which destroy the colouring matter and result in a fading effect.
Hydrogen peroxide is used in a scouring, bleaching bath for white textile material or
“ready for dyeing” form of garments made from grey fabrics. We have also published
article on bleach wash of denim. You can read below.

You may also like: Denim Bleach Wash Process

Stone washing:
It is one of the most popular denim wash. It gives a newly manufactured denim
garments a worn-out appearance. It also helps to increase the softness and flexibility
of denim garments otherwise fabric keep stiff and rigid. We have published a
comprehensive post on stone wash process of denim garments.

You may also like: Stone Wash Process for Denim Garments

Enzyme washing:
Enzyme wash is a process that gives denim a softer and worn-in look by breaking
down the cellulose molecules naturally found in indigo dyes. Denim washing with
enzymes is one of the most widely accepted enzyme-based. Enzyme washing of
denim with various benefits both economically and environmentally. You can see our
complete article on enzyme wash on denim.

You may also like: Enzyme Wash | Denim Enzyme Wash Process

Acid, ice and snow wash:

This finish gives indigo jeans sharp contrasts. The process was created in Italy and
was patented in 1986. Interestingly, acid wash denim does not use actual acid in
the wash process. Instead the process uses pumice stones soaked in bleach to alter
the colour in a nonuniform manner. The result is often splotchy yellowish patterns.
This finish provides jeans with sharp contrasts in tonal colour. This is also known as
ice or snow washing. This is achieved by dry tumbling with pumice stones soaked
with bleaching agents to produce a ‘snow’ pattern effect on denim. Stones are used
to deposit a chemical on garments to strip off the colour. This chemical deposit
removes colour only from the outer surface of the garments and produces a frosted
appearance. Indigo and selected sulphur dyes are the most popular candidates for
this procedure.

Acid washing:
To change the look of denim or jeans different types of washing process are done.
Among various washing process of denim, acid wash is the most popular. This is the
oldest of fashion washes in denim after stone wash. You can see our exclusive
article on acid washing process in denim jeans.

You may also like: Acid Washing Process for Denim Dress

Microsanding:
A fabric finishing process in which fabrics are sanded (using actual sandpaper) to
make the surface soft without hairiness can be performed before or after dyeing. In
this fabric treatment process, a series of cylindrical rolls in a horizontal arrangement,
either wrapped with an abrasive paper or chemically coated with an abrasive, is used
to create a soft suede hand. The denim is pulled over the face of the sand rollers,
creating a raised surface finishing. Some colour reduction is experienced.

There are three parts to this technique:

1. Sandblasting
2. Machine sanding
3. Hand sanding or hand brushing
Microsanding is used in various ways: on flat surfaces (tables and ironing boards) or
inflatable dummies (standing, flat or seated). Various templates can be used to
create a three-dimensional (3D) effect.

Sand blasting:
Sandblasting is a mechanical process of creating fading affect/old looking affect on
heavy garments like denim and jeans. There are two types of sandblasting process:
manual sandblasting and mechanical sandblasting. Both can be deadly. In manual
sandblasting, compressors are used to blow out sand under pressure through a gun
in order to bleach and batter the denim. It is very health hazards for workers. It can
give factory workers an incurable lung disease. You can see our excellent article on
sandblasting process of denim and effects on human health.

You may also like: Sandblasting on Denim | Health Problems in Sandblasting

Monkey wash or PP spray:

PP Spray is being done on denim garments to achieve local abraded area to appear
whiter than back ground indigo color shade. PP Spraying(Monkey Wash) means that
to spray potassium permanganate liquid on parts of denim according to design, then
there is a chemical reaction on the denim and fading begin. You can see our another
article on PP spray techniques on denim jeans.

You may also like: PP Spray Wash on Denim and Its Health Hazards

Brushing/grinding:
Brushing/grinding (manual or mechanical) is used manually or mechanically for the
worn-out effect, abraded look or used look. Some mechanical processes have been
developed that are based on mechanical abrasion by which the indigo can be
removed. Some of these processes are sueding, raising, immersing, peaching and
brushing.

Advantages of these processes are as follows:

 Control of the abrasion.

 Different looks on the garment can be achieved.
 All are dry processes.
 Economical, ecological and environmentally friendly.
Brushing is generally being done in a rigid form of garments to get the distressed
look. Locations can be front thigh and seat or it can be overall/global application as is
standard. In the case of hand brushing, emery paper is used to brush the garments
in particular places and designs. Emery paper comes in different numbers, generally
starting from 40 to 600 and higher; the higher the number the finer is the emery
paper (i.e. a lower is a more coarse paper). In the garment industry, 220, 320 and
400 paper numbers are most popular and widely used.
 Figure-2: Marking the location for brushing
The purpose of this process is to impart a used worn look to the garments. The most
important factor of brushing is to select the right sanding material according to the
fabric strength and the intensity needed. Figures 2–4 show the brushing process in
factory.
Figure-3: Hand brushing of denim
 Figure-4: Mechanical brushing of denim
Grinding is done on pocket edges and bottom hems edges by rubbing them against
an abrasive surface or stone to achieve a worn effect. Many different makes of
machines and pen grinding tools are available in the market which run with
pneumatic systems. Figure-5 and Figure-6 show the grinding effect on pocket edges
and bottom hems, respectively.
 Figure-5: Grinding mark on a pocket edge of jeans

Figure-6: Grinding mark in a bottom hem of jeans

Mechanical abrasion:
To give a worn effect or abraded or used look, some mechanical processes were
developed. These are based on mechanical abrasion, which removes the indigo.
Some of these processes are sueding, raising, immersing, peaching and brushing.

Advantages of these processes are:

Abrasion can be controlled.

 A different look to the garment can be achieved.

 All are dry processes.
 The processes are economically, ecologically and environmentally friendly.
Whisker:
Whiskering refers to thin fading lines formed from creases that are usually found on
the front pocket area of jeans. It is one of the most important design of a used look
denim garment. Now a days it is a common drying process for denim wash. We have
also published a article on whiskering process of denim.

You may also like: Denim Whiskering Process

Ozone fading:
Ozone destroys indigo color on denim in a manner similar to bleaching. Ozone
fading of washed and bleached denim is primarily caused by the oxidative effect of
ozone on the indigo dye, the contaminants and the applied additives. Ozone fading
gives the advantage of fading with a minimum or hardly any loss. You can see our
another article on ozone fading effect on denim.

You may also like: Ozone Fading of Denim: Waterless Denim Finishing

Laser treatment:
Laser fading or marking is a popular dry process for denim now a day. A carbon
dioxide (CO2) laser was used for the colour-fading treatment of denim fabrics. It is
sustainable, environment friendly and emerging industrial approaches for the
finishing treatments of the denim jeans. You can see laser fading procedure on
denim with advantages and disadvantages.

You may also like: Laser Fading Treatment for Denim Finishing

Waterjet fading:
Hydrojet treatment has been developed for patterning and/or enhancing the surface
finish, texture, durability and other characteristics of denim garments. Hydrojet
treatment generally involves exposing one or both surfaces of the garment through
hydrojet nozzles. The degree of colour washout, clarity of patterns and softness of
the resulting fabric are related to the type of dye in the fabric and the amount and
manner of fluid impact energy applied to the fabric. Particularly good results are
obtained with blue indigo dyed denim. As this process does not involve any
chemical, it is pollution free. A water recycling system can make this a very
economical and environmentally friendly way of denim processing. Colour washout
of dye in the striped areas produces a faded effect without blurring, loss of fabric
strength or durability, or excessive warp shrinkage.

Dip dyeing:
In dip dyeing, dip dyeing machine is used to achieve special effects on denim
garments. Direct dye is commonly used but the colour fastness is comparatively poor
and therefore fixation is required to improve fastness. Pigments can also be used for
dip dyeing. If a bleaching agent is used, bleaching effect can be achieved on
garments.

Pigment washing:
Pigment washing is generally used on pigment dyed or printed garments by applying
pigments.

Pigment washing is required for the following reasons:

 To get fading effect/old looking effect on garments and also the seam area.
 For a soft feel to wear the garment after purchasing.
 To achieve the buyer’s washing standard.
 To increase the colour and rubbing fastness.
Flow chart of pigment washing:
The basic steps of pigment washing are as follows:

Immersing garment in pigment

↓
Drying
↓
Baking (130–150 °C)
↓
Washing (with or without pumice stones/with or without enzyme, 30–90 min)
↓
Washing twice with water at 70 °C
↓
Removing stones
↓
Softening
↓
Drying.

Tinting:
After different types of process denim or jeans are dyed with very light color
(.001% or .002% yellow or pink). This dyeing process is called
Tinting/Overdyeing. Tinting of denim garments is usually done after
the stone wash process. I have published a complete article on tinting
process on denim garments. You can see below.

You may also like: Tinting Process in Denim Garments

Tie dyeing:
In tie dyeing, a rubber band or similar material is used to tie/bunch the denim
garment to make different patterns. Then when carrying out dyeing with a
direct dye, the dye cannot enter the tied portion. After dyeing, patterns can be
created and fixation is needed. Pigments can also be used in tie dyeing. If
bleaching agent is used, bleaching effect can be obtained, which is called ‘tie
bleach’.

Plasma treatment on denim:

Plasma has been used in the treatment of textiles over the past 2 decades,
but a generally available and implemented technology has yet to be
developed. Nevertheless, several industrial devices are available as well as
numerous examples of custom-designed plasma processing stages for
specific industrial production lines. Two directions for development are
atmospheric pressure devices and low-pressure plasmas.

There are numerous solutions for atmospheric pressure (or pressures of the
order of several 100 Torr) devices, which include glow regime of dielectric
barrier discharges and corona discharges. Low-pressure devices, in particular
radio-frequency (RF)- powered plasma sources, allow easier control of
properties and provide greater stability and uniformity at the cost of more
complex handling of the fabric. Corona and RF low-pressure plasma
treatments brought about an increase in denim lightness, indicating a removal
of indigo dye from the fabric surface. The increased yellowness of the treated
denim was more pronounced in case of corona and low-pressure plasma in
air in comparison with low-pressure RF plasma in argon. This can be
associated with the production of chemically active molecules and radicals in
gas mixtures containing oxygen, which consequently leads to an oxidation of
dyes.

Low-pressure plasma and corona treatments can be a viable alternative to

conventional bio-stoning to obtaining the ‘worn’ look of indigo-dyed denim
fabric. In addition to satisfactory colour change effects, the main advantages
of these treatments are the lack of water consumption and shorter process
duration. However, it requires further research to avoid an increase in
yellowness and the appearance of a harsh fabric handle.

Corona and RF low-pressure plasma treatments brought about an increase in

denim lightness, indicating a removal of indigo dye from the fabric’s surface.
The increased yellowness of the treated denim was more pronounced in the
case of corona and low-pressure plasma in air compared with low-pressure
RF plasma in argon. The formation of pits and striations on the fibre’s surface
was more prominent after low-pressure RF plasma than after corona
treatment.
Introduction
Ever since the inception of "blue jeans" in the 1870s as workwear for miners
and cowboys, these iconic garments have evolved to become a popular item
of casual wear throughout the world today. Coming in various fits to suit
different tastes and fashions an important part of their appeal is the distressed
look, visibly aged and worn, but still intact and functional. The process of
washing improves the fastness properties of indigo-dyed denim jeanswear
and in addition by altering the types of washes, various fashion looks are
achieved.
In this technical bulletin we will explain how denim apparel is wet processed
and highlight the parameters associated which need to be controlled in denim
manufacturing and subsequent wash processes.
The "wash down" and other "post make" processes applied to denim
garments are many and varied. Often the objective is to distress the garment
so that it looks old and worn. This distressing gives the garments a "fashion"
appeal and also softens an otherwise harsh fabric. These "post make"
process can have a devastating effect on the sewing threads and therefore
the seams, if care is not taken in their selection and application. After wash /
post processing repair rates can be very high with harsh wash down
treatments and 40% repair levels are not uncommon.
We highlight the Coats range of sewing threads that have been designed
specifically to withstand the rigours of denim wet processing and which in
addition can add a fashion element of their own through contrast colours and
other decorative applications. For example, corespun threads such as Coats
Epic and Dual Duty offer excellent all round sewing performance due to their
construction and specially formulated lubrication. The high tenacity filament
core provides the toughness for the majority of the most punishing
applications. The cotton wrap of Dual Duty allows its colour to fade with the
fabric whilst the polyester wrap of Epic retains more of its original colour.
Thread Recommendations for Denim
Thread Recommendations for Denim

Brand Image Description

Coats Dual Duty offers excellent wash-

down characteristics making it ideal fo
jeans.
Thread Recommendations for Denim

Brand Image Description

Available in all Coats Dual Duty global

especially in heavy tex sizes, providing
unique look for topstitching or for stitc
pocket detail.

Coats Dual Duty True Indigo was devel

to respond to customer requests for a
sewing thread that will achieve a faded
effect similar to that on denim fabric a
popular wash down processes such as
rinse, medium stone wash, double sto
wash and bleach wash.

Coats Epic is a superior corespun sewi

thread engineered to meet a wide ran
applications.

Coats Epic Rugged is produced in a sel

shade range for denim, using special
selected dyestuffs which withstand co
change when subjected to the bleach
treatments used in denim wash down
processes.
 Thread Recommendations for Denim

Brand Image Description

Coats Epic Multicolour is a high

performance corespun thread that has
been space dyed for multi-colour stitc

Embroidery Recommendations for Denim

Embroidery Recommendations for Denim

Brand Image Description

Coats Sylko is a trilobal polyester thread f

machine embroidering.

Coats Sylko Metallic is a highly engineere

composite thread for machine embroider
 Embroidery Recommendations for Denim

Brand Image Description

Due to its unique braid construction and

attractive seam appearance Brio Metallic
be used for a wide variety of applications
including sewing decorative seams in sev
sewing operations on jeans and leather g

Due to its high strength and heavy grist C

Epic Metallic is especially suitable for
decorative stitching on all kind of denim w

Indigo Dyeing
Since indigo dyes are insoluble in nature, it is dyed under special dyeing
conditions. The dyeing happens through a fermentation process by breaking
the dye molecules into simpler substances. In this stage, it dissolves in the
solution and the fabric yarn gets dyed. At a later stage, when it is taken to
oxidisation by exposing it to air, the beautiful, deep and rich blue of indigo is
achieved.
This tricky dyeing process is what makes denim wash so challenging and
intricate.
Denim Wash – The Process
Washing processes impart the following effects on denim garments:

 Appearance / colour change

 Softening
 Dimensional stability
 Different handle

The degree of the above effects depend on processing conditions such as

time, temperature, liquor ratio of washing batch and chemicals used.
Steps in the Denim Wash Process
Denim wash is a sequential process, which consists of many steps. Some of
the major steps discussed here are:
1. Pre-treatment
2. Wash
3. Tinting and Dyeing
4. Softening
Pre-treatment
This process is the first and most important part of denim washing, which
includes:
1. Removing impurities
2. Desizing
3. Reducing the risk of creasing
1. Removing impurities
Impurities from the fabric or garment manufacturing stages can be oil-based
or chemical-based. They can cause problems during the washing steps that
follow, and hence are removed.
2. Desizing
During this stage, sizing material applied during weaving are removed to make
it suitable for further processing.
3. Reducing the risk of creasing
Anti-crease agents are used to avoid creasing that can occur due to machine
parameters like rotating speed, chemical reactions, production of the fabric
and storage.
Different Types of Denim Wash
After pre-treatment, denim garments may be subjected to different types of
wash. Some of the commonly used wash types are:
1. Stone Wash
2. Acid Wash
3. Rinse Wash
4. Enzyme Wash
5. Bleach Wash
1. Stone Wash
This is the most common and basic process for producing a washed-down
look on denim garments. Towards the end of the seventies, pumice stones
were discovered to accelerate the ageing process of indigo dyed denim
garments.
Wash Components
The stones in widespread use today are pumice stones, which have
numerous pores. These pores have very sharp edges, facilitating a very high
degree of abrasion.
The Process
A typical stone wash process is as follows:
The degree of colour fading and change of garment feel depends very much
on the ratio of weight of the stone to the fabric weight, which can vary from
0.5:1 to 3:1. During the treatment, the outer most layer of the indigo-dyed yarn
is partially separated and the portion of the fibre inside, which is undyed,
comes to the surface. The surface gets a softer handle through the
mechanical process with pumice stones.
The degree of the wash-down effect depends upon several factors – the size
of the stone, stone ratio, liquor ratio, duration of treatment, garment load, etc.
Size
The size of pumice stones available for stone washing vary from 1 cm to 7 cm
in diameter. Pumice stones, around 2 to 3 cm in diameter, are used for finer
denim qualities. The common size employed for normal denim qualities is 3 to
6 cm in diameter.
Variants
Different wash names like sand wash, golf ball wash, micro wash and micro-
sand wash — which are types of stone wash — refer to the use of very small
size pumice stones.
Equipment
Drum washing machines are used for stone washing. The capacity of drum
washing machines can be up to 200 kg. Some of these machines are
equipped with tilting facility to empty the washed garments.
Stone Wash Effects

 Under normal circumstance (fabric-stone ratio at 1:2), colour fading is

irrespective of the fabricstone ratio.
 Smaller stones give slightly better fading effect, but this would reduce the
colour contrast due to more uniform abrasion.
 Fading effect increases with the stone wash time. However, increase of the
effect becomes insignificant when the washing time exceeds 90 minutes.

2. Acid Wash (Moon Wash)

Acid washing or ice washing is usually done by dry tumbling the garments with
pumice stones presoaked in an acid solution, such that localised bleaching is
effected in a non-uniform sharp blue / white contrast in the garment.
Wash Components
Pumice stones pre-soaked in sodium hypochlorite (5 to 10%) or potassium
permanganate (3 to 6%).
The Process
A typical acid wash process is as follows:

The process involves soaking of pumice stones in a net or mesh fabric in

solutions of potassium permanganate for at least one or two hours and then
draining off the excess liquor. This treatment results in a very strong bleaching
effect at the raised parts whereas the lower parts remain dark. The selection
of sodium hypochlorite or potassium permanganate depends upon the
dyestuff and the required effect.
Drawbacks
Acid washing or moon washing is a tedious and dirty bleaching process, since
the manganese dioxide formed out of the potassium permanganate must be
removed from the trousers after the process. The hypochlorite bleaching
process is fast, efficient and cheap, but it also suffers from a number of
disadvantages. The process is relatively difficult to control because it is
difficult to obtain the same level of bleaching in repeated runs.
Furthermore, hypochlorite is a harsh chemical that can damage cellulose,
resulting in severe strength loss, breakages and pinholes at the seams and
pockets. Since hypochlorite is a hazardous chemical, precautions should be
considered while using it in the production floor.
3. Rinse Wash or Mill Wash
The objective of rinse washing is to keep the fabric appearance as dark as
possible. The denim is desized width wise in open-width washing machine
and the dye is not washed out.
Variants
One variety of the rinse wash is desizing ready to wear trousers in drum
washing machines. The disadvantage in this process is very poor rub
fastness.
4. Enzyme Wash
As denim is made of cotton, it too consists of cellulose. Cellulases can be
used to give denim a worn look. Enzymes have opened up new possibilities in
denim finishing by increasing the variety of finishes available. For example, it
is now possible to fade denim to a greater degree without running the risk of
damaging the garment. Cellulases are the enzymes commonly used in
enzyme wash. As the name suggests, it degrades cellulose.
Wash Components
Enzymes are molecular proteins which accelerate biochemical reactions
within a short span of time. The most commonly used enzymes in the textile
industry include alpha amylases, proteases, catalases and cellulases.
Multi-component enzymes are cellulases introduced by leading manufacturers
which contain a range of different cellulases which affect different parts of the
cellulase.
Mono component enzymes have only one component, and are precise in their
action. The Denimax range of products belongs to this category.
Advantages of Cellulase (Enzyme Wash) over Pumice (Stone Wash)
The most widely used application of cellulases (neutral and acid cellulases) is
the replacement of pumice stones in the ‘stone washing’ process to produce
the aged appearance of denim garments. Some of the advantages of enzyme
wash are:

 The use of cellulases instead of pumice stones prevents damage by

abrasion to washing machines and the garments, eliminates the need for
disposal of the used stones, and improves the quality of the waste water.
 The load of garments may also be increased by as much as 50% since
stones are no longer added. Depending on the finishing effect required, a
mixture of cellulases and pumice may be used, which causes the surface
fibres to weaken and later be removed when subjected to either fabric to
fabric abrasion or fabric to stone abrasion during the washing. The
temperature and the pH used must be specific to the type of cellulase
employed. For enzymatic stone washing, acid cellulase and neutral
cellulase are available.
 While pumice stones are effective on the fibre surface, cellulases react
inside the fibre as well.

The Process
A typical enzyme wash process is as follows:
Acid Cellulase: These enzymes are applied at an acid pH value of 4.5 to 5.5 at
50 - 60ºC. At the beginning of enzymatic treatments negative effects on the
tensile strength could be observed. The application of acid cellulases
reinforced the ‘backstaining’ problem. Backstaining is the result of soiling of
the weft thread and the pocket lining by the detached indigo dyestuff.
Neutral Cellulase: neutral cellulase is used in denim washes. It is applied at
pH value of 6 to 7 at 50 to 60ºC. Compared to acid cellulases, neutral
cellulases have a less negative effect on the tensile strength. For improved
surface abrasion, higher quantities are required in the case of neutral
cellulase.
An enzyme dose of 2 to 4 grams per litre is normally sufficient. In general, the
colour of the enzyme washed goods are more uniform, particularly when stone
is not used. Since cellulases are only reactive on cellulose, any sizes or other
impurities must be removed before the cellulase treatment.
Neutral cellulase is still more widely used in denim wash than acid cellulase.
The reason is that the tendency of indigo dye to redeposit on the surface of
the fibre is much higher in acid medium than that in neutral medium.
Enzyme Wash Process Parameters

 For neutral enzyme, the best performance is obtained at pH 6 - 7.

 A satisfactory result can be obtained when enzyme dosage is in the range
of 0.5 - 2.0 g/l cellulase.
Neutral cellulase is still more widely used in denim wash than acid cellulase.
The reason is that the tendency of indigo dye to redeposit on the surface of
the fibre is much higher in acid medium than that in neutral medium.
5. Bleach Wash
In bleach wash, a strong oxidative bleaching agent is added during the
washing, with or without pumice stones. The purpose of the bleaching is to
decolourise the dark blue shade by destroying the indigo dye molecules with
oxidative bleaching chemicals.

Wash Components
Sodium hypochlorite is generally used as an agent. As on date, ‘Chlorine
Bleach’ is the most effective bleach agent for indigo since all shades can be
obtained from it.
Drawback
The problem with this bleaching method is the fact that the fibre is damaged
and there is emission of polluted waste water.
A typical bleach wash process is as follows:
Variants
Ecologically less harmful methods such as laccases, potasium permanganate,
potasium persulfate, sodium caustic, peroxide have been tried. However, they
cannot be compared with chlorine bleach as far as the effect and looks are
concerned. The ‘White Bleach’ method is a variation of the normal bleach in
which, chlorine bleach is carried out two to three times one after the other in
different treatment baths.
Bleaching with hypochlorite

 Optimum Dosage: 40 g/l when using a hypochlorite with 12% available

chlorine. Increase in hypochlorite dosage effectively increases the colour
fading to a certain limit.
 pH: At 7 or lower, the rate of bleaching is rather fast which may present
difficulty in controlling the shade. It is suggested that the bleaching bath
should be slightly alkali by adding soda ash to pH 9-10 such that bleaching
effect could be effectively monitored by the bleaching time.
 Chlorine Bleach: 15 ml (150 g/l active chlorine)
 Temperature: 50 - 60ºC. A higher temperature increases the bleaching
action and hence the colour fading. But for the temperatures above 70ºC,
the effect would be similar.
 Time: 15 minutes
 Rinse: cold
Dechlorination
After every chlorine bleach, the remaining chlorine must be removed by
dechlorinating with sodium bisulphite. Dechlorination can also be carried out
with hydrogen peroxide instead of sodium bisulphite.

 Sodium Bisulphite: 3 g/l

 Temperature: 40-50ºC
 Liquor Ratio: 1:5
 Time: 10 minutes
 Rinse: warm or cold

Common Process Parameters

Desizing
Denim garments that are made from indigo or sulphur slashed-dye will have
sizes that are water-soluble and insoluble in nature.
Starch-based sizes are most commonly used. Methods employed to desize
them are washing with alkaline agents, acidic agents, oxidative chemicals and
with enzymatic amylase.
The most effective and preferred method is enzymatic desizing using
amylase. The typical parameters are as follows:

 Amylase: 1 - 2 g/l
 pH: 6 - 7
 Temperature: 60 - 70ºC
 Time: 15 mins
 Liquor Ratio: 1:6 to 1:8
 Rinse: cold

Note: Addition of detergent accelerates the wetting process.

Tinting and Dyeing
After wash, a garment is tinted or dyed. Tinting is used change the hue or tone
of indigo. It gives the denim garment a worn or used look. This process takes
from 5 to 15 minutes, and is followed dye-fixing and clean-up of superficial
dye.
Comparison of Different Dye Types
Comparison of Different Dye Types

Dye Type Cost Shade Options Cycle Time Process Effects

Direct Dyes Wide range of

Economical shades Short Cycles Ease of application
 Comparison of Different Dye Types

Dye Type Cost Shade Options Cycle Time Process Effects

Reactive Wide range of

Dyes Costly shades Long Cycle Water Consumption High

Pigment Cost Limited to dull Short to Long Machine contamination, but hard to obtain
Dyes Efficient shades Cycle consistency, harsh hand feel

Softening
Since denim is a heavy fabric, it needs softening. A major problem
encountered during this process is yellowing, which is the change in shade or
loss of whiteness. All organic polymers (like cotton) are prone to yellowing.
Indigo-dyed fabric, in particular, is very prone to yellowing.
Cause: It is difficult to pin-point the exact causes of yellowing. Among the
many causes is exposure to light, impurities, incorrect process temperatures,
or a combination of the same.
Reducing the risk of yellowing: It is impossible to eliminate yellowing.
However, it can be minimised by keeping in mind the following:

 Ensure bleaching and bleach neutralisation residues are minimised or

eliminated
 Minimise back staining
 Avoid the use of chemicals which create yellowing
 Avoid leaving garments damp any longer than necessary
 Control drying and curing conditions

Other Fashionable Denim Washes

Overdyed: A stoned trouser is over dyed to create variety of shades and
effects.
Damaged: Trousers are partially destroyed. This can be done by very
aggressive chlorine bleach or by the American variation of shooting at the
trousers with bullets. As part of the proof, some jeans manufacturers
incorporate the empty bullet cartridge in the trouser pocket.
Scrubbed: The surfaces of the trousers are scrubbed with brushes in this
process, to effect suede and partially fluffy appearance.
Wash-down Effect on Different Types of Sewing Thread
Wash-down Effect on Different Types of Sewing Thread

Critical Wash
Process Spun Polyester Thread Corespun Thread

Bleach wash – mild Minor fading in shade. Some grey shades can
wash with sodium have complete change in tone under unstable No colour change in vat dyed cotto
hypochlorite wash conditions. cover.

Bleach wash – strong Unaffected in most cases. Mild fad

Bleach with calcium Most disperse dyed colours fade completely observed in selected dark shades u
hypochlorite under strong bleach conditions. strong bleach.

Pumice stone washing Seam weakens by 5%. Some degree of seam The high tenacity polyester filamen
abrasion at waist belt and pockets. The looper core provides complete protection
thread abrades at a noticeably higher rate and seams against abrasion. Seam
can cause broken stitches. appearance is excellent.

Enzyme wash with Severe seam abrasion at waist belt, back rise, Seam strength and seam appearan
pumice stones back york and bottom line seams. Poor seam remain intact. Vat dyed cotton cov
appearance. 30% chance of total seam breakage retains the shade under normal
at stress points. conditions.