CHAPTER II

Review of Related Literature

Introduction

The focus of the present chapter is to review the research work that has already done in the area of
Information Communication Technology (ICT), so as to gain a comprehensive understanding
with respect to the objectives, nature, structure, presentation and effectiveness of ICT
programmes and also to identify the explored areas that need to be studied with reference to
various dimension of ICT programmes. An attempt was made to scan through the related
literature from various resources.

Papert (1980) studied on ‘Children, computer and powerful idea’. He understood the importance
of digital media and how it could be used to enable children to learn better within a constructivist
learning environment. He believed that in order for children to assemble and modify their ideas,
the traditional tools such as pencils, copies and texts were inadequate. He felt that computers were
the appropriate tool to enable the learner to take control of the learning process. He found that a
complementary relationship exists between technology and constructivism, the implementation of
each one benefiting the other. Recent attempts by educators to integrate technology in the
classroom have been within the context of a constructivist framework.

Laird (1985) worked on ‘Approaches to training and development’. He believed that effective
learning occurs when the senses are stimulated. Online instruction allows learners to use their
sensory systems to register the information in the form of sensations. He found that the vast
majority of knowledge held by adults (75%) is learned through seeing. Hearing is the next most
effective (about 13%) and the other senses - touch, smell and taste account for 12% of what they
know. He claims that the use of the Internet for research or producing a website to publish their
project results can enhance students' organizational skills, connect them with a real audience and
foster a better understanding of the World Wide Web.

Cameron and Ulrich (1986) studied on ‘Transformational leadership in colleges and

universities’. He found that the lack of administrative support as a barrier to adoption of
innovation in the Nigerian education system.

Davis (1993) in his study ‘Tools for learning’ believes that there is no single magical formula for
motivating students. Many factors affect a given students' motivation to work and to learn:
Interest in subject matter, perception of its usefulness, general desire to achieve, self-confidence
and self-esteem, as well as patience and persistence. With colorful and attractive graphics,
interesting and illustrative animations, appropriate sound effects, ICT provides multisensory
stimulations and real-world experiences. Teachers using ICT in teaching process can gain the
learners' attention, motivate students to spend more time on learning activities with greater
concentration, and engage them through production work. ICT can extend the range of alternative
teaching methods beyond the conventional classroom (e.g. self-paced learning, collaborative team
or group activities, and distance learning). Learning with Software website (1996) suggested that
with the use of software in learning, but it focused more on pedagogical strategies of
incorporating ICT in teaching:

a) Rotational use of computers,

b) Needs-only basis,

c) Computer as reward,

d) Computer use on contract,

e) Computer as electronic blackboard,

f) Integrating the computer,

g) Computer as surrogate teacher,

h) Computer as cognitive tool.

The division was started from a simple tracheotomy of the degrees of integration which was more
general and a bit crude. The division according to the software used was a more complicated one
which included more detailed observations. The division according to pedagogies and practices in
the classrooms was better for incorporating ICT in teaching.

Sandholtz et al. (1997) worked on ‘Teaching with technology, creating student-centered

classrooms’. They reported that there were positive changes in student attitude. Their interest and
motivation typically extended to the last week of school and as students became involved in
working on computers, the time they spent on assignments and projects often increased. Students'
enthusiasm and interest resulted in greater on-task

behavior and they were highly involved in their assignment and frequently able to work with little
assistance. The project increased student initiative as they worked beyond the requirements of
their assignments, and independently explored new applications and developed new skills.
Student experimentation and risk taking increased.

Dalton (1998) in his study ‘Computers in schools’ asserts that training is directed at changing
people's knowledge, experience, skills and attitudes. The scarcity of adequately trained and
experienced analysts, software engineers, systems and network managers, restrains ICT
development education system in Uganda. He emphasized the importance of training for the
adoption and diffusion of computers in schools.

Dix (1999) investigated study on Enhanced mathematics learning: does technology make
difference?’Study showed the effectiveness of technologically-based instruction in secondary
school, by comparing students’ achievements resulting from technology-rich assignments with
those achievements resulting from equivalent assignments presented in traditional format. She
found that, although there is no significant difference in achievement with either method, use of
computers in mathematics does appear to positively influence student motivation.

Jonassen et al. (1999) conducted study on ‘Learning to solve problems with technology’. They
reported that after analyzing applications of IT in various schools and projects grouped these
learning activities around several mind tools, which can be used by teachers to enable students to
learn effectively. These are Databases, Semantic Networks, Visualization Tools, Micro worlds,
Expert Systems and Mental Models.

Hasselbring et al. (2000) in his study ‘Technology to support teacher development’ had shown
that improving the quality of an education system depends upon teachers’ training and
development. He argues that teachers should be trained to view ICT as a resource and to use
technology in classroom activities, whilst earlier added that education authorities are responsible
for teacher training.

Mumtaz (2000) worked on ‘Factors effecting teachers' adoption of technology in secondary

schools’. He pointed out lack of administrative, technical and financial support as problems that
prevent teachers from using computers in their teaching.

Cuban (2001) investigated study on ‘High access and low use of technologies in high schools’.
He found that teachers who used computers in their classrooms largely continued their customary
practice, A very few fundamental changes in the dominant mode of teacher-centered instruction
have occurred occasional to serious use of computers in their classes had marginal or no impact
on routine teaching practices. In other words, most teachers had adapted an innovation to fit their
customary practices, not to revolutionize them. He noted that the overwhelming majority of
teachers employed the technology to sustain existing patterns of teaching rather than to innovate.
In interviews with 21 teachers he found that 13 said that their teaching had indeed changed
because of their use of information technologies. Changes include planning more efficiently,
communicating with colleagues and parents far more via the Internet, securing education
materials from the Internet, having an additional tool in their customary set of teaching practice,
and seeing students’ access to information as a phenomenal enhancement to their teaching. Of the
13 teachers who said that their teaching had changed, only four said that they had modified their
daily practices in major ways: organized their class differently, lectured less, relied more on
securing information from sources other than the textbook, gave students more independence, and
acted more like a coach than a performer on stage.

M2 Communications Ltd (2001) conducted study on ‘ICT investment boost secondary

schools’. They found that there was a consistent trend for pupils in schools with better IT
resources to achieve better grades for English, math and science. It also indicated that schools that
used IT to support a particular subject, tended to achieve better in that subject than schools which
did not use IT.

Pelgrum (2001, cited in Afshari et al, 2009) conducted study on ‘The educational potential
of new information technologies’. He claimed that the success of educational innovations depends
largely on the skills and knowledge of teachers. The study reported that teacher’s lack of
knowledge and skills is among the most inhibiting obstacles to the use of computers in schools.

Diezmann et al. (2002) conducted survey on ‘Framework for multimedia resources’. They
found clear evidence that students appropriated ICT resources as tools to construct an
understanding of the teaching-learning process in science. Being able to access and revisit
resources over time had the potential to strengthen effectiveness and heighten students’ interest in
science teaching. Although the project included pre-service and in-service teachers, the
experience of using CD ROMs in teaching and learning applies equally well in primary and
secondary schools.

Hawkins (2002) reported that school administrators offer very little structural support and
incentives to teachers in effective use of ICT in the classroom. Though lecturers enthusiastically
engage in collaborative projects and constructivist pedagogy, administrative support given in
reference to ICT is not adequate. Teachers use computers more often for their teaching-learning
process if they perceived an adequate support from the school administration. Teachers who
receive adequate ICT support from the administrators are more likely to use ICTs in their teaching
practice while those who do not receive ICT support from the higher authorities in school are less
enthusiastic in using computer or do not integrate technology at all. Administrators in school,
such as the principal acts as a mediator to integrate ICT into the educational system by playing a
key role in encouraging, supporting, and helping the teachers to use computers in their teaching-
learning process. The support of the school principal or administrator can encourage and promote
teachers willingness to use the computer as a medium to deliver instruction. Thus, the role of the
school administrator is crucial in providing the force, support and conditions to enhance the use of
computer in the teaching profession. Much as administrative support is an important factor in
positively influencing ICT integration and implementation.
Agaba (2003) conducted study on ‘Challenges and the way forward’. He found that lack of
skills as one of the problems explaining underutilization of Makerere University Library
electronic information resources by academic staff.

Blackmore et al. (2003) in the study ‘Effective use of information and communication
technology (ICT) to enhance learning for disadvantaged school students’ found that using ICT in
learning offers advantages and opportunities to increase students’ motivation, helps students to
solve problems, and increases students’ attention span.

Deaney et al. (2003) in their study ‘Pupil perspectives on the contribution of ICT to teaching
and learning in secondary schools’ found that students viewed ICT resources as helpful in tasks
and presentations, and also useful in refining project reports and trial options. They associated
ICT with change in the study environment and classroom relations; ICT applications raised
interest and increased motivation on their part. Nevertheless, whilst the participants valued
independent study and the challenge of ICT, they were concerned that this reshaping of learning
might be displacing valuable teaching.

Munyantware (2003) in his study ‘problems affecting adoption technology by mathematics

and science teachers in secondary schools’ found out that teachers with lower ICT proficiency are
not willing and have less confidence to use ICT for teaching. This suggests that teacher’s
information communication technological skills are critical for successful ICT implementation in
the classroom.

Al-Moussa (2004) conducted study on ‘Integration of information and communication

technology in Gulf Cooperation Council Countries’. He reported that obstacles to the integration
of ICT into schools in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries were a lack of computer skills
training for teachers and insufficient technical support, plus costs. A recent Omani higher
education survey concerned a questionnaire based on literature from developed economies faculty
member’s perceived moderate levels in obstacles in applying ICT to their teaching practices: lack
of equipment, lack of institutional support, disbelief of ICT benefits, lack of confidence, and lack
of time.

Kozma (2005) have demonstrated that ICT can help deepen students’ content knowledge,
engage them in constructing their own knowledge, and support the development of complex
thinking skills. He reported that ICT alone cannot create this kind of teaching and learning
environment. Teachers must know how to structure lessons, select resources, guide activities, and
support this learning process; many traditionally-trained teachers are not prepared to take on these
tasks.
UNESCO (2005) reported that teachers, professors, technical and administrative staff must be
given training that enables them to integrate new information and communication technologies
into their teaching programs. The lack of technical skills of maintaining the functionality of
computers confused teachers to integrate ICT in the classroom.

Munyantware (2006) in his study ‘Problems affecting teachers’ adoption of technology in

classrooms among science and mathematics teachers in Kisoro District’, reported that in addition
to social support from colleagues, perceived support from the school influences teachers adoption
decision. The study suggested that continuous support to teachers gives them confidence in using
computers in teaching their relevant courses in institutions of higher learning.

Cox et al. (2007) conducted study on what factors support or prevent teachers from using ICT in
their classrooms? The researchers argue that decades after the introduction of ICT into
classrooms, there were unanswered questions about the impact of technology on students’
learning, and the manner by which it affects simple and complex learning tasks. In relation to the
outcomes and recommendations for their study, they highlight the absence of rigorous studies as
impacting:

(a) Government policies;

(b) Teacher education programs:

(c) Advancing national curricula;

(d) Designing or reforming classroom implementation, and

(e) Analyzing costs and benefits.

Farrell (2007) conducted study on Survey of ICT and education in Africa. He found that,
though the Faculty of Computing and Information Technology at Makerere University trains staff
in e-learning and support e-learning in the whole university, comparatively few teachers have the
skills to make pedagogical use of ICT for teaching across the curriculum. This could be due to
inadequate ICT training skills, lack of time and negative attitude by teachers towards ICT
implementation.

Yang (2008) in a case study ‘Examining university students and academic understanding of ICT
in higher education at Curtin University of technology’ reported that university teachers who
received support from administrators had a high commitment to the adoption of ICT for teaching
and learning. Data in the study suggested that the adoption of ICT in teaching and learning would
be promoted by greater support of the change at the management level of the University.
A crucial factor contributing to the promotion of the innovation is the availability of infrastructure
resources: hardware, in terms of the number of computers in the school available for students and
teachers for educational purposes, and the quality and functioning of equipment (speed of
processors, peripherals and access to the internet) as well as available software. However,
availability of ICT alone is insufficient and must be accompanied by technical as well as
pedagogical support. He also reported that lack of technical support as one of the major barriers
that resulted in computers being underutilized in the classes. Teachers do not use computers in
teaching when they are not sure where to turn for help in case something goes wrong.

Park et al. (2009) investigated on ‘ICT in science education: A quasi-experimental study of

achievement, attitudes toward science, and career aspirations of Korean middle school students’.
The researchers found some evidence that ICT assists high-achieving students and encourage
enrolment in science.

Wolcott et al. (2011) in their study ‘Faculty participation: Motivations, incentives, and
rewards’ found that intrinsic motives, such as job satisfaction and trying new technology tools and
teaching strategies, were the most influential factors in faculty decisions to get involved in online
learning. They found that faculty who wanted to participate were least influenced by extrinsic
motivations such as monetary support, course release time, and tenure and promotion credit.
Furthermore, some universities who did not provide faculty release time to develop online courses
have had other staff members do this work, as with instructional designers, multimedia
developers, and technology experts.

Young et al. (2012) studied on ‘Preparing instructors for quality online instruction’. They found
that warned an instructor’s online role can be more difficult than one experienced in traditional
classrooms. Online instructors were thought to have the extra burden of preparing courses well in
advance, constantly facilitating the course, modeling good communication skills, and adjusting
courses for the varied needs of students.

Reid (2013) studied on ‘Quality assurance, open and distance learning, and Australian
universities’. They found that determined online instructors moved through different phases of
their online learning experience, and their needs changed at each stage. Furthermore, considering
educational leaders were responsible for the quality of online programs and instruction they also
needed to engage in professional development, and experiment with online learning
environments, infrastructures, and technologies.
 Summary of Review of Related Literature

As observed from the related literature from various scholars and past researchers collected from
secondary sources i.e. textbooks, magazines, internet and journals, it shows that to a large extent
ICT implementation in developing countries is still minimal. As regards to cost of ICT training
materials, most studies indicate that to a large extent, costs were very high and thus affecting ICT
implementation in institutions of higher learning as supported by Makau (1986) for Kenya, and
Mumatz (2005) in Tanzania. However, few scholars like Tusubira and Mulira (2004); Ensafi et al.
(2007) were taking another positive trend in the case of higher education. Other scholars were
concerned with ICT implementation in primary and secondary schools i.e. Makau for Nigeria,
Munyantware for Uganda, thus leaving a gap for institutions of higher learning which this study
intended to close.

For the case of skills development in ICT and administrative support, most scholars and past
studies suggested that to a large extent these two variables positively affected ICT
implementation. For example, Farrell, Agaba and Mugisha for Makerere University, Kyambogo
University, and Mbarara University, respectively. Few scholars like Mooij and Smeets (2001) in
Holland were of the view that possessing ICT skills does not warrant use of computers in
teaching.

By analyzing and synthesizing the different ways of classifying and categorizing ICT usage in the
classrooms, the literature informs a repertoire of using ICT in teaching and learning. Children
who exposed to school ICT programmes learned better than children not exposed. Also ICT was
found to make school more interesting. Also when students participated in the ICT programmes,
programmes were more effective. Majority of the students and teachers had positive reaction to
ICT programmes. Teachers and principals believed that teaching through ICT is better than
traditional way of teaching. Whenever teachers used follow up activities, students attitudes toward
ICT programmes were found are higher. The above all, all the research findings revealed that
ICT programmes by and large have been utilized in comprehensive manner in countries for the
benefit of the students. In India the utilization of ICT within the classroom seems to be meager.
The reasons for under-utilization of ICT were manifold. Literature review shows that due to poor
maintenance of computer sets, the sets go out of order most of the time. The socio economic
condition of the rural children adversely affects the education at the secondary stage of learning.
The traditional system of education is not able to attract them toward formal system of schooling.
In this context it is determined that Information Communication Technology (ICT) can motivate
children to perform better and change their attitude toward school and learning.
 NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY
Laoag City

Review of Related Literature

Submitted By:
Aiken Nerville C. Echenique
Patrcik D. Carla
Kenneth James G. Navarro
Stephen Boss C. Felix
Renier Marcos
BS in Architecture

Shennah Marriz Taylan

BSHM

Jay Vie Pechardo

BSEE

October 18, 2019