Chapter No.

01 Significance of Measurement

INTRODUCTION:-
Measurement:- The measurement of a given
quantity is defined as an act or results of comparison
between a quantity whose amount is unkown (called
as measurand) with a similar quantity whose amount
is known(call as standards) .
Since the two quantities, 1. The amount of
which is unknown and 2. The quantity whose amount
is known are compared the results is expressed in
term of a numerical value the figure shown will clear
the concepts.

In order that the results of the measurements are meaningful the basic requirement are:-
1. The standard used for comparison purpose must be accurately defined and should be commonly
acceptable.
2. The standard should be defined by a legal or recognized agency or organization like Indian
Bureau of standards (IBS) or International Organization of Standards (ISO).
3. The apparatus used and the method adopted for the purpose of comparison must be provable i.e.
Accuracy can be reproduced anywhere in the world.
Significance of the measurements:-
Measurements is an important aspect of engineering there is no field of engg. Without
involvement of measurement activity the following are the important factor of a measurement system:-
1. Measurement is the primary source of information of various aspect in design, production
,processing etc.
2. The product quality and process efficiency are as a results of measurements and corrective action.
3. All the labs tests for establishing the quality standards and products quality are associated with
measurement process.
4. Measurements play a very vital role in achieving goals and objectives of technology because of
the few information supplied functions.
a. Design of equipment’s and processes
b. Proper operation control and maintenance of process.
METHOD OF MEASUREMENTS:-
Measurements can be classified into following categories:-
1. Direct and Indirect method:-
Direct measurement method:-
The value of the physical parameter is determined by comparing it
directly with reference standards. The physical quantities like mass, length, and time are
measured by direct comparison.
Direct measurements are not to be preferred because they involve human
factors are less accurate and also less sensitive. Further the direct methods may not always be
possible, feasible and practicable.

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 Indirect measurements method: - The value of the physical parameter is more
generally determined by indirect comparison with secondary standards through calibration.
The measurand is converted into analogous signal which is subsequently
Processed and fed to the end device that present the result of measurement.
2. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary measurement:- Based upon the complexity of the
measurements system, the measurements are generally grouped into three categories namely the
primary, secondary, and tertiary measurements.
In primary mode, the sought value of a physical parameter is determined
By comparing it directly with reference standards. The requisite information is obtainable through
senses of sight and touch .Example are
1. Matching of two lengths when determining the length of an object with a ruler
2. Matching of two colors when judging the temperature of rod steel
3. Use of beam balance to measure masses.
The indirect measurements involving one translation are
called Secondary measurements and those involving two
conversions are called tertiary measurements. The
conversion of pressure into displacement by means of
bellows and the conversion of force into displacement by
means of spring are simple examples of secondary
measurements. As shown in figure
The measurement of static pressure by bourdon tube
pressure gauge as shown in fig. is atypical example of
tertiary measurement.
The measurement of the speed of a rotating shaft by means of an electric tachometer is another
typical example of tertiary
measurements.

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 Generalized Measurement System and its Functional Elements:-

The following basic components can be identified in a generalized measurement system as shown
in the fig. the scope of the different elements is determined by their functioning rather than by their
construction.

1. Primary sensing elements:-The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with primary
sensing elements now these quantity is converted into some analogous electrical signal with the
help of transducer Thus, transducer is a device which convert the physical quantity into electrical
quantity.
2. Variable conversion elements:- The output of primary sensing element may be any electrical
parameter like current , voltage, frequency etc. the function of the variable conversion element is
to convert the electrical signal into some suitable form while preserving the information of the
original signal.
3. Variable manipulation element:- The function of variable manipulation element is to
manipulate the data present to it while preserving the information of the original signal. The
process of variable conversion element and variable manipulation element is known as signal
conditioning. And it is not necessary that variable manipulation element should always follow the
variable conversion elements but it can also precede the variable conversion elements.
4. Data Transmission element:- The function of the data transmission element is to transmit the
data from one element to another provided that the element of the instrument are physically
separated .
For example the satellite or space ship are physically separated from the earth surface. But the
station which guides their movement are located on earth the signal are sent to them by telemetry
system using radio signals.
5. Data presentation element:- In data presentation element there is nothing just monitoring the
data/element. The information about the quantity under measurement must be displayed under
standard form for monitoring the information visual display device is required and for recording
the recorders like magnetic tapes, printers etc. are required.

For example bourdon tube pressure gauges

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 INSTRUMENTS:-
The human’s senses cannot provide exact quantitative information about the knowledge of events
occurring in our environments. The stringent requirements of precise and accurate measurements in the
technological fields have, therefore led to the development of mechanical aids called instruments.
Instruments are the essential extensions of human sensing and perception with output which
scientific exploration of nature would be impossible.
1. An instrument would sense a physical parameter (pressure, temperature, velocity etc.) process
and translate it into a format and range which can be interpreted by the observer.
2. The instruments also provide the controls by which the operator can obtain, manipulate and
respond to the information.

Classification of instruments:-
There are many ways in which instruments can be classified broadly instruments are
classify into following categories:-
1. Absolute instruments: - These instruments are so constant that it gives the magnitude of
the quantity under measurements. Working with the absolute instrument for routine work
is time consuming since every time a measurement is made which take a lot of time to
compute the magnitude of the quantity under measurement. Absolute instrument are
rarely used except in standard institution.
Example: - Tangential galvanometer.
2. Secondary instruments:- These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being
measured can only measure by observing the output indicated by the instrument.
Secondary instrument are most commonly used than absolute instrument. It find usage
almost in every sphere of measurement. Example pressure gauge, glass thermometer.
3. Automatic and manual instruments: - The manual instruments require the service of an
operator while the automatic types do not. For example the temperature measurement y
mercury in glass thermometer is automatic as the instrument indicates the temperature
without requiring any manual assistance. However, the measurement of temperature by a
resistance thermometer incorporating a wheat stone bridge in its circuit is manual
operation as it needs an operator for obtaining the null position.
4. Self-generated and power operated instruments: - In self-generating instrument, the
output energy is supplied entirely by the input. The instrument does not required any
external source or power to perform its function. Some instruments require some
auxiliary source of power in these devices, the input signal supplies only an insignificant
portion of the output power. Such instrument is known as power operated instrument.
5. Deflection and null type instruments: -
Deflection type: - In this type of instrument, the measurement is done by relative
displacement between pointer and die. This instrument are less accurate, intrinsic
response is faster. For example: Volt meter.
Null type: - In null-type instruments, the physical effect caused by the quantity being
measured is nullified by generating an equivalent opposing effect.

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 Characteristics of an instrument:-
Characteristics of an instrument can be broadly classified int two groups i.e. Static and
Dynamic

Static Characteristics if an instrument is as follows.

1. Range and Span: The region between the limits within which an instruments is
designed to operate for measuring, indicating or recording a physical quantity is
called the range. Suppose the highest point of calibration is Xmax while the lowest is
Xmin and the calibration is continuous between the two points. Then we can say that
the instrument range is between Xmin and Xmax .
And the instrument span can be defined as the algebraic difference between the upper
and the lower limit of the instruments.

2. Accuracy and Precision:- Accuracy: It is the closeness with which an instrument

reading approaches the true value of the quantity being measured. Thus accuracy of a
measurement means conformity to the truth.
Mathematically,
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑉𝑡
Accuracy = × 100
𝑉𝑡
Where,
Vmax = Maximum value of reading.
Vt = True value of the instrument.
Precision: The difference between two successive or consecutive reading measured
by instrument system is known as precision. The precision may be High or Low. But
high precision do not indicate high accuracy since all the repetitions in result may be
biased.
For example: Consider the case of two Voltmeter A& B measuring the voltage at
the same point. Assume that the true value of the voltage 50V while the two voltmeter
indicates the values as shown below

Voltmeter Voltmeter
A B
1 50V 48.5V
2 50.2V 48.5V
3 48.8V 48.5V
4 51.1V 48.52V

It is clear from above that voltmeter A read very close to the true value of 50V. On other
hand voltmeter B readings are not very close to the true value of 50V but all the value are very
close to each other. We can conclude from above that voltmeter A is accurate but not precise,
where voltmeter B is precise and not accurate. Further if we consider voltmeter C which reads
50.1, 50.1, 50.08, 50.08 and 50.1 then we can say that voltmeter C is accurate as well as precise.

NOTE COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 5

3. Reliability: - It is defined as the probability that it will perform its assigned function for a
given specific period of time under given condition.

4. Calibration: - The magnitude of the error and consequently the correction to be applied
is determined by making a periodic comparison of the instrument with the standards
which are known to be constant. The entire procedure laid down for making, adjusting or
checking a scale so that readings of an instrument or measurement system conform to an
accepted standard is called the calibration.

5. Hysteresis: - It is a phenomenon which shows different output effects when loading and
unloading whether it is a mechanical
system or an electrical system. Hysteresis
is non-coincidence of a loading and
unloading curves. It arises in a system
due to the fact that all energy is put into
the stressed parts when loading is not
recoverable on unloading. This is because
the second law of thermodynamics rules out
any perfectly process in the world.

6. Dead time and Dead zone:- Dead time is defined as

the time required by a measurement system to begin
to respond to change in the measurand. And dead
zone is defined as the largest change in the input
quantity for which there is no change in the output
reading.

7. Drift:- It is an undesired gradual departure of the

instrument output over a period of time that is
unrelated to changes in input, operating conditions
or load.

The probable causes of drift are:-

a. Wear and Tear of the contact part
b. High stress developed in primary sensing elements
c. Changes in metal part
d. Corrosion of metal part
e. Effect of mechanical vibration
The drift may be classified into three categories:-

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 a. Zero drift :- If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set
or due to undue warming up of
electronic tube circuit zero drift is
set in
b. Span drift:- If there is proportional
change in the indication or along
the upward scale the drift is called
as span drift.
c. Zonal Drift:- In case the drift
occurs only over a portion of span
of an instrument it is called zonal
drift or the combination of zero and
span drift is known as zonal drift.

8. Sensitivity:- The sensitivity of an instrument is the ratio of the magnitude of the output
quantity to the magnitude of input its unit are mm/Ω
Sometimes the ratio of magnitude of input quantity to the magnitude of the
output quantity is known as deflection factor.

9. Threshold:- When the instrument input is increased gradually from zero there will be
some minimum value of input below which output cannot be detected. This minimum
value of input is known as threshold.

10. Resolution:- if the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value it will be
found that output does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This
minimum increment is called resolution.

11. Repeatability and reproducibility:- Repeatability describe the closeness of output

reading when the same input is applied repeatedly over a short period of time with the
same measurement condition, same instrument and observer etc. whereas, reproducibility
describes the closeness of output reading in the method of measurement observer
measuring instrument , location, condition of use an time of measurement.

12. Linearity: - Linearity of an instrument is defined as ability of instrument to give output

linearly proportional to input.

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 Accuracy Precision
1. It is the closeness of measured value 1. It is the repeatability of instrument
to true value

2. Measurements are dependent on 2. Measurements are dependent on

systematic errors random errors

3. Determined by proper calibration 3. Determined by statistical analysis

4. It is not necessary that precise 4. Accurate measurements must be

measurements must be accurate precise.

Differentiate between accuracy and precision.

Give Importance of calibration:-Calibration of instrument is important since it provides the

opportunity to check the instrument against known standard. Calibration is essential
a) To remove errors
b) To maintain accuracy

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 c) For better performance of instrument

Dynamic Characteristics of an instrument is as follows:

1. Speed of Response: - It is defined as the speed/rapidity with which an instrument

responds to change in value being measured

2. Fidelity: - It is defined as the degree of closeness with which the instrument recodes the
signal impressed on it. OR. It is the ability to reproduce the output in the same form of
input

3. Dynamic Error: - It is the difference between indicated quantity and true value of the
time varying quantity.

4. Overshoot: - Overshoot can be

defined as the maximum amount by
which the pointer moves more than
the true reading or beyond the steady
state.

5. Measuring Lag: - It is defined as the delay in the response of the instrument to change in
input signal.

Errors in measurements:-

There is no measurements without error. The true value can never be known. Error is the
deviation of a reading from the true value of measured variable.

Absolute error: It is the different between true value of a variable and measured value of
variable.

i.e. e = R o - Rr

Where, e = absolute error

Rr = true reading

Ro = observed reading.

Percent error = (Absolute error / true value)*100

Types of errors:-
Errors can be classified into following three types:-

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 1. Gross error
2. Systematic error
3. Random error.

1. Gross Error: - They are produced due to the fault of the person using the instrument.
Human mistakes are responsible for them. They are produced due to incorrect
adjustment, misreading of instrument scale, incorrect recording of experimental data, and
improper application of instrument, computational mistakes and parallax error.
Gross error cannot be treated mathematically. They can be avoided by taking care
in reading and recording measurement data. It can be reduced by taking more than one
reading of same quantity preferably by different observer.
2. Systematic Error: - They are created due to short coming of instrument, environmental
effects and problem with observational errors.
a. Instrument shortcomings:- Defective or wornout parts friction in bearings of
meter movement, incorrect spring tension, ageing of permanent magnets,
improper calibration etc.
These error can be reduced by proper maintenance, use and careful
handling of instruments.
b. Environmental errors:- instruments reading are largely affected due to changes
in surrounding such as temperature change, pressure change, change in humidity,
Neighboring strong electromagnetic or electrostatic fields, vibrations also create
error in instruments reading.
To reduce these errors provide air – conditioning, shielding, proper
earthing and spring mounting
3. Random Error: - They are due to causes that cannot be directly established because of
random variations in parameters. These are error that remains after the gross and
systematic errors have been reduced. They are of real concern only in measurements
requiring a high degree of accuracy. They can be analysed statistically.

TRANSDUCERS
A transducer may be defined as devices, which convert energy from one form to another. For
example a spring when subjected to a force changes the length of the spring and thus convert
forces into displacement and form the basis of a spring balance a force measuring device.
The basic requirement of a transducer are as follows:-
1. Rigidness:- Ability to withstand overload protection.
2. Linearity :- Ability to reproduce input-output signal characteristics

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 3. Repeatability:- Ability to reproduce output signal exactly when same measurand is
applied repeatedly under same environmental conditions
4. High stability and reliability;- Minimum error in measurements, unaffected by
temperature.

Classification of the transducer:-

Transducer can be classified under two categories
1. Electrical transducer
a. Active transducer
i) Piezoelectric transducer
ii) Photoelectric transducer
iii) Thermoelectric transducer
iv) Magneto electric transducer
v) Electron tube transducer
b. Passive transducer
i) Resistive transducer
ii) Inductive transducer
iii) Capacitive transducer
iv) Piezo Resistive transducer
v) Thermo Resistive transducer
2. Mechanical transducer

Active and Passive Transducer:-

Active Transducer: - A component whose output
energy is supplied entirely by its input signal is commonly
called as active transducer. They don’t require an auxiliary
power source to produce their output. They are also known as
self-generating type of transducer. They develop their own
voltage or current output, velocity, temperature, light intensity
can be transduced.

For example: - Piezo electric crystals.

Note:- Accelerometer is a device which converts acceleration into electrical voltage it does not
need any auxiliary power source to convert a physical phenomenon into an electrical output.
The property of Piezo electric crystal is that when a force is applied they produce an
output voltage. The mass exert a force on crystal and acceleration is applied to base also mass is
being fixed the force is proportional to acceleration thus the output voltage is proportional to

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input for it should be noted that the above principle is used in accelerometer which converts
acceleration into voltage so it doesn’t require any auxiliary power source.
Passive Transducer:- An passive transducer has an
auxiliary source of power which supplies a major part of the
output power while the input signal supplies only an
insignificant portion. They require an auxiliary power
source for transducer. They derive the part of required
power from physical quantity under measurement pressure,
displacement, current can be transduced.
For example:- potentiometer

Fig.:- Simple Potentiometer

Potentiometer is used for measurement of displacement. It is a resistive transducer
powered by a source voltage ei as shown in the fig. this is used for measurement of linear
displacement xi .
Suppose ‘L’ is the total length of potentiometer whose total resistance is Rt. The input
displacement is xi
𝑥𝑖
∴ Output voltage eo = ei
𝐿

𝑒𝑜
∴ xi = L
𝑒𝑖
In the absence of external power the transducer cannot work and it hence is called as a
passive transducer

Differentiate between active transducer and passive and transducer.

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 Passive Transducer Active Transducer
1. It requires external power to operate 1. It does not require external power

2. Power source supplies major part of

output signal and input supplies only little 2. The input signal supplies entire energy to
part output signal

3. There may or may not be conversion of 3. There is conversion of energy from one
energy form to other

4. Ex. Thermistor, Strain Gauge 4. Ex. Thermocouple, Piezoelectric sensor

Resistive transducer:- Resistive transducer are those in which the resistance changes due to
change in some physical phenomenon.
Generally the method which involve in the measurement of changes in
resistance are preferred as both A.C. and D.C. are suitable for resistance measurements.
The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by a simple equation as

𝜌𝐿
R= 𝐴
Where, R = Resistance in Ω
L = Length of conductor in ‘m’
A = c/s area of conductor in m2
𝜌 = Resistivity of conductor material in Ω-m

Any method of varying one of the quantities involved in the above relationship can be
results in the change of resistance.

Inductive transducer:- These transducer are based on a change in magnetic characteristics of

an electrical circuit in response to measurand which may be displacement, velocity, acceleration
etc.

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 It works upon one of the three principles
1. Change of self-inductance
2. Change of mutual inductance.
3. Production of eddy current

a. Transducer working on principle of change of self- inductance:-

Self-Inductance:- When a varying current is made to pass through a coil, an
induced counter emf results due to magnetic flux intersecting the coil. This effect
causes resistance to flow of current and it is called self-inductance.
The self-inductance of a coil is given
L = N2/R
Where, N- number of turns
R- Reluctance of magnetic circuit.
Reluctance refers to the characteristics of a magnetic circuit which determines the total magnetic
flux when a given mmf (magneto-motive force) is applied and the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit R = l/µ where, µ = effective permeability

𝐴
∴ Inductance L = N2 µ 𝑙
Where, l = length of a coil
It is clear from equation that the variation in inductance may be caused by:-
i) Change in number of turns N
ii) Change in the Area and length
iii) Change in permeability.

Inductive transducer are mainly used for measurement of displacement. The

displacement to be measured is arranged to cause variation of any three variable from
the above equation and these alter self-inductance L to ΔL.

b. Change of mutual inductance:-

These inductive transducer work on the principle ‘variation of mutual inductance
uses multiple coils’. The mutual inductance between the two coils is,
M = K √L1 x √L2
Where, L1 and L2 = Self-inductance of two coils
K = Coefficient of coupling
Thus, mutual inductance between the coil can be varied by variation of self-
inductance or the coefficient of coupling. However, the mutual inductance can be
converted into a self-inductance by connecting the coils in series. The self-
inductance of each coil is constant but mutual inductance changes depending
upon the displacement of movable coil. Air cored coil or iron cored coil can be
used for this purpose.
c. Production of Eddy Currents:-
These inductive transducers works on the principle that ‘if a conducting plate
placed near a coil carrying alternating current. Eddy currents are produced in the

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 conducting plate’. The conducting plate acts as a short-circuited secondary
winding of the transformer. The eddy currents flowing in the plate produce a
magnetic field of their own which acts against the magnetic field produced by the
coil. This results in reduction of flux and thus the inductance of the coil is
reduced. The nearer is the plate to the coil, the higher are the eddy currents and
thus higher is the reduction in the inductance of the coil. Thus the inductance of
the coil alters with variations of distance between the plate and the coil.

1. Capacitive Transducer:
A capacitor is an arrangement in which two metallic plates are separated by a di-
electric material such as air, oil, mica, etc.
Capacitance is an ability to store charge when voltage is applied across terminal
brought from parallel metal plates.
For parallel plate capacitor, capacitance is given by following expression:
𝐴∈
C= 𝑑
Where, A= Area of metal plates (m2)
d= Distance between plates
K= di-electric constant--
∈= 8.85x10-12 (F/m)
Thus capacitance can be changed by changing area of plates, distance between
plates changing di-electric materials.
1. Change in di-electric materials:
The first principle used in capacitive transducer is the variation of capacitance due
to change in di-electric constant.
Fig. shows a capacitive
transducer for measurement of
linear displacement working on
above mention principle. It has a
di-electric of relative
permittivity Er,
The initial capacitance of transducer is
given by,
∈0 𝜔𝑙1 ∈0 ∈𝑟 𝜔𝑙2
𝐶= +
𝑑 𝑑
=∈0𝜔 [𝑙1 +∈𝑟 𝑙2 ].............. (i)
𝑑
Let the dielectric be moved through a distance ‘x’ in the direction indicated. The
capacitance changes from C to C+∆C.
𝜔
C+∆C = ∈0𝜔 (𝑙1 − 𝑥)+ ∈0 ∈𝑟 𝑑 (𝑙2 + 𝑥)
𝑑
= ∈0𝜔 [𝑙1 − 𝑥 +∈𝑟 (𝑙2 + 𝑥)]
𝑑
= ∈0𝜔 (𝑙1 +∈𝑟 𝑙2 ) +∈0𝜔𝑥 (∈𝑟 − 1)
𝑑 𝑑

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 C+∆C= C+∈0𝜔𝑥 (∈𝑟 − 1)
𝑑
∆C= ∈ 0
𝜔𝑥 (∈𝑟 − 1)
𝑑
Hence the change in capacitance is proportional to displacement.
2. Change in distance between plates:-
Fig. shows the basic form
of a capacitive transducer
utilizing the effect of change in
distance between the two plates.
One is a fixed plate and the
displacement to be measured is
applied to the other plate which
is movable. Since the
Capacitance C, varies inversely
as the distance x, between the plates the response of this transducer is not linear as shown in fig.
thus this transducer is useful only for measurement of extremely small displacement.
The relationship between variation of capacitance C with variation of distance between
plate x is hyperbolic and is approx linear over a small range of displacement.

3. Change in Area:
The principle of change of capacitance with
change in area can be employed for measurement
of angular displacement. Fig. shows a two plate
capacitor. One plate is fixed and the other is
movable. The angular displacement to be
measured is applied to movable plate. The angular
displacement changes the effective area between
the plates & thus changes the capacitance. The
capacitance is maximum when the two plates completely overlap each other i.e. when D=180°.

𝑨∈
∴ Maximum value of capacitance C = 𝒅
∈𝝅𝒓𝟐
= ........ (1)
2𝑑
∈θ 𝒓𝟐
And Capacitance at angle θ is C= ........... (2)
2𝑑
𝝏𝑪 ∈ 𝒓𝟐
Sensitivity S= 𝝏𝛉 = ............. (3)
𝟐𝒅
Since, the sensitivity is constant therefore the relationship between capacitance & angular
displacement is linear
Advantages of Capacitive Transducer:
1. Capacitive transducer are extremely flexible
2. They can be used to detect dimensional changes without direct mechanical coupling.
3. They are free from loading, frictional changes, hysteresis errors.
4. They provide high resolution.

NOTE COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 16

Limitations:
1. The electrostatic shielding is essential for error free measurements.
2. Careful mechanical designs and proper selection of circuit is necessary for good stability.
Applications:
1. Thin insulation layer measurement can be carried out by variable area capacitive
transducer.
2. Dynamic measurements of force of up to 50N can be carried out by variable distance
transducer with proper circuits and electrostatic shielding.

 Potentiometer:
Potentiometers are variable resistance transduction elements that are basically used for
the measurement of displacement. For transduction they depend upon the variation of length of
conductor L, to produce a change in value of resistance, which further modifies the output
voltage proportionally.
Generally a Potentiometer (POTS) is a variable resistor where resistance is varied by the
movement of a slider (wiper), which is attached to object whose displacement, is to be measured.
The motion of sliding contact wiper can be translated motion or rotation thus allowing
measurements of translatory or rotary displacement. Fig. shows the schematic diagrams of
translation single turn rotational may be excited with either a D.C. or A.C. voltage source under
ideal condition.

Working Principle:
Positioning of the slider by external force
varies the resistance in potentiometer or a bridge
circuit.
Operation:
Consider a linear potentiometer as shown in
Fig.
Let;
ei and eo= Input & output voltages
Xt= Total length of linear potentiometer in
‘m’
Xi= Displacement of wiper from its first position in ‘m’
Rt=Total resistance of potentiometer
Now;
If the distribution of the resistance with respect to transitional movement is linear, the
Rt
resistance per unit length is Xt
∴ The output voltage under ideal condition is:
Resistance at the output terminals
eo=[ Resistance at the input terminals ] x input voltage

NOTE COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 17

 Rt
x Xi
Xt
∴ e0 = [ ]x ei
Rt
Xi
e0 = Xt x ei
e0 Xt
∴ 𝑋𝑖 =
ei

Under ideal condition the output voltage varies linearly with displacement.

Advantages:
1. Less expensive yet accurate.
2. Such transducers are available in different sizes and shapes.
3. A.C. excitation.
4. Simplicity in usage.

Limitations:
1. Limited life due to early wear of sliding arm.
2. Poor frequency response to high frequency measurement restricted.
3. Poor resolution due to number of turns and their uniformity.

Applications:
1. It finds applications in many transducers designed to, measure pressure, force,
acceleration, torque, etc.
2. It is used to measure large displacement of 10mm for a linear potentiometer and 15o for a
rotational potentiometer.

Resolution of Potentiometer:
Resolution for potentiometer is defined as the potential difference between adjacent turns
of coil divided by the input potential difference to the potentiometer.
R= 2ld+𝛿
Where; R= Resolution
l = Wire length wiper contact and fixed reference end.
d = Wire thickness
δ = Space between two windings.

Noise: - Potentiometer noise is defined as the fluctuations in output voltage due to slider
contact bounce, dirt and wear, variation in voltage drop across the contact and effect of
resolution. It is expressed as a percentage of total applied potential difference under specified
conditions of use

L.V.D.T:

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Introduction:
LVDT stands for Linearly Variable Differential Transformer. It is a passive transducer. It
converts displacement (linear or angular) into an electrical signal. Similar to a transformer it
works only on A.C. supply. It works on the principle of mutual inductance.
Construction:
It consists of a hollow concentric non-magnetic former on which three windings (one
primary and two secondary’s) are mounted as shown in Fig.
The core is normally made of
nickel iron alloy. It has a longitudinal
slot for reducing eddy current. The
core is movable and it can be
positioned with a non-magnetic rod.
The inner coil is a primary and the
two outer windings are secondary
which are connected in series
opposition.

Working:
When the primary winding is excited by suitable A.C. series it produces magnetic flux.
This mutual flux links the two secondary windings and as flux linkages change emf is
induced in both secondaries.
The o/p voltage of secondary S1
is ES1 and that of secondary S2 is ES2.
In order to convert the output from S1
and S2 into a single voltage signal.
Two secondary S1 and S2 are
connected in series opposition as
shown in Fig. Thus the output
voltage of the transducer is the
difference of the two voltages.

∴ Differential output voltage E0= ES1- ES2.......... (1)

1. When the core is at its normal position i.e. NULL position, the flux linking with both the
secondary windings is equal and hence equal emf are induced in them.
As a result; at NULL position ES1=ES2
Therefore...eq (1) becomes;
E0=ES1-ES1
∴E0=0
i.e. the o/p voltage at NULL position is zero.

NOTE COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 19

 2. Now, if the core is moved to the left of the
NULL position, more flux links with
windings S1 and less with winding S2.
Accordingly, the o/p voltage ES1 > ES2 and
the magnitude of o/p voltage E0=ES1-ES2
and the magnitude of o/p voltage is in
phase with primary winding ‘P’
3. Now, if the core is moved to the right of
the null position, the flux linking with
S2>S1 as a result ES2>ES1. And the
magnitude of o/p voltage E0=ES2-ES1 and
is 180o out of phase with the primary
voltage.
There is a phase shift as core moves both
to and fro from central position, so that the phase measured can be related to the direction of core
motion. Voltage variation with core is shown in fig.

Characteristics of LVDT;-
1. As shown in the figure the variation of output voltage versus displacement for various
positions of core.
2. The output voltage of an LVDT is a linear function
of core displacement with a limited range of
motion, ay about 5mm from null position as shown
below.
3. Beyond this range of displacement , the curve starts
to deviate from a straight line
4. Practically, due to harmonics present at primary for
zero displacement small voltage drops occur at
output called as residual voltage.
5. Then as the displacement increases the output voltage also increase linearly upto a certain
limit.
6. The curve is 00 in phase on right side and 1800 out off phase on left side.

LVDT Specifications:
1. Input voltage: 3V to 15V sinusoidal or 50Hz to 20Hz
2. Stroke: 0.1mm to 76mm
3. Sensitivity; 0.6 to 30 mV/V
4. Power consumption: less than 1W

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 5. Output impedance; less than 50Ω
6. Resolution: Commercial LVDT’s have resolution of 2µm.

Advantages:
1. It has excellent linearity
2. It has high sensitivity
3. It has rugged construction and small size
4. There is no physical contact between core and coils thus there is no friction or wear.
5. It is reusable and of reasonable cost.
Disadvantages:
1. Many a time, the transducer performance is affected by vibrations.
2. Relatively large displacement is required for appreciable differential output.
3. The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on A.C. signals or a demodulator
network must be used of a D.C. o/p is required.
Applications:
1. Tip of Bourdon tube can be connected to LVDT core and pressure measurement is
possible.
2. Float of rota meter can be connected to LVDT core and flow measurement is done.
3. Similarly, it can be used for measurement of force, material thickness and level, etc
 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer(RVDT):

A variation of linear
differential may be used to sense
angular displacement. This is the
Rotary Variable Differential
Transformer (RVDT). The circuit
of RVDT is shown in fig. it is
similar to the LVDT except that its
core is cam shaped and may be
rotated between the windings by
means of a shaft.
The operation of a RVDT is similar to that of an LVDT. At the NULL position of the
core, the output voltages of secondary winding S1 & S2 are equal and in opposition. Therefore
the net output is zero. Any angular displacement from the NULL position will result in a
differential voltage output. The greater the angular displacement the greater will be the
differential output. Hence the response of the transducer is linear.
C.W. rotation produces an increasing voltage of a secondary winding of one phase while
C.C.W. rotation produces an increasing voltage of opposite phase. Hence, the amount of angular
displacement and its direction may be as certained from the magnitude and phase of the output
voltage of the transducer.

Specification of RVDT:-

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 1. Extremely rugged transducer :- Can operate in harsh environments.
2. Infinite resolution :- Very small increment of movement are measured.
3. Absolute measurement :- No loss of position upon power down
4. Analog input and output :- Signal conditioning compatible with most system.
5. Excellent repeatability:- Can perform very precise go/no- go application.

Advantages:-
1. The main advantages of RVDTs are infinite resolution and linear operation
2. Provide facility of clockwise as well as anticlockwise angular displacement
measurement.

Disadvantages:-
1. The range of most linear operation for a typical RVDT is only about ±40°, although it is
360° rotation device.
2. Better linearity in small angular displacement measurement only.
3. Resolution of very small fractions of a degree is achieved in actual practice, but
theoretically it has high resolution.

Application:-
1. Angular displacement measurement in automotive and defence industries where
minimum friction is required
2. In flight control system
3. Steering and breaking control system of automobile

Selection of Displacement transducer is depend upon following factors:-

1. The accuracy required in measurement
2. Resolution required
3. The size of the displacement to be measured
4. The type of displacement to be measured
5. The cost of the transducer
6. The material used for the transducer

Optical Measurement Scale and Encoders:-

A. Optical Measurement scale;-

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 For linear measurement, the encoders used commonly called the scale are one or
more sets of parallel lines of constant or specially coded pitch supported by a plate.
Working:- The Encoders mechanical
input is coupled to the moving plate to
operate the light shutter for the position
shown in the figure, the light sensor will
indicate maximum light intensity. After
the moving plate has advanced one line
width the opaque lines on the moving plate
will cover the transparent lines on the
stationary plate and light transmission will
be minimum theoretically zero. In practice
some clearance must be maintained
between the stationary and moving plates. Consequently some light will leak through the gap
when in its fully closed position. The light sensor is calibrated to give the exact position of the
moving plate.

B. Optical Encoders:- The optical encoder was the earliest of the non-contact type
devices, developed to eliminate the wear problem inherent with contact encoders.
Present day optical encoders provide the highest resolution and encoding accuracy
and can be operated
efficiently at high
speeds. Typically it
consist of a rotating and
a stationary members.
The rotor is usually a
metal glass or a plastic
disc mounted on the
encoder shaft. The disc
has some kind of optical encoder, uses opaque and transparent segment arranged in a
grey code pattern. The stator has corresponding pairs of LEDs and phototransistors
arranged so that the LED light shines through the transparent sections of the rotor disc
and received by phototransistor on the other side. After the electronic signals are
amplified and converted they are then available for the evaluation of the position.

Advantages:-
1. Very high accuracy in rotary measurement
2. Sensitive for small displacement
3. Low hysteresis
4. Useful as a noncontact type displacement measuring device.

Disadvantages:-

NOTE COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 23

 1. Encoded disc manufacturing is critical
2. High cost

Application:- For measurement of linear and angular displacement

Complete List of Formula:-

1. Span = Upper limit – Lower Limit

2. Error,E = (Vm - Vt); Correction,C = -E
𝑉𝑚−𝑉𝑡
3. Relative erroror percentage of true value = x 100
𝑉𝑡
4. Dead Zone = %of span
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 ∆ 𝑜/𝑝
5. Static Sensitivity, K = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 ; K = ∆ 𝑖/𝑝
6. Overall Sensitivity,K =K1 x K2 x K3
7. Deflection Factor = 1/K
8. Resolution = (Degree of certainty x scale division of instrument)
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑡
9. Percentage overshoot = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 x 100
10. Overshoot = Suddenly obtained reading –Steady state reading
𝐴
11. Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor, C = εo εr 𝑡
Where, C = Capacitance
εo = Permitivity of free space = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
εr = Relative permittivity = 1 for air of plate (m2)
A = Area of Plate (m2)
t = Distance between plate (m)
12. Limiting error = % error x Full scale reading.

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