Chapter@2

Chapter-Two
Data Encoding
&
Transmission
Data Comm@Dessalegn G. 10/31/2019 1

Digital and Analog Signals
 analog signal is a  Digital signals must
continuous signal that have a finite set of
contains time-varying possible values
quantities  Discrete
 Finite range of values
Infinite range of values
(2)
More difficult to work  Easier to work with
with  Set of bit
 Wave

 An analog signal can be any time-varying
signal.
 Minimum and maximum values can be
either positive or negative.
 They can be periodic (repeating) or non-
periodic.
 Sine waves and square waves are two
common analog signals.
 Note that this square wave is not a digital
signal because its minimum value is
negative.
0 volts
Sine Wave Square Wave Random-Periodic

(not digital)
Period
Amplitude (T)
(peak)
1
Amplitude Frequency : F  Hz
(peak-to-peak) T

Before examining digital signals, we must define
logic levels. A logic level is a voltage level that
represents a defined digital state.
Logic HIGH: The higher of two voltages, typically 5
volts
Logic LOW: The lower of two voltages, typically 0
volts
5.0 v
Logic High Logic Voltage True/False On/Off 0/1
Level
2.0 v HIGH 5 volts True On 1

Invalid
Logic
0.8 v Level
Logic Low LOW 0 volts False Off 0

0.0 v
Digital…
Before examining digital signals, we must define logic levels.
A logic level is a voltage level that represents a defined
digital state.
Logic HIGH: The higher of two voltages, typically 5 volts
Logic LOW: The lower of two voltages, typically 0 volts
5.0 v
Logic High
Logic Level Voltage True/False On/Off 0/1
2.0 v
Invalid HIGH 5 volts True On 1
Logic
0.8 v Level
LOW 0 volts False Off 0
0.0 v Logic Low 6
Digital…
 Digital signal are commonly referred to as square waves or
clock signals.
 Their minimum value must be 0 volts, and their maximum
value must be 5 volts.
 They can be periodic (repeating) or non-periodic.
 The time the signal is high (tH) can vary anywhere from 1%
of the period to 99% of the period.
5 volts
0 volts

Amplitude:
For digital signals, this will ALWAYS be
5 volts. Falling Edge
Period:
The time it takes for a periodic signal to
repeat. (seconds)
Amplitude
Frequency: Time Time
A measure of the number of High Low
occurrences of the signal per second. (tH) (tL)
(Hertz, Hz)
Time High (tH):
The time the signal is at 5 v. Rising Edge
Time Low (tL): Period (T)
The time the signal is at 0 v.
Duty Cycle: Frequency:
The ratio of tH to the total period (T).
1 tH
Rising Edge: F Hz DutyCycle   100%
A 0-to-1 transition of the signal. T T
Falling Edge:
A 1-to-0 transition of the signal.

 What is Transmission Media ?
 is a pathway that carries the information from
sender to receiver.
 We use different types of cables or waves to
transmit data.
 Data is transmitted normally through electrical
or electromagnetic signals.
 Transmission media are located below the
physical layer
 Computers use signals to represent data.

 Signals are transmitted in form of electromagnetic
energy.

A twisted pair consists of two conductors
 Basically copper based
 With its own plastic insulation, twisted
together.
 Provide protection against cross talk or
interference(noise)
 One wire use to carry signals to the receiver
 Second wire used as a ground reference
 For twisting, after receiving the signal remains
same.
 Therefore number of twists per unit length,
determines the quality of cable.
 Advantages:
• Cheap, and Easy to work with
 Disadvantages:
• Low data rate and Short range
 Application:
 Very common medium
 Can be use in telephone network
 Connection Within the buildings
 For local area networks (LAN)

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
• Pair of unshielded wires wound around
each other and Easiest to install
 Application:
 Telephone subscribers connect to the central
telephone office
 DSL lines
 LAN – 10Mbps or 100Mbps
 Advantages of UTP:
 Affordable
 Most compatible cabling
 Major networking system
 Disadvantages of UTP:
 Suffers from external
Electromagnetic interference

Straight cable
 Straight cable is used to connect different type of devices.
 This type of cable will be used most of the time and can be used to:
 Connect a computer to a switch/hub's normal port.
 Connect a computer to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.
 Connect a router's WAN port to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.
 Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's uplink port. (normally

used for expanding network)
 Connect 2 switches/hubs with one of the switch/hub using an uplink

port and the other one using normal port.

 crossover cable is used to connect same type of
devices.
 A crossover cable can be used to:

 Connect 2 computers directly.
 Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's normal

port. (normally used for expanding network)
 Connect 2 switches/hubs by using normal port in both

switches/hubs.

 Pair of wires wound around each other placed
inside a protective foil wrap
 Metal braid or sheath foil that reduces
interference
 Harder to handle (thick, heavy)
Application:
 STP is used in IBM token ring networks.
 Higher transmission rates over longer distances.
Advantages of STP:
 Shielded and Faster than UTP
Disadvantages of STP:
 More expensive than UTP and High attenuation
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Co-axial
 Co-axial cable carries signal of higher frequency
ranges than twisted pair cable
 Inner conductor is a solid wire
 Outer conductor serves as a shield against noise
and a second conductor
 Coaxial
cables are categorized by Radio
Government (RG) ratings, RG is De Jure standards
Applications
 Most versatile medium
 Television distribution
 Long distance telephone transmission
 Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
 Short distance computer systems links
 Local area networks

Advantages
 Easy to wire
 Easy to expand
 Moderate level of Electro Magnetic
Interference
Disadvantage
 Single cable failure can take down an
entire network
 Cost of installation of a coaxial cable is
high due to its
 thickness and stiffness
 Cost of maintenance is also high

A fiber optic cable is made of glass or plastic
and transmit signals in the form of light.
Application
 Telecommunications
 Local Area Networks
 Cable TV
 CCTV
 Medical Education

Wireless (Unguided Media) Transmission
 Transmission and reception are  We can divide wireless
achieved by means of an antenna transmission into three broad
Directional: transmitting antenna groups:
puts out focused beam  radio waves

 microwaves
 transmitter and receiver must be
 infrared waves
aligned
Omnidirectional: signal spreads

out in all directions
 can be received by many antennas

25
Radio Waves
 Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and
1 GHz
 Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals

in all directions.
 Radio waves can travel long distances. This makes radio waves a
good candidate for long-distance broadcasting such as AM radio.
 One sender but many receivers.
 AM and FM radio, television, maritime and radios are examples

of multicasting
26
Microwaves
 Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300
GHz are called microwaves.
 Microwaves are unidirectional
 Two types of antennas are used for microwave communications:

the parabolic dish and the horn
 Microwaves are very useful when unicast (one-to-one)

communication is needed between the sender and the receiver.
They are used in cellular phones, satellite networks, and wireless

LANs
27
Transmission Impairments
 The Imperfection in transmission media causes signal
impairment
 What is sent is not what is received due to impairment
 Three causes of impairment are:
1) Attenuation
2)Distortion
3)Noise
 Attenuation means a loss of energy.
 Distortion means that the signal changes its form or
shape.
 Noise is another cause of impairment.
Several types of noise Example: thermal noise, induced
noise, crosstalk
Infrared
 Can be used for short-range communication
 Remote controls for TVs, VCRs, and stereos
 Indoor wireless LANs
 Do not pass through solid walls
 Better security and no interference (with a similar system

in adjacent rooms)
 Cannot be used outdoors (due to the sunshine)
29
 exist in all forms of data transmission
 Analog signal impairments result in random
modifications that impair signal quality
 Digital signal impairments result in bit errors
(1s and 0s transposed)

Transmission Impairments: in Guided
Media
 Attenuation
 loss of signal strength over distance
 Attenuation Distortion
 different losses at different frequencies
 Delay Distortion
 different speeds for different frequencies
 Noise
 distortions of signal caused by interference

Transmission Impairments: in Unguided
Media
 Free-Space Loss
 Signals disperse with distance
 Atmospheric Absorption
 Water vapor and oxygen contribute to signal
loss
 Multipath
 Obstacles reflect signal creating multiple copies
 Refraction
 Change in signal speed due to atmospheric
conditions
 Thermal Noise
 White noise, arises from thermal activity of
devices Data Comm@Dessalegn G. 11/20/2019 32
Encoding Techniques
 Digital data, analog signal modem
 Digital data, digital signal wired LAN
 Analog data, digital signal codec
 Analog data, analog signal

Digital data to Analog signal
Example? Modem
• Basis for analog signaling is a continuous,

constant-frequency signal known as the
carrier frequency.
• Digital data is encoded by modulating one of
the three characteristics of the carrier:
amplitude, frequency, or phase or some
combination of these.

A binary signal
Amplitude
modulation
Frequency
modulation
Phase modulation

 All advanced modems use a combination of
modulation techniques to transmit multiple bits
per baud.
 Multiple amplitude and multiple phase shifts are
combined to transmit several bits per symbol.
 QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) uses
multiple phase shifts per symbol.
 Modems actually use Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM).
 These concepts are explained using
constellation points where a point determines a
specific amplitude and phase.

Constellation Diagrams
(a) QPSK. (b) QAM-16. (c) QAM-64.

Digital Data, Digital Signals
[the technique used in a number of LANs]
 Digitalsignal – is a sequence of discrete,
discontinuous voltage pulses.
 Bit duration :the time it takes for the
transmitter to emit the bit.
 Issues
 Bit timing
 Recovery from signal
 Noise immunity

NRZ ( Non-Return-to-Zero) Codes
Uses two different voltage levels (one positive and
one negative) as the signal elements for the two
binary digits.
NRZ-L ( Non-Return-to-Zero-Level)
The voltage is constant during the bit interval.
1  negative voltage
0  positive voltage
NRZ-L is used for short distances between terminal

and modem or terminal and computer.

NRZ-I ( Non-Return-to-Zero-Invert on ones)
The voltage is constant during the bit interval.
1  existence of a signal transition at the beginning of the bit time

(either a low-to-high or a high-to-low transition)
0  no signal transition at the beginning of the bit time
NRZI is a differential encoding (i.e., the signal is

decoded by comparing the polarity of adjacent
signal elements.)
Manchester encoding
• There is always a mid-bit transition {which is used as
a clocking mechanism}.
• The direction of the mid-bit transition represents the
digital data.
1  low-to-high transition
0  high-to-low transition
Consequently, there may be a second transition at the

beginning of the bit interval.
Used in 802.3 baseband coaxial cable and CSMA/CD
twisted pair.

Differential Manchester encoding
 mid-bit transition is ONLY for clocking.
1  absence of transition at the beginning of the bit interval

0  presence of transition at the beginning of the bit interval
Note – the coding is the opposite convention from

NRZI.
Used in 802.5 (token ring) with twisted pair.
* Modulation rate for Manchester and Differential
Manchester is twice the data rate  inefficient
encoding for long-distance applications.

Bi-Polar Encoding
1  alternating +1/2 , -1/2 voltage

0  0 voltage
 Has the same issues as NRZI for a long string

of 0’s.
 A systemic problem with polar is the polarity
can be backwards.

Analog Data, Digital Signals
[Example – PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)]
 The most common technique for using digital
signals to encode analog data is PCM.
 Example: To transfer analog voice signals off a
local loop to digital end office within the phone
system, one uses a codec.
 Because voice data limited to frequencies
below 4000 HZ, a codec makes 8000
samples/sec. (i.e., 125 microsec/sample).
Assignment:- Discus all types of encoding schema
compare and contrast them with their merit and
demerit as well as application area

 digitization is conversion of analog data into
digital data which can then:
 be transmitted using NRZ-L,Manchester,
bipolar …..
 be converted to analog signal
 analog to digital conversion done using a codec

 Codec-coder –decoder
Encoding schema
pulse code modulation
delta modulation

Delta Modulation (DM)
 The basic idea in delta modulation is to
approximate the derivative of analog signal
rather than its amplitude.
 The analog data is approximated by a staircase
function that moves up or down by one
quantization level at each sampling time.
 output of DM is a single bit.
 PCM preferred because of better SNR
characteristics.

Analog Data, analog Signal
 If the input signal

is transmitted as
it is.
 Encoding schema
 Amplitude
modulation
 Frequency
modulation
 Phase
modulation

 The data link control (DLC) deals with procedures
for communication between two adjacent nodes no
matter whether the link is dedicated or broadcast.
Data link control functions include framing and flow
and error control.
 DLC-data link control is a service that ensures
reliable network
 DLC is managing frame error detection and flow
control.
 DLC is based on the Data Link layer of the OSI
model.

 DLC handles the following tasks:
 Reliable link packet transmission.
 Recovery and error detection during high-layer
packet retransmission
 Error framing, through:
 length counts,
 bit-oriented framing and
 character-oriented framing
 DLC character codes are based on standard character

Codes:
 American Standard Code for Information Interchange
 Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (E
 DLC character codes are based on standard
character codes,
 American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII).
 Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
 Network interface cards have a DLC address that
identifies each card
 for instance, Ethernet and other types of cards
have a 48-bit MAC address built into the cards'
firmware when they are manufactured.

 Framing and link access
 encapsulation of packets (datagrams) into
frames adding header & trailer; addresses in
header not IP addresses;
 implementing access to transmission medium
(easier for point to point links, than for more
involved shared medium)
 Error detection (and correction): detection
(correction) of a frames with errors introduced by
the transmission system;

 Flow control: ensuring the sending entity does not
overwhelm the receiving entity; important even
over an error free link;
 Error control: its function is to deliver frames
without errors, duplication and in the proper order
to the upper layer;

 encapsulate datagram into frame, adding
header, trailer
 physical addresses’ used in frame headers to identify
source, dest
 different from IP address!
 Frame Identification Methods:

1. Byte counts
2. Starting/ending bytes [byte stuffing]
3. Starting/ending flags [bit stuffing]
4. Using physical layer coding violations (i.e.,
invalid physical codes)

PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) Frame
Format
1byte 1byte 1byte 2byte 2byte 1byte

Ethernet IEEE 802.2
Frame format
Destination and Source Service Access Points

(DSAP and SSAP) are essentially protocol IDs
11/20/2019 11:51 PM Data@Dessalegn G, 57

HDLC Frame Format
Flag
1111110 AddressControl Information FCS Flag
 high-level data link control
 Flag: delineate frame boundaries
 Address: identify secondary station (1 or more octets
 In ABM mode, a station can act as primary or
secondary so address changes accordingly
 Control: purpose & functions of frame (1 or 2 octets
 Information: contains user data; length not
standardized, but implementations impose maximum
 Frame Check Sequence: 16- or 32-bit CRC
Bit Stuffing
 Each frame begins and ends with a special bit
pattern called a flag byte [01111110]. {Note this is
7E in hex}
 uses bit stuffing to prevent occurrence of flag
01111110 inside the frame
 Transmitter inserts extra 0 after each consecutive
five 1s inside the frame
 Receiver checks for five consecutive 1s
if next bit = 0, it is removed
if next two bits are 10, then flag is detected
If next two bits are 11, then frame has errors
Example

Error Detection and Control
 It is possible to develop data transmission

methodologies that give very high error
detection and correction performance.
 The only way to do error detection and
correction is to send extra data with each
message.
 In general, the larger the amount of error
detection data sent, the greater the ability
to detect an error.
Error Detection and correction
 Additional bits added by transmitter as

error detection code
 receiver checks this code
 Methods or Error detection.
Parity Checking
Longitudinal redundancy checking
Polynomial checking
Checksum
Cyclic Redundancy
Single-bit error
A burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data

unit have changed.
11/20/2019 11:51 PM Data@Dessalegn G, 10.63

Error Detection: Parity Bits
 Bit added to each character Single Bit Parit

to make all bits add up to
Detect single bit erro
an even number (even
parity) or odd number (odd
parity)
 Good for detecting single-
bit errors only
 Even number of bit errors
goes undetected

Two Dimensional Bit
Parity:
Detect and correct single bit errors

Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)
(Horizontal Redundancy Check)
 is a form of redundancy check that is applied
independently to each of a parallel group of bit
streams.
 The data must be divided into transmission blocks,
to which the additional check data is added.
 The term usually applies to a single parity bit per
bit stream, calculated independently of all the other
bit streams 11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001
11100111
11011101
00111001
10101001
10101010
11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001 10101010
Original Data LRC
Cyclic Redundancy Check
 Powerful error detection scheme
 commonly used in digital networks
 Blocks of data entering these systems get a short

check value attached, based on the remainder of a
polynomial division
 implemented with small amount of hardware
 Shift registers
 XOR (for addition and subtraction)

Transmitter
 For a k-bit block, transmitter generates an
N(k)- bit frame check sequence (FCS)
 Where N(K) is less than predetermine number
 Resulting FCS of k bits is exactly divisible by
predetermined number
 Receiver
 Divides incoming frame by predetermined
number
 If no remainder, assumes no error

 Assignment: Discus Error detection and correction
mechanisms?

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Chapter-Two

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Sine Wave Square Wave Random-Periodic

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2.0 v HIGH 5 volts True On 1

Logic Low LOW 0 volts False Off 0

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 Straight cable is used to connect different type of devices.

 Connect a computer to a switch/hub's normal port.

 Connect a computer to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.

 Connect a router's WAN port to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.

 Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's uplink port. (normally

 Connect 2 switches/hubs with one of the switch/hub using an uplink

Data Comm@Dessalegn G. 11/20/2019 16

 A crossover cable can be used to:

 Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's normal

 Connect 2 switches/hubs by using normal port in both

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Directional: transmitting antenna groups:

puts out focused beam  radio waves

Omnidirectional: signal spreads

 can be received by many antennas

 Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals

 One sender but many receivers.

 AM and FM radio, television, maritime and radios are examples

 Microwaves are unidirectional

 Two types of antennas are used for microwave communications:

 Microwaves are very useful when unicast (one-to-one)

They are used in cellular phones, satellite networks, and wireless

 Remote controls for TVs, VCRs, and stereos

 Indoor wireless LANs

 Do not pass through solid walls

 Better security and no interference (with a similar system

 Cannot be used outdoors (due to the sunshine)

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• Basis for analog signaling is a continuous,

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(a) QPSK. (b) QAM-16. (c) QAM-64.

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NRZ-L is used for short distances between terminal

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1  existence of a signal transition at the beginning of the bit time

0  no signal transition at the beginning of the bit time

NRZI is a differential encoding (i.e., the signal is

Consequently, there may be a second transition at the

Data Comm@Dessalegn G. 11/20/2019 41

1  absence of transition at the beginning of the bit interval

Note – the coding is the opposite convention from

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1  alternating +1/2 , -1/2 voltage