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Contents
1 – Getting Started ............................................................................................................ 1
3 – Results ....................................................................................................................... 39
Index................................................................................................................................. 51
1 – Getting Started
Introduction
The objective of a load flow is to analyze the steady-state performance of the power system under
various operating conditions. It is the basic analysis tool for the planning, design and operation of any
electrical power systems. These could be distribution, industrial or transmission networks.
The basic load flow question for a known power system configuration is as follows:
Given:
The CYME Power Flow capabilities encompass solution algorithms for balanced and unbalanced
networks. The ones available in the application depend on your license key.
Unbalanced networks:
Voltage Drop
Newton-Raphson (Requires the CYME Distribution Analysis package or the CYME Secondary
Network Grid Analysis Module)
Balanced networks:
Voltage Drop
Fast Decoupled
Full Newton-Raphson
Gauss-Seidel
The Power Flow module operates in conjunction with other add-on modules, namely:
The Harmonic Analysis: to communicate the fundamental frequency voltages and currents for
harmonic distortion calculations.
The Stability Analysis: to communicate the initial conditions to the transient stability Analysis
Program.
The Dynamic Motor Start Analysis: to account for system wide voltage drops during motor start.
System parameters
Base Power Defines the base for the per-unit impedance of the Substation Equivalent
and for the per-unit Thevenin impedance you can request in the Short-
circuit report. (CYME calculates with ohm values, not per-unit.) With the
DC Load Flow and/or the DC Short-Circuit Analysis optional modules,
you will be able to set the DC Base Power value as well.
Base Voltage (e.g., 120V, 12,470V) is the voltage to which the base voltage results will
refer to. You may change it anytime.
Earth Return Model To determine the method used to calculate line impedances and
admittances for overhead lines (balanced and unbalanced), by-phase
lines, double-circuits and unshielded cables. Both models are based on
Carson’s equations.
Infinite & Uniform:
Earth is modeled as an infinite, uniform solid with a flat uniform upper
surface and a constant resistivity. Any end effects introduced at the
neutral grounding points are not large at power frequencies, and are
therefore neglected. This method is valid for low frequency systems.
When using conductor equipment, GMR and diameter are used for
calculation.
Note: This method can’t be used if the number of conductors
per phase is greater than one. In this case, the complex
plane model will be used.
Complex Plane:
Earth is modeled as a complex ground return plane. The model was
initially proposed by C. Gary to approximate Carson’s infinite series
equation for the whole range of frequencies and for the for multi-layer
ground return. (Reference: C. Gary, "Approche Complète de la Propagation
Multifilaire en Haute Fréquence par Utilisation des Matrices Complexes", EDF
Bulletin de la Direction des Études et Recherches-Série B, No. 3/4, 1976, pp. 5-
20.)
When using conductor equipment, internal and external diameters are
used but not GMR.
Note: If the spacing is defined with GMD, the impedances
will be calculated using the infinite and uniform model.
Balanced Line and Two options are available: Nominal PI and Distributed Transposed.
Cable Model By default, the lines are modeled based on the Nominal PI model.
The Distributed Transposed option applies only to balanced lines and
cables with user-defined impedances that are of equal length or longer
than the threshold specified in the field right below. With this option
selected, the program applies correction factors to the Nominal PI model
in order to calculate the impedances more precisely.
For section length With the Distributed Transposed option selected, the program applies
longer than that model to balanced lines or cables of equal length or longer than the
length the user indicates here.
Energy Cost The energy cost per kWh is used for the calculation of the cost of losses.
Study preferences
The study preferences are subdivided into categories such as units, user defined simulation text and
parameters. The parameters to look for are at the Units tab, the Text tab and the Simulation tab.
A summary of these parameters is listed below for quick reference. For more information, please see
the CYME Reference manual.
Units parameters
This includes the system of units (Metric or Imperial), electrical and conductor impedance units and load
type.
Text parameters
Phase Text Labels to be displayed for each of phases A, B and
C.
Loading Limit Text To enter the label text you want to use to describe
the Equipment Rating values in the dialog boxes.
Capacity Flag Levels Enter the label texts to describe the equipment
Text Capacity Flag levels in the various dialog boxes
where they are used.
Network Grouping To enter the text of the field labels that indicate the
and Sorting Levels grouping levels of the networks, and to determine
the order into which they will be sorted.
Simulation parameters
Voltage Mismatch To enter the minimum and maximum allowable percentage difference
Allowed between the system voltage and the equipment rated voltage before
transmitting a warning.
It is also possible to run the Load Flow simulation from the menu Analysis > Load Flow. This will
display the Load Flow Analysis dialog box with the Parameters Tab selected.
The Load Flow Analysis dialog box comprises six tabs that will allow you to set the:
Load Flow analysis Parameters including any Load or Generation Scaling Factors.
The Voltage Limits for bus and/or customer load voltage violations.
Parameters tab
Configuration
It is possible to create multiple Load Flow analysis templates, each with different simulation parameters.
The use of these templates eases the study of scenarios since the user only has to choose a
configuration instead of checking and un-checking options. These Load Flow analysis templates are
also available for selection when running other analyses that use the load flow.
To create a Load Flow analysis template, go to the Configuration group box and click on the icon
to start the creation by giving a name to your new template. Choose the analysis parameters to be
associated with this template and click on from the Load Flow Analysis dialog box.
To remove a template, select its name in the Configuration combo box list and click on the icon. To
To restore the calculation parameters to default ones, click on the button at the bottom
of the dialog box.
Convergence parameters
Tolerance If the mismatch between two successive iterations is within the specified
tolerance, then the load flow will declare convergence of the network.
Depending on the calculation method selected, the tolerance will be
expressed in % voltage deviation (dV) or in MVA power mismatch.
Iterations Limits the total number of iterations to a pre-defined number. The number of
iterations can be increased if the program does not converge.
As an example, the Fast-Decoupled method will normally converges within
10-20 iterations. The Gauss-Seidel method may require much more
iterations.
Flat Start Check this option to initialize all Voltages to the system nominal voltages
(At Nominal (usually 1.0 p.u.) prior to the first load flow iteration. All Capacitors, Tap
Conditions) Changers, Regulators and Generators will also be initialized to their initial
states as defined in the network settings.
If you do not check this option, the states and voltages of the previous load
flow will be re-submitted as initial conditions for the load flow calculation.
Remove All If this option is checked then the load flow will be solved by relaxing all the
Constraints constraints on Generators (Qmax and Qmin), Load Tap Changing
Transformers and Regulators.
Note: This is useful for networks that have difficulty converging
since the results of the load flow, with relaxed
constraints, can provide useful tips as to where the
problem may be.
Calculation options
Assume Line When performing an Unbalanced Load Flow, you have the option to
Transposition assume or not line transposition in the calculation of the overhead line
impedance matrix. This option has an effect on the calculation only when
the overhead lines are modeled By-Phase with a valid phase position.
Include Line To include line charging in the load flow calculation. Usually, for a low
Charging voltage line of short distance, the line charging can be neglected.
Adjust Enable this option to have access to the Impedance Adjustment dialog
Impedances box (Edit button), which allows adjusting the conductor resistance according
to temperature, and adjusting transformer impedance and line and cable
length according to tolerances.
For cables, you may select to adjust the conductor resistance using the
Operating Temperature as defined in the cable settings, the Continuous
operating temperature rating as defined the equipment properties or a
User defined temperature.
Enable the Adjust impedances using tolerances checkbox to adjust:
Evaluate State This option requires the Secondary Network Grid Analysis Module.
of Network Should this option be selected, then the analysis would take into
Protectors consideration the fact that Network Protectors would open if backward flow
is detected. Users can set a number of Maximum attempts within which
the analysis will try to find a solution for the final state of the network
protectors for the configuration of the network under study.
Simulation conditions
Ambient Temperature controlled capacitors will be switched on or off based on the
Temperature ambient temperature specified here.
Time Time controlled capacitors will be switched on or off based on the time
specified here.
This parameter may also be used as a simulation starting time for the Long-
Term Dynamics analysis.
As Defined
Global
By Zone
By Network
By default, the factors will be set to “As Defined” and implies that no scaling factors will be applied to
any of the equipment.
Global factors apply to all Loads, Motors or Generators in the network. The factor for each data entry
field implies that the actual value of (P, Q) as entered in the network settings or database will be
multiplied by the Factor/100%. For the power factor, the values defined in the network settings will be
replaced by the global power factor for the purpose of the simulation.
By Zone implies that the factors will apply on specified zones of the network.
By default, all factors are set to 100 %. To Edit the default values or to Create a new set of factors, click
on the icon. For loads, for example, the Load Scaling Factors (by Zone) dialog box with a listing
of all zones defined in the network and the default P and Q values will be displayed on screen.
Click on the icon to create a new set of user defined scaling factors to be applied on the respective
zones. A dialog will prompt you for a name. Enter the desired name (ex: Light Load).
When creating a new set of factors, you have the option to initialize the values using default values
(Use default values) or to copy existing values from another template (Use values from).
To delete a user defined set of factors click on the icon. The same applies to Generators (P, Qmin,
Qmax) and Motors (P, PF).
By Load/Motor/Generator Type implies that the factors will apply on the specified equipments only.
Click on the icon to edit the factors. For Loads for example, this option multiplies all Active (P) and
Reactive (Q) loads separately based on their customer type assignments. Type in the factors in the
spaces provided. For example: Setting the active load factor (P) = 110 % implies that the load entered
in the Load Properties dialog box will be multiplied by 1.1 (10% increase). Check the option P=Q if you
wish to enter the same values for the active and reactive power.
Any number of templates (set of factors) can be created. For example, a set of factors could represent a
specific period (time of day, season, peak etc) or a specific study mode (Planning, Design, etc). To
select a template, click on the symbol and select the desired name.
For Motors, scaling factors can be applied to Induction and Synchronous Motors separately.
For Generators, scaling factors can be applied to synchronous generators, induction generators,
electronically coupled generators, wind energy conversion systems, solid oxide fuel cells, photovoltaic
and micro-turbines. The reactive power generation factors (Qmin and Qmax) will multiply the values
specified in the network settings.
By Network implies that the factors can be different for each network.
By default, all factors are set to 100 %. To Edit the default values or to Create a new set of factors, click
on the icon. The Load Scaling Factors (by Zone) dialog box lists all networks available with the
default P and Q values for each.
Click on the icon to create a new set of user defined scaling factors to be applied per network. A
dialog will prompt you for a name. Enter the desired name (ex: Light Load).
When creating a new set of factors, you have the option to initialize the values using default values
(Use default values) or to copy existing values from another template (Use values from).
The relation between the load power and applied voltage can be expressed as:
𝑛𝑃
𝑉
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 × ( )
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑛𝑄
𝑉
𝑄 = 𝑄𝑜 × ( )
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
Where:
Po = Nominal Active Power
Qo = Nominal Reactive Power
When the network is heavily loaded and the voltages are lower than nominal as a result, it is
mathematically “easier” to solve the network if the load is mostly of the constant impedance type. In that
case, as the calculated voltage decreases, the load power decreases faster. This means less current
flowing to the load and therefore less voltage drop in the subsequent iteration.
Conversely, if the load is constant power, then the power does not change when the voltage tends to
drop. The current drawn by the load then has to increase, and thus aggravating the voltage drop in the
circuit.
The Voltage Threshold parameter is mainly used as a mathematical parameter helping the
convergence of heavily loaded systems by converting all loads where the voltage falls below the
specified limit to constant impedance. To avoid unexpected conversions of load models during the
simulation, it is recommended to set (Vz) to a low value (<=80%).
Five options are offered to define the voltage sensitivity load models: As Defined, Global, By Zone, By
Load Type or By Network
As Defined is the mode selected by default. In this mode, the sensitivity factors and voltage thresholds
are automatically selected from the default Customer Type Library.
As Defined implies that the sensitivity model is customizable per load type and the load model can be
selected from three load model types:
Exponent model
Click on the icon to view or modify the default values of the customer type library. The Customer
Type Library is part of the network settings. For more information on creating new Customer Types
and/or editing the default library values, refer to chapters on Network Types and Customer Types
(Network menu) in the CYME Reference Manual.
Global allows applying the same exponent sensitivity factors (nP, nQ) and voltage threshold (Vz) to all
loads in the network. The exponent sensitivity factors must be specified in p.u. and the voltage
threshold in %.
By Zone implies that the exponent factors and voltage threshold will apply to all the loads of the
selected zones.
To “Edit” the default values or “Create” a new set of factors click on the icon.
Note: If you have the optional Transient Stability Analysis module, additional entries will be
available in this group box to specify the Frequency Sensitivity factors. Refer to the Transient
Analysis User Guide for further information.
By Network implies that the factors can be different for each network.
To Edit the default values or to Create a new set of factors, click on the icon. The Voltage
Sensitivity Load Model (by Zone) dialog box lists all networks available with the default P and Q
values for each.
Click on the icon to create a new set of user defined scaling factors to be applied per network. A
dialog will prompt you for a name. Enter the desired name (ex: Light Load).
When creating a new set of factors, you have the option to initialize the values using default values
(Use default values) or to copy existing values from another template (Use values from).
When a new voltage sensitivity load model is created, it is possible to choose the load model type (ZIP,
exponent or mixed) to be used.
Where:
Z: Constant Impedance %
I: Constant Current %
P: Constant Power %
The values entered for the constant impedance (Z), constant current (I), and constant power (P) must
add up to 100 %.
Note: For the Fast Decoupled, the Gauss-Seidel and the Newton-Raphson balanced calculation
methods, the ZIP model will be converted to an equivalent Exponent Model during the
simulation using an average value of the weighted sum given by the following:
∑𝑖 𝑃𝑖 (𝑛𝑃𝑖 ) ∑𝑖 𝑄𝑖 (𝑛𝑄𝑖 )
𝑛𝑃 = ∑𝑖 𝑃𝑖
𝑛𝑄 = ∑ 𝑖 𝑄𝑖
Where:
Pi and Qi are the % of active and reactive power component of the load.
nPi and nQi are the nP and nQ exponents assigned to each component of the load.
∑Pi and ∑Qi are both equal to 100 %. (The sum of all load types cannot exceed 100 %.)
Exponent model
Where:
To create a new Voltage Sensitivity Load Model, click on the icon to create a new set of user
defined voltage sensitivity and threshold factors. The following dialog will be displayed:
Name Enter the name for the particular Voltage Sensitivity Load Model.
Type Select the Voltage Sensitivity Load Model Type: Zip, Exponent or Mixed.
From Copy the values from another voltage sensitivity load model
From Default Copy the values from the default Customer Type Library
Values
Calculation methods
Newton-Raphson unbalanced
The radial structure of distribution systems, the high X/R ratio and the large number of components are
the classical arguments for choosing the utilization of the Voltage Drop based on Backward/Forward
Sweep (BFS) methods to solve the distribution load flow problem. However, new complex systems are
being modeled and have different configurations causing the failure of the traditional algorithms. Such
systems include underground secondary networks (urban grid systems or spot networks), low voltage
installations, and sub-transmission systems tied to the distribution systems. This has transformed the
homogeneous distribution system into a heterogeneous complex system.
The Newton-Raphson Unbalanced is a general, efficient and comprehensive load flow analysis
algorithm exploiting the modified augmented nodal analysis approach (MANA). The design is principally
oriented to solve complex electrical power systems and underground secondary networks (urban grid
systems or spot networks). However, the proposed method is also applicable to balanced, unbalanced,
radial and highly meshed secondary networks, industrial and transmission systems.
The Newton-Raphson Unbalanced method of solving the power-flow problem is an iterative algorithm
for solving a set of simultaneous non-linear equations and an equal number of unknowns based on the
Taylor’s series expansion for a function of two or more variables. The main difference between this
method and the traditional Newton-Raphson Balanced method is that the Newton-Raphson Unbalanced
is based on multi-phase real value coordinates instead of symmetrical components per-unit values,
hence capable of handling more complex systems.
The main equation used by the Newton method is defined by:
𝐽𝑘 ∙ ∆𝑥 𝑘 = −𝑓 𝑘
Where:
k
J : Jacobian matrix at iteration k.
k
f : Mismatch vector at iteration k.
k
∆x : The correction vector at iteration k.
For complex system analysis, the main system of equations is built using the abridged MANA
formulation below:
𝑡 𝑡
𝑌𝑛 𝑉𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐷𝑏𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝑆𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑉𝑛 𝐼𝑛
𝑉𝑎𝑑𝑗 0 0 0 𝐼𝑉𝑠 𝑉
= [ 𝑠]
𝐷𝑏𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟 0 0 0 𝐼𝑉𝑑 0
[ 𝑆𝑎𝑑𝑗 0 0 𝑆𝑧 ] [𝐼𝑆𝑊 ] 0
Where:
Vadj : Voltage source adjacency matrix, for all voltage source types.
Note: The Newton-Raphson Unbalanced method is available with the CYME Secondary Network
Grid Analysis Module.
Gauss-Seidel balanced
Transmission network power flow analysis techniques are specifically designed for balanced three
phase systems and may exhibit poor convergence characteristics when applied to radial distribution
type feeders.
The set of system equations are typically non-linear, and solving them does require the use of iterative
algorithms.
In order to illustrate the remaining three solution algorithms, we will use the following simple 3-Bus DC
System.
3-Bus DC System
The impedance matrix equation for the three bus system can be expressed as:
𝑖1 𝑦11 𝑦12 𝑦13 𝑣1
[𝑖2 ] = [𝑦21 𝑦22 𝑦23 ] [𝑣2 ]
𝑖3 𝑦31 𝑦32 𝑦33 𝑣3
The bus voltage equations for Bus V2 and V3 can be expressed as a function of the active power,
admittance and system voltages as follows:
1 𝑝2
𝑣2 = [ − (𝑦21 𝑣1 + 𝑦23 𝑣3 )]
𝑦22 𝑣2
1 −𝑝3
𝑣3 = [ − (𝑦31 𝑣1 + 𝑦32 𝑣2 )]
𝑦33 𝑣3
Since these
are non-
linear
equations
then an
iterative
technique
must be
adopted
with an
initial guess
for the
voltages
(Flat Start)
of 1.0 p.u as
illustrated in
the following
flow chart
for the
Gauss-
Seidel
algorithm:
Hint: The Gauss-Seidel method may offer better chances for convergence in networks with
significant resistance in them. (Branches with X/R < 1.0). Note that this method normally
requires a greater number of iterations to converge to the solution than the other solution
methods.
Newton-Raphson balanced
The Newton-Raphson method of solving the power-flow problem is an iterative algorithm for solving a
set of simultaneous non-linear equations and an equal number of unknowns based on the Taylor’s
series expansion for a function of two or more variables.
The power equations at each bus will be as follows:
𝑝1 = 𝑣1 (𝑦11 𝑣1 + 𝑦12 𝑣2 + 𝑦13 𝑣3 )
𝑝2 = 𝑣2 (𝑦21 𝑣1 + 𝑦22 𝑣2 + 𝑦23 𝑣3 )
𝑝3 = 𝑣3 (𝑦31 𝑣1 + 𝑦32 𝑣2 + 𝑦33 𝑣3 )
𝜕𝑝2
= 𝑦21 𝑣1 + 2𝑦22 𝑣2 + 𝑦23 𝑣3
𝜕𝑣2
𝜕𝑝2
= 𝑦23 𝑣2
𝜕𝑣3
𝜕𝑝3
= 𝑦32 𝑣3
𝜕𝑣2
𝜕𝑝3
= 𝑦31 𝑣1 + 2𝑦32 𝑣2 + 𝑦33 𝑣3
𝜕𝑣3
Fast-Decoupled balanced
The Full Newton-Raphson method is formulated as:
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃
∆𝑃 𝜕𝑉 ] [ ∆𝛿 ]
[ ] = [ 𝜕𝛿
∆𝑄 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄 ∆𝑉
𝜕𝛿 𝜕𝑉
Where:
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
≅ 0, ≅0
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝛿
The active and reactive power derivative terms can be approximated by the following simplified
equations:
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
[∆𝑃] = [ ] [∆𝛿], [∆𝑄] = [ ] [∆𝑉]
𝜕𝛿 𝜕𝑉
The iterative technique of the Fast-Decoupled method is the same as the Newton-Raphson method.
Networks tab
Select in the list the networks to be analyzed. Click on the check box next to a network name to select
or de-select it individually. Click on the symbol to expand the list and on to collapse it again. All
selects every feeder loaded in the study. None de-selects all feeders.
Note: The Load Flow analysis can simultaneously solve multiple networks and networks with multiple
swing buses.
Controls tab
The modifications made in this dialog do not permanently change the status of capacitors, regulators,
transformers, generators and motors as defined in the network settings. Instead, it simply allows you
take them in and out of service for a particular analysis.
Include group box If the check box next to the item is unchecked then the devices of
that type are ignored (Off) for the analysis as they are considered
temporarily disconnected, even if their individual status indicates
that they are in service.
Lock switched If this item is checked, the state of shunt capacitors with capacitor
capacitors at their controls will be locked during the load flow. This can be used to
current state keep the state of a previous load flow.
Lock multi-stage If this item is checked, the shunt banks that are initially on in multi-
switchable shunts at stage switchable shunts will be locked during the load flow.
their current state
Normal Tap The Normal Tap Operation setting uses the taps as defined in the Network
Operation Settings.
Infinite Taps The Infinite Tap option does not consider any step; the regulated voltage
will then be exactly the desired voltage.
Hint: During the planning stage, you can select Infinite Taps to
ensure you get the exact desired voltage.
Lock Taps at If this option is checked then the load flow is solved by fixing the tap
their Specified position of all Load Tap Changing Transformers to the initial tap position
Positions as defined in the network settings.
Disable Tap This option has the same effect as setting the tap changer to its neutral
Changer position (no voltage adjustment).
Normal Tap The Normal Tap Operation setting uses the taps as defined in the Network
Operation Settings.
Normal Tap This option ensures that the final tap position will be the lowest tap position
Operation – required to maintain the voltage above the minimum range of set voltage
Lowest Tap in bandwidth.
Range
Normal Tap This option ensures that the final tap position will be the highest tap
Operation – position required to maintain the voltage at the maximum range of set
Highest Tap in voltage bandwidth.
Range
Infinite Taps The Infinite Tap option does not consider any step; the regulated voltage
will then be exactly the desired voltage.
Hint: During the planning stage, you can select Infinite Taps to
ensure you get the exact desired voltage.
Lock Taps at If this option is checked then the load flow is solved by fixing the tap
their Specified position of all Regulators to the initial tap position as defined in the network
Positions settings.
Disable Tap This option has the same effect as setting the tap changer to its neutral
Changer position (no voltage adjustment).
Disable Check this option to disable the tap operation of all regulators defined with
Regulators with a Python script control.
Python Scripts
DC Links
If the check box next to the item is unchecked then the DC Links are ignored (Off) for the analysis as
they are considered temporarily disconnected, even if their individual status indicates that they are in
service.
DC Systems
To include the results of the DC systems in the Load Flow analysis output. A valid license of the DC
Load Flow module is required for that option to be available. Refer to the DC Load Flow Analysis Users
Guide for more details.
Equipment Choose to use one of the five Equipment Ratings. “Nominal” is set in the
Ratings Equipment database.
The text that describes the Equipment Rating values in the dialog box can be
changed in the menu File > Preferences, under the Text tab.
Protective Select the protective device rating criteria to use to calculate the protective
Device device loadings. Choose from Use Equipment Ratings, Nominal Pickup or
Rating Individual Settings.
Limit In addition to the Equipment Ratings selected, you may also choose to apply a
Categories loading limit factor. Define a separate capacity level as a percentage to the
selected Equipment Rating. Five operating conditions can be defined, such as
Nominal, Emergency, and Planning.
Choose one of the limit categories and check the option Apply Loading
Limits Factors. If this optional loading limit factors are to be applied, the
selected one would be displayed in blue.
Limit This field is linked to the one displayed in the Loading Limits Tab. The chosen
Categories limit category is highlighted in blue in the System Voltage Limit table and in the
Customer Load Voltage Limits table.
System For each operating condition, the Over and Under Voltage limits to be used to
Voltage report any network component that violates these limits can be specified.
Limits These values are only criteria for evaluating whether a component is
experiencing over or under voltage conditions. They do not affect the
calculation.
The System Voltage Limits can be set to Global limits or By voltage range.
The Global Limits category applies the specified over-voltage and under-
voltage limits to all components of the networks. The By voltage range
category allows the definition of over-voltage and under-voltage limits for
different voltage ranges.
Customer Enable the Apply voltage limits by customer types if voltage limits are
Loads desired per customer type available in the networks.
Voltage
Limits
Output tab
Different output options are available upon the completion of the load flow analysis. These options
would allow the automatic generation of the reports selected and the display of results on the one-line
diagram.
Display the To display the load flow iteration report. Refer to section Solving the load
Iterations Report flow for further details.
This is a useful option if no solution is found, since you will be able to
inspect the Iteration Report to try to identify the portion of the network
that may be causing the problem. If this is the only time when an Iteration
Report is desired, enable the option Only on non-convergence.
Choose the option Use same iterations report to refresh the existing
iteration report instead of creating a new one at the end of every
simulation.
Display the To display the status box showing the parameter settings used and
Summary Status indicating whether any abnormal conditions were encountered (overload,
Dialog Box low-voltage, and high-voltage).
Check the Select checkbox to enable report display. Use the button in the Reports grid to select
the reports to be displayed, and use the drop-down menu to select the appropriate result tags, color
coding and/or tool tips configuration to be displayed.
At each iteration, the load flow computes the voltage at every section in the network. It compares the
new values with the values it calculated from the previous iteration and reports the section where the
voltage has changed the most (Max dV in %). The process continues until the solution is found or until
the maximum number of iterations is reached.
Any adjustment/status change for tap changers, generators and shunt capacitors are also listed for
each iteration.
If the calculation tolerance is expressed in MVA power mismatch, the following iteration report will be
displayed.
Hints: By inspecting this report, it is possible to determine whether devices are continually being
adjusted.
If so, try changing the settings of one or more of them before solving again.
3 – Results
Reports
To select and display the load flow reports click on the icon of the Simulation toolbar or select
Report > On Calculation from the menu.
See the Report Menu chapter in the CYME Reference Manual to learn about the various commands
available to use the predefined report forms and/or to generate sophisticated user defined reports
particularly through the use of XSL template.
Hint: Use the keyboard shortcut <Alt> + <V> to hide or show the Load Flow Box.
The description of the default data reported in the Load Flow Box is detailed below. Note that the
contents of the Load Flow Box can be customized. Refer to the Customize (Result boxes) chapter in
the CYME Reference Manual.
V base Voltage referred to the base voltage defined in File > System Parameters
dialog box.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑉
𝑣= 𝑥 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉
kVLL Line-to-line voltage at the secondary side, expressed in kV.
Exports the information table data to Microsoft Excel and opens the Excel
application with the data laid out in a spreadsheet.
Copies the content of the result grid onto the Clipboard to facilitate pasting
the contents into a document.
This option allows switching between the Default Result Box layout and the
Custom Result Box layout. A custom layout is a layout defined for a specific
device. The default layout applies to all devices. See the CYME Reference
Manual for more information.
Click on this button to decrease the number of decimals displayed in the Load
Flow Box.
Click on this button to increase the number of decimals displayed in the Load
Flow Box.
Allows holding the results displayed in the result box for the currently selected
location on the one-line diagram.
Click on this icon to zoom and center the monitored item in the display.
Please refer to the View menu chapter and the Customize menu of the CYME Reference Manual for
further details on the Result Box options.
Hint: Negative values will appear if the power is flowing from the load end toward the source end,
since flow (current and power) is defined as positive the other way.
Charts
The icon inside the Load Flow Box and in the Simulation Toolbar allows you to display the Chart
Selector dialog box where you can select the charts to plot (Voltage profile, kVA profile, kVAR profile,
etc.) along the network, from the substation to the node of the active section.
Apply on allows the user to plot simulation results of feeders from a selected node (traced to the
source) or a single network or all networks.
The Enable Filter option allows narrowing down the results tracing based on user-defined filters. See
the Customize > Filters chapter in the CYME Reference Manual for more information.
Select the desired charts from the list and click on Display to view the charts.
It is possible to print the selected chart once it is plotted via the File > Print menu command.
Note that the Load Flow Results Box (if displayed) will be superimposed on the plot. You may hide it
temporarily by closing its window. (Press <Alt> + <V> to get it back again.)
Hint: If any changes are made to the network, such as adding a load, the application will discard all
of the analysis results, and the results box will disappear.
The customization of the charts may be done through the menu Customize > Charts (or by clicking on
the Customize button in the Chart Selector dialog box). Refer to the Customize (Charts) chapter in the
CYME Reference Manual.
Hint: The Tool Tip can also be used to display the Tag contents. Hovering the mouse over a section
will display the tool tip. The contents of the tool tip can be modified. To do so, go to the Tool tips
group box of the View > Display Options dialog box.
Refer to the Display Options chapter in the CYME Reference Manual to learn how to customize and
create new one-line diagram color coding layer.
The abnormal conditions are displayed on the one-line diagram by clicking on the icon of the
analysis toolbar.
Convergence issues
Some networks may exhibit difficulty in converging or do not converge at all. This chapter provides
some hints as to what to look for.
Hints: Check that transformer voltages are entered in kV, not Volts. For example, 480 V is 0.48
kV, not 480 kV.
Make sure line and cable lengths are consistent with the unit of length specified. For
example 15000 ft. is 2.84 mi, not 15000 mi.
5. If the Max dV steadily decreases in the iteration report but remains higher than the specified
solution tolerance when the permitted number of iterations is exhausted, try increasing the number
of iterations before solving again. See Analysis > Load Flow, Parameters tab.
6. If the Max dV becomes large and repeatedly increases and then decreases in the iteration
report, look for a very high load downstream supplied through a large impedance.
7. Verify the settings of switched capacitors, regulators, LTC transformers, and generators. Make sure
that the control settings are adequate.
Hint: A Cancel button allows you to cancel the calculation before all of the permitted iterations are
performed, in case the calculation is not converging. Use it to save some time.
Hint: Ensure that transformer impedances are entered correctly in p.u. (0.075) or percent (7.5).
Make sure that line and cable lengths are consistent with the length unit used for defining the
impedance. (e.g., 200 m is 0.200 km).
2. If the Max dQ increases and decreases and devices are being adjusted at every iteration, try and
solve without constraints. If the calculation converges, try to identify from the results where the
problem comes from. (Example: excessive VAR requirements).
Hint: Perhaps two devices have been set to control the voltage at the same bus.
3. If the Fast-Decoupled or Newton-Raphson method does not converge even when the constraints
are deactivated, try the Gauss-Seidel method. Allow more iterations for this method.
4. If the Max dQ steadily decreases but remains higher than the specified solution tolerance when
the permitted number of iterations is exhausted, try increasing the number of iterations before
solving again, or de-activate the "flat start" option in the Convergence parameters group box of the
Parameters Tab dialog box and solve again immediately.
5. If the Max dQ repeatedly decreases and then increases suddenly, the solution (if it exists) may
be near an unstable point. Try to approach the case under study by successively modifying a
similar case, which has a solution.
Some Power Flow solutions (whether realistic or not) require that bus voltages attain very high ( > 1.10
p.u.) or very low (< 0.80 p.u.) values in order for the calculation to converge.
Examples: Small islanded generators, such as emergency generators, with heavy loads.
Industrial systems operation without connection to a utility grid.
Small utilities serving light loads connected to long transmission lines.
3. If trying to estimate how much load an islanded generator can carry, use the same technique,
and run successive power flows, each time gradually adding more load, until the generator output
reaches the limits of the real machine.
4. If there is more than one generator, apply the same technique. One generator operates as a
swing machine, of course. If necessary, adjust the settings of the other generator(s) to make the
Qmin and Qmax artificially very large (make Qmin = Qmax). If the solution shows the MVAR output
to be within the realistic limits of the generator, then the solution is a valid one. [The idea is to give
the calculation freedom to iterate toward the unusual solution.]
5. If long unloaded transmission lines are contributing many MVAR into the network, such that
the voltages are expected to attain very high values, apply the same technique, and set the
Operating kV of the generator’s bus to a value near what you expect (e.g., 1.20 p.u.). (There are,
however, many valid solutions.)
6. Use trial and error with the Operating kV to try to get the generator to produce (or absorb) its
minimum reactive power, Qmin. That should result in the lowest possible voltages.
Fixed generators are treated as constant (negative) MW and MVAR load. Fixed generation does
not affect what follows.
Swing generators share the required active and reactive generation equally, regardless of their
nominal MVA rating.
Voltage-controlled generators each produce their specified active generation (Pgen). Their share of
the reactive power required in the solution (Qgen) is computed as follows:
𝑄𝑔𝑒𝑛 − 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑥 (𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑞𝑚𝑖𝑛)
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛
Where:
qmin and qmax are the reactive limits of the particular generator.
Qmin and Qmax are the sums of the qmin's and qmax's of the voltage controlled generators
connected to the bus.
If Swing and Voltage-controlled generators are connected to the same bus, then each V-C generator
produces its specified active generation, and the swing generators share the excess.
In that case, the reactive power allocated to each voltage-controlled generator is calculated differently.
If Qgen exceeds Qmax, each voltage-controlled generator generates its Qmax, or If Qgen is less than
Qmin, each voltage controlled generator generates its Qmin. In either case, the swing generators
share the excess.