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cuAn !The Engineering Society

For Advancing Mobility
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880386

A Review of V.r ya gee Engine Valve

Timing
c. Gray
Ricardo Consulting Engineers plc

International Congress and Exposition

Detroit, Michigan
February 29-March 4, 1988
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Copyright ©1988 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.

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880386

A Review of Variable Engine Valve

Timing
C. Gray
Ricardo Consulting Engineers plc

ABSTRACT BENEFITS OF VVT

This paper presents a broad review of the
whole subject of variable valve timing applied
to both gasoline and diesel engines, including
related technology such as the use of
supplementary valves in the intake ports or
manifolds. The current motivation to provide
variable valve timing and the state of
development of mechanisms to achieve it are
discussed, followed by a prediction of
possible future trends.
IT HAS LONG BEEN KNOWN that improvements in
gasoline engine performance would be
obtainable if the valve timing were variable
so that it could be optimised for any
combination of engine speed and load
throughout the whole operating range of the
engine.
Since most work on VVT has been concerned
with gasoline engines the major part of this
paper relates to this type of engine but a
short discussion of the potential benefits for
diesel engines is also included.
The valve timing events of an engine are
shown in diagrammatic form in Fig. 1, For
gasoline engines it is generally found that
the timing of IVC and the length of the
overlap period are the main variables which
need to be controlled in order to achieve most
of the potential benefits of VVT.
TDC
Crankshaft

However, the difficulty of providing a

Overlap n Rotation
Period
variable valve timing (VVT) mechanism with
acceptable cost, durability and reliability
has meant that very few automotive engines in
normal production have ever been equipped with
VVT, but the scale of present effort on the
subject indicates that more applications of
VVT may be expected in the next few years.

Much of the literature on VVT describes EVO

particular devices for varying the valve
timing of an experimental engine, followed by
a summary of the improvements in engine
performance parameters resulting from
optimising the valve timing at each running BDC
condition. The present paper aims to restate
the main points of this literature, to provide
TOC-Top Dead Centre BDC -Bottom Dead Centre
a further example of engine performance IVO-Inlet Valve Opening IVC -Inlet Valve Closing
benefits, and to provide a coherent review of EVO-Exhaust Valve Opening EVC-Exhaust Valve Closing
some of the more recent publications so that
the possible ways forward can be identified
and further progress encouraged. Figure 1 Valve Timing Diagram

0148-7191/88/0229-0386$02.50
Copyright 1988 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
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2 880386

For gasoline engines, the emphasis in the In recent times there has been a shift of
past has been mainly on improving torque emphasis away from improvement of high-speed
throughout the speed range, and Fig. 2 shows torque towards improvement of fuel consumption
measurements taken on a typical modern 2 litre and smoothness of running at low speeds.
engine with three different values of IVC. Since fuel consumption is generally judged by
Details of the engine are given in the the results obtained on a driving cycle such
Appendix. The valve overlap and the exhaust as the ECE-15 fuel economy cycle, and
valve timing were held constant during these steady-state speeds at part loads, the results
tests. Although the results are presented as are affected to a large extent by the engine
a separate curve for each value of IVC, it can fuel consumption at light loads and at idle.
be seen that with continuously variable IVC It is therefore important to concentrate
the torque could be increased significantly in attention on these operating conditions. Fig.
comparison with the standard timing in both 3 shows fuel consumption contours at light
the upper and lower parts of the speed range. load and medium load for the same 2 litre
At low speeds this engine was knock limited; engine as before. It is seen that the best
otherwise the torque difference would have fuel consumption at these part loads is
been larger. obtained with early IVC and short overlap.
The reasons for this are uncertain but might
be associated with the lower residual gases.
Other forms of VVT investigated on the same
engine were:-
IVC 15 . Early
Std. (50*ABDC) - Variable valve overlap, with constant IVC
—1 VC 15" Late - Variable period cam, with constant angle
20 . 0verlap in all Cases
12 of peak lift

— 11
0
a 10
a-
IIIIMINMIN
MI 111 VVT.
Fig. 4 shows the IVC and overlap
variations with each of the three forms of

MIMI El
w
9 The benefits which could be obtained with
co the three alternative types of variable valve
8

7 IIIIIIIIIIIIIMII
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Engine Speed (rev/min)
timing when compared with fixed valve timing
are shown in Table 1. These values have all
been derived from test results of the same 2
litre engine. No allowance is made for
possible increased friction of the VVT
Figure 2 Effect of IVC on Full Load Brake mechanism.
Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP) for
Typical 2 Litre Gasoline Engine.

6 70
0
co
\Lark) bl e IVC
2000 rev/min Light Load
2200 rev/min Medium Loud ta-

70 rn
60
I
Va riabte
P eriod
60 Elir.- 1 101 rn

i
1.0
<
ill 0•98
c 50
0
Var'able ---
098 IAlggigfiM I l --07.96 a Overtop
ct 50
M
0 . 97 .....
0.95
MO ---• 095
U

0 . 95 --0.94
j 40
40 1111. - 11 0 93

30 3020
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 20 40 60
Overlap deg.) Overtop Period ( deg.crank)

Figure 3 Relative Specific Fuel Consumption Figure 4. Combinations of Inlet Valve Closing
Contours at Part Loads for Typical 2 Angle and Overlap Period Used in
Litre Gasoline Engine. Tests of 2.0 Litre Engine.
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880386 3

This comparison indicates that the 1st Conventional Early Intake-

method offers substantial benefits at the Throttling Valve Closing
important low speed and part load conditions
but for maximum torque at rated speed an
increase in overlap, preferably with later IVC
also, gives better results.

An indirect benefit from improving the

engine torque and smoothness at low speeds is Patm
that a higher axle ratio can then be used and
this further improves the fuel consumption
because for a given road speed the engine runs Vtdc Vbdc Vtdc Vbdc
slower with correspondingly lower friction Volume Volume
losses.
Figure 5. Comparison of Ideal Pressure-Volume
An important additional improvement in Diagrams at Part Load for Early IVC
fuel consumption can be obtained if the inlet and Conventional Throttled Engine.
valve closing point can be varied over a wide
enough range to provide load control without
the pumping losses associated with inlet
throttling. Idealized pressure-volume diagrams
at part load for a conventional throttled Tablel.Comparison of Benefits from Alternative
engine and for an unthrottled engine with Timing Variations Relative to Engine
early IVC are shown in Fig. 5. Clearly there with Fixed Timing
is a significant reduction in pumping loss,
although the magnitude may be exaggerated in Variable Constant Variable
this example. IVC IVC Period
Constant Variable Cam
Overlap Overlap
Two papers by Tuttle (1*, 2) show the
effect of both late IVC and early IVC on the
pumping losses, fuel consumption and other
operating parameters of an unthrottled Increase in torque 8 9 11
homogeneous-charge spark ignition engine. at rated speed
Compared with a conventional throttled engine
operating at part load the engine with late Increase in torque 5 0 2
IVC had lower pumping losses, lower specific at low speed
fuel consumption, lower NOx emissions and
similar HC emissions. The engine with early Improvement in 5 0 3
IVC had somewhat higher HC emissions than the part load fuel
conventional engine but otherwise had similar consumption
benefits to the engine with late IVC.
According to Ma (3) a variation of IVC over a
range of 120 deg is necessary to provide load
control by early IVC down to 30r. of full control to by-pass excess exhaust gas or air.
load. For lower loads throttling is still Consequently, as shown by Watson and Janata
needed. Load control can also be aided by (4), it is possible to use valve timing which
variable valve lift which is an additional is optimised for low speed running because at
feature of some VVT mechanisms. high speeds the resulting lower volumetric
efficiency of the engine is compensated for by
In many cases exhaust emissions can be the higher delivery pressure of the
improved by VVT but for engines which will turbocharger. Thus good performance can be
still need catalysts to meet emissions obtained at both low and high speeds without
regulations there is little to be gained by the need for VVT and with reduced waste-gating
optimising the valve timing for this losses.
purpose.
DIESEL ENGINES - There are several
For engines without catalysts it will features of diesel engines that make the
often be found that valve timing optimised for potential benefits of VVT much less than for
best fuel consumption or torque and smooth gasoline engines.
running at low speeds will also give an
improvement in HC emission and possibly NOx Firstly, because the load is controlled
emission as well. simply by adjusting the quantity of fuel
injected and not by throttling, the pumping
TURBOCHARGED GASOLINE ENGINES - The losses at part loads are much smaller and
operating characteristics of a turbocharger there is no benefit to be gained by varying
compressor are such as to produce more air
than the engine needs at high speeds, making * Numbers in parentheses designate references
it necessary to have some form of waste-gate at end of paper.

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4 880386
the inlet valve timing to reduce the quantity
of air inducted.
Secondly, fuel injection equipment
limitations currently restrict even the
highest speed automotive diesels to a maximum
rated speed of 4500 rev/min or so, which is
appreciably less than for a corresponding
gasoline engine. This means that valve timing
optimised for good cold starting ability, high
torque at low speeds and good fuel economy is
not too restrictive to air flow at the rated
speed.
Thirdly, the compression ratio of a
high-speed diesel engine needs to be much
higher than for a gasoline engine. Typical
values would be:
IDI diesel 22:1
DI diesel 17:1
Gasoline 9.5:1
The clearance between the piston at TDC
and the cylinder head face as a result has to
be very small, and the valve to piston
clearance is a critical design feature
limiting the variation of IVO and EVC (5).
Any system of VVT would be restricted in its
operation because of this.
MEDIUM-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES - This class
of engine is used for purposes such as
industrial power generation, marine propulsion
and rail traction. The use of high-pressure
turbocharging and engine compression ratios in
the region of 12:1 is normal, with large valve
overlap periods. Valve/piston clash is no
longer a problem because the piston to
cylinder head clearance is greater and valve
pockets can be provided in the piston crown.
The possible benefits of VVT for
medium-speed engines are considered by Neth
and Streuli (6). Their predictions indicate
that variations in IVC and valve overlap over
the range of power output of a
highly-turbocharged marine engine could give:
1) Improved matching of the turbocharger to
the engine.
2) Reduced fuel consumption throughout the
whole load range.
3) Lower temperatures at part load as a
result of the higher air/fuel ratio and
constant or decreasing thermal load.
4) No exhaust gas reverse flow to cause
deposits on inlet valves and intake ducts
at very low part loads.
Further predictions of the benefits of
applying VVT to similar engines are given by
Ladommatos and Stone (7), who also considered
the effect of using variable compression ratio
(VCR) pistons. They concluded that the use of
early inlet valve closing to control peak
firing pressure is not as effective as the use
of VCR pistons, but it allows the brake mean
effective pressure (bmep) to be increased by
30 to 40 per cent for a given peak firing
pressure. Cycle efficiency can be more nearly
retained at high loads because the expansion
ratio is not reduced as with VCR pistons.
They noted also the same potential advantage
as for VCR pistons in terms of ability to burn
lower quality fuel, reduction of diesel knock
and reduction of exhaust emissions because of
a reduction in ignition delay at light loads.
An early example of a practical
application of VVT is the Miller (8) system of
variable inlet valve phasing for turbocharged
engines. This enables the inlet valve to be
closed before BDC so that the effective
compression ratio is reduced and the
temperature of the trapped air is lowered,
thus reducing the mechanical and thermal
loading of the engine. The system has not
been widely applied because advances in engine
design have made it possible to accept higher
mechanical and thermal loads, thus making it
possible to achieve high output without
resorting to VVT.
Some efficiency benefits may be available
from variation in EVO timing so that exhaust
energy is most effectively used in the turbine
at all loads and speeds, but the magnitude of
the benefits available is uncertain.
Vormstein and Pleimling (9) for example
reported that the optimum EVO for a
medium-speed engine to maximise the mean
indicated pressure was the same at both 600
and 1000 rev/min, whereas Bhinder et al (10)
for a 6 litre turbocharged truck engine found
that the optimum EVO for both maximum bmep and
best specific fuel consumption varied from 50
deg. before BDC at 1000 rev/min to 75 deg.
before BDC at 2500 rev/min. The fuel saving
relative to an engine with fixed EVO was
estimated to be up to 3.5 g/kW-hr.
Engines burning heavy fuel tend to have
shorter overlap periods to prevent blowback
into inlet ducts at low load. The actual
overlap used is therefore a compromise between
blowback and full load component
temperatures. VVT would help in this case if
it could be arranged to give short overlap at
low loads and long overlap at high loads.
MECHANISMS FOR VARYING VALVE TIMING
Any student of the subject will soon
become aware that the search for a practical
and effective means to vary valve timing has
caught the imagination of inventors worldwide,
probably ever since the invention of the
internal combustion engine. Many devices are
described in the patent literature and some
have been tested on engines. In a good number
of cases engine performance results have been
obtained in the laboratory and sometimes the


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880386 5

camshafts. Only a few mechanisms are known to

VARIABLE VALVE l'IMENG MEDIAttISMS have been put into large scale production at
• n, the time of writing, and these are all of the
Valve acluahon Mechanical tlydiciAIC kIr
Elecnmagntlic type which produce a steady phase angle

IN
Vari able Camshaft Yonab.lo Follower
Spn.gle- cam Multiple cams
.
I ilechaniCal or ▪ ohydtaulic
Elecli ushn-MvIiS variation of the whole camshaft.
hydraulic crinivol Krynzewski scamiStaly)
il3othoisul Stonla,/ vcno,d
Ger onger {IS-17 1 The rather bewildering array of different
112 -14/ mechanisms can be classified in a number of
Link with trovablV plod!
different ways, one of which is shown in Fig.
_----,/ 6. This arranges the mechanisms first
Swinging Levet Psot i\taltng Auxiliary
according to the means by which the valve is

/\
oremlltyvarnrg follower betweencoin any., corn
oarn In change or rocket corn and Sy cceenItit Addilion actuated, then (for mechanical actuation)
phase period r m,Stivcr.dcl!bllowet sod rod
system [Buroodt iFial I
main corn
secondly according to the means by which the
and lilt Dalrnter
UlLInner.0 SCPritill (25) [ I/tst,nn timing is varied. Some examples of the
Steady
PE-201
Cyclically
WnAd 125.27) different types (3, 8, 11-41) are given in
122-241
phase wrong
HydiAtilie lame!
Fig. 6 and short descriptions will now be
angle phone angle
vatialicri td nary
with 1031 was. given of a few which are believed to be under
Alta-Rome,-pmMavel development at the present time.
City Urn.. an phase r
Flow-rate Control by Spill control EltellOnie
Food IWCierrn1 .dirndl oil Curnenrns control
GM E
Fp r a WC check valve supply "D RENOLD CAMSHAFT PHASE-CHANGE MECHANISM
Renoir: Mitchell lEfury ISMI Msconl Hut.C.D
I 3 -32 I 13E1 1371 SEMI (32) - Fig. 7 shows this example of a
[Ron
133,3,36,35 1 mechanism to vary the phase angle of the inlet
camshaft of a double overhead camshaft (DOHC)
Figure 6. Classification of Variable Valve engine. It incorporates an axial motion
Timing Mechanisms. hydraulic piston with a helix on the inside
and a rounded rectangular external profile.
The assembly is mounted at the driven end of
mechanism has provided a useful tool for the the camshaft with the drive sprocket for a
optimisation of valve timing without the need chain drive attached to the outside. The
for producing several different alternative phase angle can be varied by 15 deg cam angle.

CAMSHAFT SENSOR
ENGINE
OIL
1 LINEAR TO ROTARY HELICAL CHA/NWHEE PRESSURE CHAIN
PISTON SHAFT WHEEL

SEAL

SENSOR
HP
SLOT

SOLENOID
VALVES BEARING
t CAMSHAFT
LP DRIVE
~CHAIN
BEARING

HOLLOW DOWEL
END OUTER OUTER BODY
PLATE BODY RETUPP
SPRING
HELIC AL SHAFT
To ,1
SUMP =..L

SCREW WITH
RESTRICTOR POSSIBLE MAP OF
OPTIMUM PHASE ANGLE
AGAINST SPEED S LOAD
RETURN SPRING

f.N\
hi van 0010
LINEAR TO ROTARY PISTON n tort

i.1.1DAD
t,irnt Anton

PHASE CONTROLLER

Figure 7. Renold Camshaft Phase Change Mechanism (28).

 Downloaded from SAE International by University of New South Wales, Monday, August 27, 2018
6 880386
(1 t‘fte
3-Dimensional Cam
<3-- Tilting Pod
Cylindrical Seating
Saddle with guides
to prevent
rotation
tappet
Shim
Tappet with lugs to
prevent transverse
movement of saddle
Figure 8. Fiat 3-Dimensional Cam Mechanism
(14)
FIAT 3-DIMENSIONAL CAM - Fig. 8 shows the
tapered-profile cam engaging with a
tilting-pad type of follower. Axial movement
of the camshaft brings a different part of the
cam into engagement with the follower, giving
a change in valve lift and timing. Since the
base circle radius has to be constant along
the length of the cam but the peak is tapered,
the pad follower has to change its angle of
tilt as the cam rotates. A barrel-shaped
roller follower might provide an alternative
to the tilting pad but the contact stresses
would be greatly increased.
The variations in inlet and exhaust valve
timing and lift quoted in an example are shown
in Table 2.
Table 2. Example of Variations of Valve Timing
and Lift with Fiat 3-Dimensional Cam
Low Speed
crank deg
Inlet valve opening 6 BTDC
Inlet valve closing 42 ABDC
Inlet cam period 228
Exhaust valve opening 42 BBDC
Exhaust valve closing 6 ATDC
Exhaust cam period 228
Valve overlap
period 12
Valve lift 6.33mm
Adjustable
Cam Labe
Part
Outer Tubular
Inner Shaft
Hexagonal
Shaft
Camshaft Section
No.1
No .2
Engine Rotation
Cam
Adjustment 111
Figure 9. Cam Phase Change Mechanism of Elrod
and Nelson (38)
It is seen that the cam period varies but
its phase angle remains constant because
variation of the phase angle would cause the
cam surface to become hollow, thus destroying
the line contact required with a flat
follower.
Although much progress towards the
introduction of this mechanism on engines in
normal production has been reported (18),
there has been no announcement that this has
been achieved at the time of writing.
ELROD AND NELSON CAM-LOBE PHASING (42) -
Fig. 9 shows one form of this system for
producing a continuously-variable change of
phase angle of individual cams instead of the
whole camshaft. A control mechanism on one
end of the shaft varies the phase angle of an
inner hexagonal-section shaft to which the
movable cams are attached relative to an outer
tubular shaft which is driven by the drive
pulley or sprocket.
In one possible application each inlet
High Speed valve is operated by a tappet riding on two
crank deg adjacent cams; one fixed and one variable.
This allows the valve opening period to be
27.5 BTDC varied but the valve train dynamic control
62.5 ABDC will inevitably be poor because of the sudden
270 changes in acceleration and velocity when
transferring control from one cam to the
62.5 BBDC other.
27.5 ATDC
270 In another application each inlet valve
of an engine with 3 or 4 valves per cylinder
55 is operated by a separate cam. The overall
9.3mm valve opening period can then be extended by
varying the phase of one cam, and good dynamic
control of each valve is retained.
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of New South Wales, Monday, August 27, 2018
880386 7
Like the devices which vary the phase
angle of the whole camshaft, the valve train
operates in just the same way as a valve train
with fixed timing once the phase angle has
been set to the required value. This means
that in principle there is no additional
friction and no adverse effect on dynamic
control.
FORD HARMONIC DRIVE (3) - There are
several ways to produce a cyclic speed
variation of a camshaft so that the valve
opening periods can be dynamically shrunk or
stretched to obtain the required valve timing
variations. The 1:1 harmonic drive mechanism
described by Ma and shown in Fig 10 has a
number of advantages over other devices. The
variable angular oscillation amplitude is
created by an eccentric coupling with a
transverse slider mechanism which produces
identical but opposite angular changes to two
oppositely-phased VVT members, thereby
performing the VVT function and at the same
time maintaining perfect inertia balance. The
design is claimed to be compact, robust and
potentially of low cost. It is for a
4-cylinder engine and is in the form of a unit
with just two sliding components mounted at
the middle of the engine, driving a short
camshaft for each cylinder.
TO VVT CONTROL
Figure 10. Ford VVT 1:1 Harmonic Drive
Because of the continuously oscillating
motion there is a friction penalty but it is
claimed that this has been reduced to 0.07 bar
friction mean effective pressure by careful
design for low friction and reduced number of
moving parts.
ELECTROHYDRAULIC CONTROL - There are a
number of possible ways of achieving VVT based
on the principle of a hydraulic tappet (or a
hydraulic lash adjuster) with some form of
control valve to allow oil to escape from the
Camshaft
Solenoid Valve
First Tappet
Tappet
Chamber
Second Tappet
with
Hydraulic Valve Pressure
Braking Reservoir
Valve Spring
Figure 11. Schematic Arrangement of Electra -
hydraulic VVT Mechanism (14)
hydraulic chamber during part of the cam
event. The idea of having a solenoid valve to
control the flow is very attractive because it
is easily integrated with an electronic engine
management system.
An electrohydraulically controlled VVT
system based on a patent of Bosch is described
by Geringer (14) and shown in Fig. 11. Its
main features are:
A hydraulic cylinder with an upper
piston operated by the cam and a
lower piston acting on the valve.
A solenoid valve which allows oil to
flow from the cylinder to an
accumulator or vice versa when it is
open.
A damper to control the valve
seating velocity.
This system is claimed to be capable of
(3) operating up to usual gasoline engine rated
speeds, gives large variations in timing and
lift, and is claimed to have low losses
because of the reduced valve operating forces
and stroke at low lifts. Some probable
disadvantages are that the additional parts
between the cam and the valve increase the
height of the engine, there is the additional
cost of a solenoid valve and other parts for
each inlet valve, the valve train stiffness is
reduced and the reliability of the solenoid
valves and other components would need to be
of a high order.
To summarise, this short review of VVT
mechanisms is not intended to do more than
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of New South Wales, Monday, August 27, 2018
8 880386
give an indication of current activity in this
field. It remains to be seen whether further
development of these or other mechanisms will
produce a reliable system with a sufficiently
attractive ratio of benefits to cost for it to
be adopted in production. Even if this cannot
be achieved in the near future it can be
expected that successful applications to
laboratory and experimental engines will be
seen.
ALTERNATIVE VALVE TECHNOLOGY
There are a number of alternatives to VVT
which may be capable of giving similar
benefits. These can be grouped into three
categories:
Alternatives to the poppet valve
- Supplementary valves in the inlet
port or manifold
- Two inlet valves, with differences
in size, timing or porting
These categories will now be looked at
each in turn, although some overlap occurs
when for instance a butterfly valve is used to
control air flow to one of two inlet valves.
ALTERNATIVES TO THE POPPET VALVE - The
poppet valve is firmly established as the best
type of valve for sealing the combustion
chamber and allowing a good flow of inlet and
exhaust gases. However, other types of valve
are known and might be easier to control to
vary the timing.
The Cross rotary valve gives rapid
opening and closing but since it combines
inlet and exhaust ports in one assembly the
only form of control that can be envisaged is
to change the phase angle of inlet and exhaust
together. This would give very little
benefit.
Sleeve valves are another alternative to
poppet valves but to vary the motion of the
sleeve in order to vary the timing would
probably be as difficult as to vary the timing
of a poppet valve.
SUPPLEMENTARY VALVES IN THE INLET PORT OR
MANIFOLD - Since valves in these positions do
not have to withstand the high pressure and
temperature of the gases in the cylinder they
can be of simple lightweight construction with
only moderate sealing efficiency and they are
relatively simple to control. Typically a
butterfly valve or a simple rotary valve is
used, but there is also the possibility of
using a reed valve which is self-actuating.
The supplementary valve can be used to
give effectively late opening or early closing
(or both) of the inlet valve (43), or to
change the tuning of the induction system to
improve low speed torque (44) or to shut off
one of two inlet ports so that the other with
optimum swirl and different valve timing gives
good low speed performance (45).
The reed valve, in principle,
automatically prevents backflow of exhaust gas
during the overlap period and return flow of
air from the cylinder during the compression
stroke at low speeds; hence valve timing
optimised for maximum power with large overlap
and late inlet valve closing, can be used
without impairing low speed/low load
performance. However, the reed valve would
need to be very close to the poppet valve to
be effective, and it would be bound to cause a
restriction in the port, thus reducing the
maximum power. An example of an inlet
manifold with reed valves was tested by
Emmenthal and Manz (46) on a small
turbocharged engine. Compared with a
conventional manifold they measured increased
torque at low speeds and a reduction of only a
few per cent at high speeds.
CURRENT STATUS AND FUTURE TRENDS
The potential performance and economy
benefits of VVT for gasoline engines have been
widely reported in the literature, current
emphasis being mainly on the improvement of
fuel consumption, especially at part loads and
idle. Improvements in low speed torque and
smoothness are also important since they allow
the final drive gear ratio to be raised, with
a consequent further improvement in fuel
consumption.
There is only limited interest in the use
of VVT on diesel engines because only the
larger more highly-rated engines can be
expected to show significant benefits.
Present known applications of VVT to
engines in quantity production are confined to
phase-angle changing mechanisms for the inlet
camshafts of DOHC engines. The 3-dimensional
cam mechanism from Fiat is reported to be near
to production and may be released to the
public in the near future.
Research into all aspects of VVT
technology continues at educational
establishments, automotive engine makers,
research organisations and engine component
makers worldwide.
PREDICTIONS OF FUTURE TRENDS - Since it
is clearly difficult to devise VVT mechanisms
capable of producing the desired timing
variations with acceptable cost, durability
and reliability, it can be expected that
engine makers will continue to pursue any
simpler alternatives that o:Ters some or all
of the potential benefits of VVT.
Turbocharging may be considered to be one
of the alternatives to VVT, hence it is
unlikely that engines will be fitted with both
these features.
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880386 9
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APPENDIX

The engine for which test results are given

in Table 1 and Figs. 2 and 3 was a homogeneous
charge carburetted gasoline engine with a High
Ratio Compact Chamber (HRCC) in head, under the
exhaust valve, with low swirl., This type of
chamber is described by Thring and Overington
(47).

The engine had 4 cylinders in line, 2 valves

per cylinder, 2.0 litre displacement and 11.5:1
compression ratio.
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