BUILDING SERVICES

LIGHTING
Lighting includes the use of both artificial light sources like lamps and light
fixtures, and natural illumination by the use of daylight.

Day lighting (using windows, skylights, or light shelves) is sometimes used as

the main source of light during daytime in buildings. This can save energy in
place of using artificial lighting, which represents a major component of
energy consumption in buildings.
DEFINITIONS
Illumination: the state of being lighted or the action of lighting
something

Luminous flux: is the rate of energy radiation in the form of light waves.
The unit is lumen.

Lumen: A measurement of light emitted by a lamp. As reference, a 100-

watt incandescent lamp emits about 1600 lumens.

Luminous Intensity (I) : Luminous flux in a given specified direction

(lumens per solid angle), it expresses the directionality, concentration
and strength of light.
Unit is candela (cd) = lumen/solid angle.

Luminance: The intensity of light in a given direction per unit area of

that surface as viewed from that direction; often incorrectly referred to
as ‘brightness’. (Measure of density of luminous intensity.)

Lux (lx): SI unit of illuminance and luminous emittance, measuring

luminous flux per unit area. It is equal to one lumen per square metre.
LIGHT IN THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
is the collective term for all known
frequencies and their linked wavelengths of
the known photons. The electromagnetic
spectrum extends from below the low
frequencies used for modern radio
communication to gamma radiation at the
short-wavelength end. Visible light lies
toward the shorter end, with wavelengths
from 400 to 700 nanometres. The types of
electromagnetic radiation are classified into
the following:

Gamma radiation.
X-ray radiation.
Ultraviolet radiation.
Visible radiation.
Infrared radiation.
Terahertz radiation.
Microwave radiation.
Radio waves.
LAWS OF ILLUMINATION
INVERSE SQUARE LAW
The relationship between the illuminance from a point source and distance.

It states that the intensity of light per unit area is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance from the source.
LAWS OF ILLUMINATION
LAMBERT’S COSINE LAW
The illumination produced on a surface by a point source is proportional to
the cosine of the angle of incidence.
Ever since Edison we have seen everything illuminated by these incandescent bulbs in
their Soft White color temperature, measured at 2700K. The light created by these
bulbs has given off a slightly yellowish glow, making the colors in our homes feel warm
and cozy the entire time.

Still, this might be nice in bedrooms and living rooms, but what about in a bathroom,
kitchen, basement, or garage, where you're trying to apply the right makeup, prepare
food, play ping pong, or repair a bicycle tire? Sometimes, it's better to have truer,
white lights, that show truer colors and more contrasts, with an overall "brighter" feel
to them.
 COLOR TEMPERATURE
Measurement of "warmth" or "coolness" provided by the
lamp.

Color temperature refers to the color of a black body

radiator at a given absolute temperature, expressed in
kelvins (K).

A black body radiator changes color as its temperature

increases ( first to red, then to orange, yellow, and finally
bluish white) at the highest temperature.

A "warm" color light source actually has a lower color

temperature. For example, a cool-white fluorescent lamp
appears bluish in color with a color temperature of around
4100 K. A warmer fluorescent lamp appears more yellowish
with a color temperature around 3000 K.

The higher the Degrees Kelvin, the whiter the color

temperature. Although the whiter lights will appear
"brighter" than those of a lower Kelvin reading, the amount
of Lumens (measurement for brightness) does not change,
and true brightness is not affected
MEASURING LIGHTING QUALITY

CRI (Color Rendering Index) is an internationally accepted measure of the ability of a

light source to reveal the colors of various objects faithfully in comparison with an
ideal or natural light source.

The CRI is the measure of the ability of a light source to reproduce colors of various
objects compared to an ideal light source such as natural light.

The scale is from 0-100, and those lights with a CRI closer to 100 have an ability to
show truer colors across a wide spectrum.

For example, it's very important in a retail store to have lights with a high CRI, so that
colors appear as they truly are. Whereas in a factory (CRIs often in the 70s or 80s), or
with street lamps (CRIs in the 30s or 40s), color accuracy isn't nearly as important as
the overall amount of light produced; or lamp cost
EFFICACY

Is a measure of how well a light source produces visible light. It is the ratio of
luminous flux to power.

A metric used to compare light output to energy consumption.

Efficacy is measured in lumens per watt.

Efficacy is similar to efficiency, but is expressed in dissimilar units.

For example, if a 100-watt source produces 9000 lumens, then the efficacy is
90 lumens per watt.
LIGHT SOURCES

Standard Incandescent
Halogen Incandescent
Fluorescent
HID
LED

Characteristics of a light source

• Efficacy
• Color rendering
• Color temperature
• Size
• Life
• Cost
TYPES OF LAMPS
1. Standard Incandescent lamp: They are
historically the oldest and the most common
found in common use.

•With efficacies ranging from 6 to 24 lumens per

watt, least energy-efficient electric light source and
have a relatively short life (750-2000 hours).

•Inexpensive to buy but running costs are high. Only

last 1000hrs. Used in frequent rooms.

• Least energy efficient. Light is produced by passing

a current through a tungsten filament, causing it to
become hot and glow. With use, the tungsten slowly
evaporates, eventually causing the filament to break.

• Advantage: Light quality and colour are very

consistent.

• Disadvantage: Requires lot of energy and faster

degradation of filament leading to shorter life span.
2. Tungsten Halogen Incandescent lamp:

small quartz capsule contains the filament and a halogen gas.

The small capsule size allows the filament to operate at a
higher temperature, which produces light at a higher efficacy
than standard incandescents. The halogen gas combines with
the evaporated tungsten, redepositing it on the filament. This
process extends the life of the filament and keeps the bulb wall
from blackening and reducing light output.

•Twice to thrice as energy efficient as incandescent globes.

•popular in retail applications for display and accent lighting. In

addition, tungsten-halogen lamps generally produce a whiter
light than other incandescent lamps, are more efficient, last
longer

•They last approximately 3,600 hours—three times longer than

incandescent bulbs—but are not as efficient as compact
fluorescent lamps (CFL) or LED bulbs. ... Because they operate
at higher temperatures, halogen bulbs have higher color
temperatures and produce brighter light than incandescent
bulbs
3. Fluorescent lamp:

•Most efficient form of artificial lighting.

•This family covers florescent tubes and compact florescent

lamps.

•A glass tube which radiates light when phosphor on its

inside surface is made to fluoresce by UV radiation from
mercury vapours.

•Fluorescent lamps dissipate less heat and have a longer

service life than incandescent lamps.

• The typical luminous effect of fluorescent lighting systems

is 50-100 lumens per watt.

•Fluorescent lamps are available in color temperatures

ranging from warm (2700(K) "incandescent-like" colors to
very cool (6500(K) "daylight" colors. "Cool white" (4100(K)
is the most common fluorescent lamp color. Neutral white
(3500(K) is becoming popular for office and retail use.
Compact Fluorescent lamp (CFL):
Fit into conventional light sockets. 1/5th power of incandescent
globes to provide the amount of light.

•Ideal for rooms where lighting is required for long periods of time
and Higher CRI, such as in the living room, reading room, library and
kitchen.

•Frequenting switching these lights on and off can reduce their life
so they are not recommended for pantries and toilets.

Advantages
• 10 times energy efficient than incandescent.
• long-lasting, energy-efficient substitute for the incandescent
lamp.
• Various wattages, color temperatures, and sizes are available

Limitation
• In Dimming applicaion

Tubular Fluorescent lamp:

•Tubelights available as straight or circular tubes.

•Ideal for kitchens, bathrooms, rumpus rooms, garages and

4. High intensity discharge lamp (HID):
High density discharge applies to arc-discharge sources with a high
power density.

Mercury – vapour lamp

• More energy efficient than incandescent and fluorescent lamps.

• It has luminous efficacies of 35 to 65 lumens/watt.

• Their advantages are long bulb lifetime in the range of 24,000 hours
and a high intensity, clear white light output.

• Used for large area overhead lighting, such as in factories,

warehouses, and sports arenas as well as for streetlights.

• They require a warm-up period of 4 – 7 minutes to reach full light

output.
They are becoming obsolete due to the higher efficiency and better
colour balance of metal halide lamps.
High Pressure sodium lamp
• uses sodium to produce light. Between 50 W and 1000 W –
higher power lamps.

• Achieve high luminance efficacy up to 130 lm/W.

Life: 16000 – 24000 hrs. (more life time than LPS, 50 to 140
lumens - less energy efficient compared to LPS lamp)

• They have poor colour rendering than other types of lamps.

(CRI low but better than LPS lamp)

•Used where lighting from height of around 5m is desired, for

driveways in campus, or car parking.

• They are commonly used as plant grow lights.

• They have also been widely used for outdoor area lighting
such as streetlights and security.

• Used indoors in cafes and restaurants for aesthetic effect.

• Only used in warehouses and similar locations when used in

interiors, their main application is outdoors for the
illumination of streets and car parks.
Low Pressure sodium lamp

• High efficiency up to 180 lm/W, quite long life up to 16000

hours and reduced running costs.

• Highly efficient electrical light sources, but their yellow light

restricts applications to outdoor lighting such as street lamps.

• Unlike HID lamps, during a voltage dip low-pressure sodium

lamps return to full brightness rapidly. (more energy efficient
than HPS lamp in case of lumens – efficacy) low-pressure
sodium lights is 60 to 150lumens

• LPS lamps are available with power ratings from 10 W up to

180 W.

• Modern LPS lamps have a service life of about 18,000 hours

and do not decline in lumen output with age, though they do
increase in energy consumption by about 10% towards end of
life.
Metal Halide lamp (similar to mercury vapor lamp in
composition)

• The most common metal halide compound used is sodium

iodide. Addition of metal halide gases with sodium to mercury
lamp results in in higher light output and higher CRI compared to
mercury alone.

• Metal-halide lamps have high luminous efficacy of around 75–

100 lumens per watt which is about twice that of mercury vapour
lights and 3 to 5 times that of incandescent lights and produce an
intense white light.

• Lamp life is 6,000 to 15,000 hours.

• They are used for wide area overhead lighting of commercial,

industrial, and public spaces, such as parking lots, sports arenas,
factories, and retail stores as well as residential security lighting
and automotive headlamps (xenon headlights).

• They require a warm-up period of several minutes to reach full

light output.
Metal Halide lamp (similar to mercury vapor lamp in
composition)

Advantages:
• high efficacy
• good color rendering
• wide range of wattages

Disadvantages:

• The rated life of metal halide lamps is shorter than other HID
sources; lower-wattage lamps last less than 7500 hours while
high-wattage lamps last an average of 15,000 to 20,000 hours.
• The color may vary from lamp to lamp and may shift over the
life of the lamp and during dimming.

Because of the good color rendition and high lumen output, these
lamps are good for sports arenas and stadiums. Indoor uses
include large auditoriums and convention halls. These lamps are
sometimes used for general outdoor lighting, such as parking
facilities, but a high pressure sodium system is typically a better
choice.
APPLICATION
TYPES OF LIGHTING ARRANGEMENTS
• General Lighting: Lighting designed to provide a uniform level of illumination.

• Local Lighting: Lighting designed to provide a high level of illumination over a

small area, with a surrounding area of lower intensity from spilled light.
TYPES OF LIGHTING ARRANGEMENTS
• Task Lighting: Lighting designed to
provide a strong illumination for visually
demanding activities. It needs to be
glare-free. Effective task lighting
enhances visual clarity and keeps the
eyes from getting tired.

• Accent Lighting: Lighting that calls attention or adds interest to a particular

object or unusual feature of interest in a room. Highlight emphasizes
illumination with a strong light; backlight illuminates from behind in order to
embrace depth or to separate the object from the background; sidelight is light
coming from the side.
TYPES OF LIGHTING ARRANGEMENTS
• Ambient Lighting: A hidden source of light that washes the room with a glow.
It flattens an interior and creates very little shadow.

• Aesthetic Lighting: Lighting itself can be a work of art. A neon sculpture would
be purely decorative and is an example of aesthetic lighting.
LUMINAIRE ARRANGEMENT
LIGHT – TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS
DIRECT LIGHTING
Lighting in which
luminaries distribute
100% of the emitted light
downward.
SEMIDIRECT LIGHTING
Lighting in which
luminaries distribute
60% - 90% of the
emitted light downward.
GENERAL DIFFUSE
LIGHTING
Lighting in which
luminaries distribute
approximately equal
distribution of light
upward and downward.
DIRECT-INDIRECT
LIGHTING
General diffuse lighting
in which little light is
emitted in the
horizontal plane of the
luminaries.
SEMI - DIRECT LIGHTING
Lighting in which
luminaries distribute
60% to 90% of the
emitted light upward.
INDIRECT LIGHTING
Lighting in which
luminaries distribute
90% to 100% of the
emitted light upward
to avoid glare or
prevent shadows.
LUMINAIRE
A light fixture is an electrical device used to create artificial light by use of
an electric lamp. All light fixtures have a fixture body and a light socket to
hold the lamp and allow for its replacement

A luminaire, or light fixture, is a unit consisting of the following components:

• lamps
• lamp sockets
• ballasts
• reflective material
• lenses, refractors, or louvers
ARCHITECTURAL LIGHT FIXTURES /
LUMINAIRES
• Wall Washer: A downlight mounted close to the plane of a wall and equipped
with a reflector, baffle or lens to illuminate to the vertical surface.

LED wall washer

• Floodlight: A lamp designed to project or diffuses a comparatively uniform

level of illumination over a large are. Also called as flood lamp.
• Downlight: A luminaire consisting of a lamp set in meta cylinder, recessed into
or mounted on a ceiling to direct a beam of light downward.

•Spotlight: A lamp designed to project a strong focused beam of light on an

object or areas. Also called, spot.
•Light strip: A row of lamps provided with a reflector for floodlighting the stage,
used as border lights, foot lights, backing lights, etc.

•Track lighting: Lighting provided by adjustable spotlights mounted a long

narrow, ceiling-or-wall mounted metal track through which currents is
conducted.
•Troffer: A luminaire having a trough shaped reflector holding one or more LED
or florescent lamps.
•Droplight: A lighting fixture suspended from a ceiling or wall by a flexible cord,
by which it can be released or lowered.

•Chandelier: A decorative lighting fixture suspended from a ceiling. Usually

having branched supports for a number of lamps.
•Pendants: Suspended from the ceiling, a pendant light directs its light down,
typically over a table or kitchen island. A pendant can enhance the decorative
style of a room. Pendants can provide ambient or task lighting.

•Wall Sconces: Surface-mounted to the wall, sconces can direct light upwards
or downwards, and their covers or shades can add a stylish touch to a room.
Wall sconces provide ambient or task lighting.
•Floor Lamps: Made in a wide range of sizes and styles, lamps are extremely
versatile and portable sources of light in a room. Lamps are often used a task
lights, particularly for reading but can also provide ambient light.

•Gooseneck Lamp: A desk lamp having a flexible shaft resembling the neck of a
goose.
•Bridge Lamp: A floor lamp having the light source on a horizontal adjustable
arm.

•Torchlere: a floor lamp having its light source within a reflecting bowl that
directs the light upward.
Properties of good electrical illumination:

Illuminating source should have sufficient light.

It should not strike our eyes.

It should have suitable shades and reflectors.

It should be installed at such a place so as to give uniform light.

Adequate illumination.

Minimum hard shadow and glare.

Light of suitable colour.

Design considerations of a good lighting scheme
In designing a good lighting scheme, the following aspects are to be considered:
• Illumination level required
• Selection of type of lamp
• Size of room
• Condition under which the illumination used (application)

Mounting height & spacing of fittings

The distance between light fittings should not exceed 1.5 times the mounting height.
The distance of a light source from the wall should be equal to one half the distance
between two adjacent light sources.
Factors to be considered in the design
Coefficient of utilisation (CU)
The light output of the source is not fully utilised at the work place. So the light flux
reaching the work plane can be calculated by multiplying the total lumen emitted by the
lamp by a factor called utilisation factor(UF) or coefficient of utilisation (CU <1).

CU = Total lumen reached on work plane / Total lumen radiated by lamp

Total lumen received on working plane = No: of lamps * (lumen / lamp) * CU * MF

Maintenance Factor (MF)

The illumination produced by a light source decreases due to ageing and accumulation of
dust on the lamp surface, reflectors, etc.

MF = Illumination under normal working condition / Illumination when everything is clean

MF = 1/ DF (Depreciation factor)
N = (E * A) / (F * UF * MF or CF or L.L.F)

N = Number of fittings
E = Illuminance level required (lux) – lumen per area
F = Total luminous flux from each lamp (lumens)
A = Area of working plane (sq.m)
MF = Maintenance Factor – allowance for light output reduction due to dirt /
deterioration
UF = Utilisation Factor – allowance for light distribution of luminaires & room surfaces.
L.L.F = Light Loss Factor
Total illumination required = N * F

Typical LLF values

Air conditioned office - 0.8
Clean Industrial - 0.7
Dirty Industrial - 0.6
Total Wattage of fixtures
= No: of lamps * watt of each lamp

Efficacy = Lumens / Watt

Efficiency = Fixture lumens / lamp lumens

Q) Define visual comfort. State the factors affecting visual comfort. Explain the plausible
reasons for glare and propose suitable solutions.

Visual comfort criteria measure the ability of an individual to carry out tasks comfortably in terms of
their photo-sensory perception of their environment.

They are dependent on many factors including: light intensity, direction of light source, reflection of
surfaces, contrast of surfaces, the nature of the task being undertaken and the photo-sensory
response of the eye.
Quality of Illumination
Three quality issues are addressed in this section.
•glare
•uniformity of illuminance
•color rendition

Glare
Perhaps the most important factor with respect to lighting quality is glare. Glare is a sensation caused by
luminances in the visual field that are too bright. Discomfort, annoyance, or reduced productivity can result.
A bright object alone does not necessarily cause glare, but a bright object in front of a dark background, however,
usually will cause glare. Contrast is the relationship between the luminance of an object and its background.
Although the visual task generally becomes easier with increased contrast, too much contrast causes glare and
makes the visual task much more difficult.

VCP
You can reduce glare or luminance ratios by not exceeding suggested light levels and by using lighting equipment
designed to reduce glare. A louver or lens is commonly used to block direct viewing of a light source. Indirect
lighting, or uplighting, can create a low glare environment by uniformly lighting the ceiling. Also, proper fixture
placement can reduce reflected glare on work surfaces or computer screens. Standard data now provided with
luminaire specifications include tables of its visual comfort probability (VCP) ratings for various room geometries.
The VCP index provides an indication of the percentage of people in a given space that would find the glare from a
fixture to be acceptable. A minimum VCP of 70 is recommended for commercial interiors, while luminaires with
VCPs exceeding 80 are recommended in computer areas.
Uniformity of Illuminance on Tasks
The uniformity of illuminance is a quality issue that addresses how evenly light spreads over a task area.
Although a room's average illuminance may be appropriate, two factors may compromise uniformity.
•improper fixture placement based on the luminaire's spacing criteria (ratio of maxim recommended fixture
spacing distance to mounting height above task height)
•fixtures that are retrofit with reflectors that narrow the light distribution

Non-uniform illuminance causes several problems:

•inadequate light levels in some areas
•visual discomfort when tasks require frequent shifting of view from underlit to overlit areas
•bright spots and patches of light on floors and walls that cause distraction and generate a low quality
appearance

Color Rendition
The ability to see colors properly is another aspect of lighting quality. Light sources vary in their ability to
accurately reflect the true colors of people and objects. The color rendering index (CRI) scale is used to
compare the effect of a light source on the color appearance of its surroundings.
A scale of 0 to 100 defines the CRI. A higher CRI means better color rendering, or less color shift. CRIs in the
range of 75-100 are considered excellent, while 65-75 are good. The range of 55-65 is fair, and 0-55 is poor.
Under higher CRI sources, surface colors appear brighter, improving the aesthetics of the space. Sometimes,
higher CRI sources create the illusion of higher illuminance levels.
10 Ways to Reduce Glare

Glare is controlled by adjusting the light source or the surface reflecting it and by filtering light before it
reaches the eyes. The following solutions seek to control glare in these ways.

• Filter & diffuse light. Use filtered light instead of direct light, which causes the most glare. Diffuse
light with lamp shades or globes, and use adjustable curtains or blinds on windows.
• Adjust work areas. Make sure work surfaces have a dull or matte finish since shiny surfaces reflect
light more. Even adjusting colors on walls and ceilings can add contrast and reduce glare in work
areas.
• Wear polarized lenses. Polarized glasses reduce glare in situations where bright light reflects off a
shiny surface like water, snow, glossy printed paper or painted surfaces.
• Look for anti-glare coatings. Anti-glare treatment can reduce glare at night and inside from
computer screens and inside light. Ask your ophthalmologist for the coating for prescription eyewear
or purchase anti-glare safety glasses.
• Adjust light level. Although light level does impact visual performance, it’s not always brighter light
levels that are needed. Often, raising the overall light level can help with contrast and thus visibility.
• Add a desk lamp. In some situations, adding a desk lamp for viewing paper documents helps
significantly by illuminating the document while avoiding excessive light on the computer screen. Just
make sure the lamp doesn’t cause additional glare off a computer monitor.
• Use adjustable lighting. Make sure light is adjustable for dimness or brightness to suit the situation.
• Let technology help. Use computer monitors with adjustable contrast settings, and change the
background color on the computer screen to suit the lighting situation.
• Consider placement of computers. Adjust the angle and placement of monitors to reduce glare
from overhead lights. Ideally, place them at a right angle to all lighting sources, including windows.
• Try foam seals & wrap-around glasses. Safety glasses with foam padding and wrap-around
sunglasses and safety glasses help protect from side/angular glare, which can cause as much
damage as direct sunlight