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Documente Cultură
Corporate Finance
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Learning objectives
Learning objectives
What is finance?
What is finance?
What is corporate finance?
Book, market, and intrinsic values
k k di i i l
Forms of business organizations
Financial goals of the corporation
Separation of ownership and control
Separation of ownership and control
Risk and investor attitudes toward risk
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What is finance?
What is finance?
• A foremost concept in finance concerns how individuals
interact in order to allocate resources (capital) and/or shift
d ll ( l) d/ h f
consumption across time by borrowing or investing.
y y
• If you receive Rs 10 million today then what decision would
you make regarding consumption and investment?
– Suppose you spend (consume) Rs 100,000 now.
– This
This leaves you with Rs 900,000. You can postpone consumption to
leaves you with Rs 900 000 You can postpone consumption to
future time periods by investing the Rs 900,000 today.
• On the other hand, what if you have Rs20,000 but need to
consume Rs30 000 You can borrow the Rs10 000 and pay it
consume Rs30,000. You can borrow the Rs10,000 and pay it
back in a future period along with the interest.
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What is corporate finance?
What is corporate finance?
• Every
Every decision that a business makes has
decision that a business makes has
financial implications, and any decision which
affects the finances of a business is a
affects the finances of a business is a
corporate finance decision.
• Defined broadly, everything that a business
Defined broadly everything that a business
does fits under the rubric of corporate
finance.
finance
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The Three Major Decisions in
Corporate Finance
• The Allocation decision
– Where do you invest the scarce resources of your
business?
– What makes for a good investment?
g
• The Financing decision
– Where do you raise the funds for these investments?
– Generically, what mix of owner’s money (equity) or
G i ll h t i f ’ ( it )
borrowed money(debt) do you use?
• The Dividend Decision
– How much of a firm’s funds should be reinvested in the
business and how much should be returned to the
owners?
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Two examples of common corporate
fi
financial decisions
i ld i i
• A firm must spend Rs10 million for the required assets if a
proposed project is approved. Important issues are:
– Should the project be accepted or rejected? What do investors
demand as a (minimum acceptable) project rate of return?
– What are the project’s forecasted future cash flows? How risky are
these forecasted cash flows?
– Where will the Rs10 million come from, i.e., what mix of equity and
d b fi
debt financing should be used?
i h ld b d?
• If a firm has Rs20 million of cash flow, but needs reinvest Rs12
million , what should be done with the remaining Rs8 million
of cash.
– Pay it out as a dividend or repurchase some stock?
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Example of common investments type
fi
financial decisions
i ld i i
• A
A mutual fund manager that manages a fund
mutual fund manager that manages a fund
with Rs10 billion portfolio receives an
additional Rs100 million in cash from new
additional Rs100 million in cash from new
investors.
– Which stocks or bonds to purchase?
Which stocks or bonds to purchase?
– How will any proposed new investments affect the
expected return and risk of the overall portfolio?
expected return and risk of the overall portfolio?
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Forms of business organization
Forms of business organization
• Sole proprietorship
• Partnership
• Corporation
– Most
Most large firms are organized as corporations.
large firms are organized as corporations
– Advantages: unlimited life, easy transfer of ownership (stock), limited
liability for owners, relative ease of raising capital, and can use stock
for acquisitions
for acquisitions
– Disadvantages: Double taxation of earnings, cost of set‐up and report
filing, and issues relating to the separation of ownership and control
• Hybrid forms; Limited Liability Corporations (LLC), S Corporations, etc.,
y ; y p ( ), p , ,
firms having characteristics of the three forms above.
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Book versus Market
versus Market values
• The book value of an asset is determined based on
accounting rules.
• The book value is at best a rough approximation of
the asset’ss replacement cost.
the asset replacement cost
• The market value of an asset is that investors are
willing to pay today for stocks and bonds in order to
receive a risky
i i k stream of future expected cash flows.
t ff t t d h fl
– Market values are forward looking.
– Stocks and bonds represent claims on the future
p f cash
flows that a firm’s assets generate.
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Book versus market values
Book versus market values
• Market value of a firm
value of a firm
Assets Liabilities + Equity
Market value of the Mkt. value of debt
asset’s earning power
Mkt. value of equity
(as a going concern)
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Book versus market values
Book versus market values
• The
The Book value of a firm often contrasts
Book value of a firm often contrasts
sharply with the Market value.
Assets Liabilities + Equity
Physical assets at
h l Book debt
kd b
historical book value
Book equity
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Book versus market values: a hypothetical
examplel
• A firm begins with Rs2000 of debt and Rs4000 of
g
equity in order to purchase Rs6000 of assets. These
become the original accounting book values.
• In contrast, Market
In contrast Market values are based on today
values are based on today’ss
expectations of future performance, i.e., what cash
amounts are expected to be paid out and the
perception of risk Assume the following:
perception of risk. Assume the following:
– Investors are willing to pay Rs2000 for the bonds.
– Investors are willing to pay Rs10,000 for the equity.
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Book versus market values for the
h
hypothetical example
h i l l
• Book values of firm:
Book values of firm:
Assets Liabilities + Equity
Rs12,000 M.V. as a Rs2,000 M.V. debt
i
going concern
Rs10,000 M.V. equity
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Intrinsic (fundamental) values
(fundamental) values
• Market values are what investors are willing to either
g
buy or sell an asset for, based on investors’
expectations of future performance.
– Market
Market values are very often publicly observed, e.g., the
values are very often publicly observed, e.g., the
transactions in the stock markets.
• In contrast, intrinsic values are usually considered as
private estimates of what something, e.g., a common
estimates of what something e g a common
stock, is actually worth.
– Intrinsic value is not something that you can prove.
– If ten analysts are asked to value IBM stock, then there will
f l k d l k h h ll
likely be ten different intrinsic value estimates!
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Intrinsic (fundamental) values
(fundamental) values
• Assume
Assume that a New York Stock Exchange listed firm
that a New York Stock Exchange listed firm
has an equity market value of Rs10 billion.
• However, those that manage the firm (insiders)
, g ( )
believe the firm is actually worth Rs12 billion
(intrinsic value), based on their private or inside
forecasts of future cash flow performance.
• For the most part, market prices are driven by public
expectations and consensus, while intrinsic
d hl values
l
represent private forecasts.
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Financial goals of the corporation
• The primary financial goal is shareholder
wealth maximization — a function of future
cash flow and risk.
cash flow and risk.
• In reality, this is maximizing intrinsic value
– For now we will assume that this is synonymous
with maximizing the market value, i.e., stock price
with maximizing the market value i e stock price
maximization.
• Warren Buffett states that his goal is to
maximize Berkshire Hathaway’ss intrinsic
maximize Berkshire Hathaway intrinsic
value, and hopefully, the stock’s market value
will be close to the intrinsic value.
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Stock price maximization is NOT profit or
earnings maximization?
i i i i ?
• Market (and intrinsic) values are driven by risk and
expectatons (forecasts) of future cash flows.
• Earnings and other accounting profitability
measures are not cash flows and have limited use
in estimating financial values.
• Some actions may cause an increase in reported
earnings, yet cause the stock price to decrease
h k d
(and vice versa).
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Wealth maximization and societal welfare
Wealth maximization and societal welfare
• Is the general welfare of society advanced when
g y
individual agents pursue wealth maximization?
– Is intrinsic or market value maximization good or bad for
society. Should firms behave ethically?
y y
• The following slide contains a quote is from Adam
Smith’s Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the
Wealth of Nations 1776
Wealth of Nations, 1776.
– Adam Smith believed that an economic system in which
individual agents strive to increase their market value
results in the most efficient level of general welfare as it
results in the most efficient level of general welfare, as it
facilitates the allocation of resources to their most
productive use.
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Agency relationships — the separation of
ownership and control
hi d l
• An agency relationship exists whenever a principal
g y p p p
(owner of a resource) hires an agent to act on their
behalf. Examples are:
– Citizen (principal) and elected official (agent)
Citizen (principal) and elected official (agent)
– Stockholder (principal) and corporate manager (agent)
• Withi
Within a corporation, agency relationships exist
ti l ti hi it
between:
– Shareholders and managers
Shareholders and managers
– Shareholders and creditors
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Shareholders versus Managers
Shareholders versus Managers
• Managers
Managers are naturally inclined to act in their
are naturally inclined to act in their
own best interests.
• But the following factors affect managerial
But the following factors affect managerial
behavior:
– Managerial compensation plans
g p p
– Direct intervention by shareholders
– The threat of firing
– The threat of corporate takeover
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Shareholders versus Creditors
Shareholders versus Creditors
• Shareholders
Shareholders (through managers) could take
(through managers) could take
actions to maximize stock price that are
detrimental to creditors, i.e., actions that
result in a wealth transfer from creditors to
stockholders.
• In the long run, such actions will raise the cost
y p
of debt and ultimately lower the stock price.
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Factors that affect stock prices
Factors that affect stock prices
• As implied in earlier slides, stock prices are a function
p , p
of:
– Projected cash flows to shareholders
– Timing of the cash flow stream
– Riskiness of the cash flows
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Principles of Corporate Finance
Principles of Corporate Finance
• Invest in projects that yield a return greater than the minimum
acceptable hurdle rate.
t bl h dl t
– The hurdle rate should be higher for riskier projects and reflect the
financing mix used ‐ owners’ funds (equity) or borrowed money (debt)
– Returns on projects should be measured based on cash flows
Returns on projects should be measured based on cash flows
generated and the timing of these cash flows; they should also
consider both positive and negative side effects of these projects.
• Choose a financing mix that minimizes the hurdle rate and matches
th
the assets being financed.
t b i fi d
• If there are not enough investments that earn the hurdle rate,
return the cash to stockholders.
– The
The form of returns ‐
form of returns dividends and stock buybacks ‐
dividends and stock buybacks will depend upon
will depend upon
the stockholders’ characteristics.
Objective: Maximize the Value of the Firm
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