CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General
Our present society is the protection of environment. Some of the important elements in this
respect are the reduction of the consumption of energy and natural raw materials and
consumption of waste materials. These topics are getting considerable attention under
sustainable development nowadays. A complete waste management system including source
reduction, reuse, recycling, land-filling, and incineration needs to be implemented to control
the increasing waste disposal problems. Parameters like environmental consciousness,
protection of natural resources, sustainable development, play an important role in modern
requirements of construction works. Due to modernization, demolished materials are dumped
on land & not used for any purpose. Such situations affect the fertility of land. As per report of
Hindu online of March 2007, India generates 23.75 million tons demolition waste annually.

Any construction activity requires several materials such as concrete, steel, brick, stone, glass,
clay, mud, wood, and so on. However, the cement concrete remains the main construction
material used in construction industries. For its suitability and adaptability with respect to the
changing environment, the concrete must be such that it can conserve resources, protect the
environment, economize and lead to proper utilization of energy. To achieve this, major
emphasis must be laid on the use of wastes and by-products in cement and concrete used for
new constructions. As per report of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) Delhi, in India,
48million tons solid waste is produced out of which 14.5 million ton waste is produced from
the construction waste sector, out of which only 3% waste is used for embankment.

The utilization of recycled aggregate is particularly very promising as 75 per cent of concrete
is made of aggregates. In that case, the aggregates considered are slag, power plant wastes,
recycled concrete, mining and quarrying wastes, waste glass, incinerator residue, red mud,
burnt clay, sawdust, combustor ash and foundry sand. The enormous quantities of demolished
concrete are available at various construction sites, which are now posing a serious problem of
disposal in urban areas. This can easily be recycled as aggregate and used in concrete. It is
proved to be feasible, economically viable and cost effective. Even though using such materials

1
may somewhat cause small shrink in the quality of concrete but such a problem could be
counterbalanced by using proper additives that enhance the properties of concrete.

However using waste materials will not only reduce the exploitation of resources but also make
the concrete more cost reasonable and also save the money and land required for waste disposal.

CHAPTER-2

2
 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General

The purpose of this lesson is to understand the use of sustainable materials by replacing coarse
aggregates with recycled aggregates.

2.2 Earlier Researches

[1] Khaldoun Rahal (11-12 december, 2017)

This paper reports the results of an experimental study of the push off shearing strength of
normal-strength plain recycled aggregate concrete (RAC). A total of twenty seven push off
specimens were cast and tested. The percentages of replacement (PR) of NCA with RCA
were 0, 20%, 50% and 100%. The results showed a 7% reduction in the shearing strength
for PR of 20% and 50% and a 28% reduction for PR of 100%.

[2] Tarek Uddin Mohammed, Kamal Hossain Shikdar, M.A.Awal (2018)

In this Shear strength of reinforced concrete (RC) beams made with recycled brick aggregate
(RBA) was investigated. Shear strength of the beams without shear reinforcement was
evaluated by four-point loading test. Shear strength of concrete beams was also evaluated by
using different codes and fracture mechanics approaches. These results were compared with
the experimental results. The results obtained from this study were also compared with the
shear database. It is revealed that the RC beams made with RBA show similar shear strength
as of RC beams made with virgin BA. Existing code provisions, as well as fracture mechanics
approach, can be used for predicting shear strength of concrete beams made with RBA. As
control specimens, RC beams made with virgin brick aggregate (BA) were also investigated.
For the investigation, 32 reinforced concrete beams of size 200mm by 300mm by 2100mm and
200mm by 300mm by 2400mm were made. The variables were steel ratio (0.82%and1.23%),
shear span to depth ratio (2.04and2.45), and compressive strength of concrete (24MPa and

3
29MPa). In the shear span of the beam specimens, shear reinforcements were not provided and
the beams were designed to ensure shear failure according to ACI318-14.

[3] Haifeng Yang, Yinghong Qina, Yi Liaoa, Wei Chena (july, 2015)

This shows the study about the shear behaviour of concrete with different levels of recycled
coarse aggregate (i.e., 0%, 50% and 100%) after being subjected to different temperatures (i.e.,
20℃, 200℃, 300℃ and 400℃). Thirty-six beam specimens with uniform depth and varying
width were designed to test their mechanical parameters including shear strength, peak shear
strain, stress–strain curves and shear modulus. How these parameters are influenced by
recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) content and by high temperature was analysed. The shear
stress–strain equations for RCA-embedded concrete after exposure to different temperatures
were established. It is found that the aforementioned mechanical parameters are minimally
influenced by the RCA content at ambient temperature (about 20℃). After exposure to high
temperatures, the RCA content affects the shear strength insignificantly but increases the peak
strain slightly. As the temperature elevates, the residual shear strength and shear modulus
decline rapidly whereas the peak strain increases linearly. Furthermore, the normalized shear
stress–strain curves become more disperse with the increment of temperature

[4] Hasan Katkhudaa, Nasim Shataratb (April,2016)

The shear behaviour of ten full scale reinforced concrete beams that were constructed from
natural aggregate, recycled aggregate and treated recycled aggregate was experimentally and
analytically studied. All beams were constructed without stirrups and with 50% and 100%
recycled aggregate. The beams were tested for a shear span-to-depth ratio (a/d) equal to 2.0
and 3.0. The performance of recycled aggregate was improved through enhancement treatment
methods. The recycled aggregate was pre-soaked in hydrochloric acid (HCl) for 24 hrs to
remove adhered mortars attached to original recycled aggregates, and then they were
impregnated with sodium metasilicate pentahydrate solution for one hour to coat their surfaces.
The behaviour of the shear-critical beams was studied through reporting the load deflection
curves, ultimate load values, and crack propagation during static tests. The experimental shear

4
capacities of the beams were compared with theoretical values from different international
codes and fracture mechanics approaches. The experimental results showed that in general
using treated recycled aggregate improved slightly the shear capacity of the beams in
comparison with natural and untreated recycled aggregate. Furthermore, the shear strength
comparisons showed that the treated recycled aggregate beams were considered more
conservative compared to the natural and untreated recycled aggregate beams regardless of the
shear span-to-depth ratio.

[5] Jozef Junaka, Alena Sicakovaa (2016)

This paper is focused to the recycling of one kind of construction & demolition waste (C&DW),
namely concrete. After crushing and sorting, such recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) can be
used for production of new concrete. The use of RCA may help to save natural aggregate
sources and thus contributes to environmental protection. The most negative properties of such
aggregate, comparing the natural one are roughness of its surface and high water absorptivity
as well. Those features cause complications during concrete production technology mainly they
have negative impact on the amounts of cement and mixing water and also on the final
properties of concrete. Using laboratory techniques, the 4/8 fraction of RCA was prepared for
experiments aimed on the enhancement of surface quality and performance of such aggregate.
To modify the surface properties of RCA, geopolymer material based on fly ash was used in
different ways. The first one is the coating of RCA by geopolymer slurry, then drying under
ambient conditions and finally application into concrete mixture. The second one is coating
directly during mixing of concrete, using so called “triple stage mixing”. In the paper,
properties of both sets of concretes will be compared and analyzed in terms of workability, real
density, total water absorption and compressive strength. Slight differences in those properties
were found, comparing the reference samples with no any surface treatment of RCA, as well
as comparing the ways of RCA modification each other; that is why the modification conducted
directly during mixing of concrete can be recognized to be preferable due to better simplicity.

[6] Bing Liua, Chao Fenga, Zhiheng Denga (july, 2018)

This research shows the shear behaviour of three types of recycled aggregate concrete with
different replacement levels of recycled coarse aggregate. Sixty cube specimens and thirty

5
beam specimens with uniform depth and varying width were designed to test their
mechanical parameters including cube compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, shear
strength, peak shear strain, shear stress-strain curves, and shear modulus. We analysed how
these parameters are influenced by the type of recycled coarse aggregate and by recycled
coarse aggregate replacement level. We established the strength conversion equations, one-
parameter polynomial non-dimensional shear stress-strain equations, and shear modulus
calculation formulas of three types of recycled aggregate concrete. It is found that the
strength of recycled aggregate concrete I is slightly lower than that of conventional concrete
and decrease with the increase of recycled coarse aggregate replacement level. However, the
strength of recycled aggregate concrete II and recycled aggregate concrete III is slightly
higher than that of conventional concrete when the recycled coarse aggregate replacement
ratio is less than 70%. As the recycled coarse aggregate replacement ratio increase, the peak
shear strain of three types of recycled aggregate concrete gradually decreases. The shear
strength and peak scant shear modulus of three types of recycled aggregate concrete show the
rule of recycled aggregate concrete III > recycled aggregate concrete II > recycled aggregate
concrete I. Furthermore, the calculated values of several equations established by the authors
agree well with the test values.

2.3 Objectives

1. To compare the Shear strength of Recycled Aggregates used as replacement of Coarse

Aggregate for Constructional purposes.

2. To reduce the pressure on naturally available materials by replacing natural coarse

aggregates with recycled aggregates.

3. To compare the physical characteristics of natural aggregate with recycled aggregate.

4. To know its applications in construction industry.

CHAPTER-3

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

6
3.1.1 Recycled Aggregates

The main source for recycled aggregates is construction and demolition waste. Most of the
waste materials produced by demolishing structures are disposed by dumping them as landfill
or for reclaiming land. But with the demand for land increasing day by day, the locations,
capacity and width of the land that can receive waste materials are becoming limited. Added
to it, the cost of transportation makes disposal a major problem. Hence, reuse of demolition
waste appears to be an effective solution and the most appropriate and large-scale use would
be to use it as aggregates to produce concrete for new construction. Recycled aggregate
concrete utilizes demolition material from concrete and burnt clay brick masonry construction
as aggregate.

3.1.2 SOURCES OF CERAMIC WASTE

It was estimated that an average of 1 MT/year of concrete waste was produced from testing
of various concrete specimens. Waste concrete cubes and cylinders were collected from
Structural Technology Centre laboratory of our Institution. The collected waste were taken to
a crusher unit nearby and crushed into various sizes. After screening, the materials were
separated into the size of coarse aggregate required for replacement in concrete.

3.1.3 Characteristics of Recycled Aggregate Concrete

Recycle aggregate concrete has a crushed sound and clean waste concrete of at least 95% by
weight of concrete with typical total contamination lower than 1% of the bulk mass. Class 1A
RCA is a well graded RCA with not more than 0.5% brick content. The crushing characteristics
of hardened concrete are similar to those of natural rock and are not significantly affected by
the grade or quality of the original concrete. Recycled concrete aggregates produced from all
but the poorest quality original concrete can be expected to pass the same tests which are being
required for testing of conventional aggregates.
Recycled concrete aggregates contain not only the original aggregates, but also hydrated

7
cement paste. This paste reduces the specific gravity and increases the porosity compared to
similar virgin aggregates. Higher porosity of RCA leads to a higher absorption.

3.1.4 Mix Design Procedure Using RCA

It is generally accepted that when natural sand is used, up to 30 percent of natural crushed
coarse aggregate can be replaced with coarse recycled aggregate without significantly affecting
any of the mechanical properties of the concrete. As replacement amounts increase, drying
shrinkage and creep will increase and tensile strength and modulus of elasticity will decrease,
however compressive strength and freeze-thaw resistance are not significantly affected.

It is recommended that RCA must be batched close to a saturated surface dry condition, like
lightweight aggregates. To achieve the same workability, slump, and water-cement ratio as in
conventional concrete, the paste content or amount of water reducer generally have to be
increased.

Concrete with RCA can be transported, placed, and compacted in the same manner as
conventional concrete. Special care is necessary when using fine RCA. Only up to 10 to 20
percent fine RCA is beneficial. The aggregate should be tested at several substitution rates.
Often recycled aggregate is combined with virgin aggregate when used in new concrete.

3.1.5 Sustainability

Recycling concrete provides sustainability in several different ways. The simple act of
recycling the concrete reduces the amount of material that must be land filled. The concrete
itself becomes aggregate and any embedded metals can be removed and recycled as well. As
space for landfills becomes premium, this not only helps reduce the need for landfills, but also
reduces the economic impact of the project. Moreover, using recycled concrete aggregates
reduces the need for virgin aggregates. This in turn reduces the environmental impact of the
aggregate extraction process. By removing both the waste disposal and new material
production needs, transportation requirements for the project are significantly reduced. In
addition to the resource management aspect, recycled concrete aggregates absorb a large

8
amount of carbon dioxide from the surrounding environment. The natural process of
carbonation occurs in all concrete from the surface inward. In the process of crushing concrete
to create recycled concrete aggregates, areas of the concrete that have not carbonated are
exposed to atmospheric carbon dioxide.

The LEED Green Building Rating System recognizes recycled concrete in its point system.
Credit 4 (Materials and Resources) states, “specify a minimum of 25 percent of building
materials that contain in aggregate a minimum weighted average of 20 percent post-consumer
recycled content material, OR, a minimum weighted average of 40 percent post-industrial
recycled content material.” Using recycled aggregates instead of extracted aggregates would
qualify as post-consumer. Because concrete is an assembly, its recycled content should be
calculated as a percentage of recycled material on a mass basis.

Credit can also be obtained for Construction Waste Management. It is awarded based on
diverting at least 50 percent by mass of construction, demolition, and land clearing waste from
landfill disposal. Concrete is a relatively heavy construction material and is frequently recycled
into aggregate for road bases or construction fill

3.1.6 Equipment Used in Recycling Concrete

9
 Fig 1: Asphalt recycle grinding machine

Fig 2: Grinding machine for concrete crusher

Fig 3: Aggregate crusher

3.1.7 Advantages of Recycled Aggregate Concrete

10
We all know that recycling materials is good for the environment otherwise it would end up in
a landfill. This is particularly true when you are dealing with bulky materials that take away
precious space for real garbage.

• Reduces the amount of virgin aggregates to be created, hence less evacuation of natural
resources.
• While being crushed into smaller particles a large amount of carbon dioxide is
absorbed. This reduces the amount of CO2 is the atmosphere.
• Cost saving – few research studies have shown a significant reduction in construction
costs if RAC is used.
• Conserves landfill space, reduces the need for new landfills and hence saving more
costs.
• Creates more employment opportunities is recycling industry
• Lessen the pollution and CO produced at each step of the process: The majority of
recycling operations reduce the power and fuel consumption needed during production
and distribution

3.1.8 Process of Making Recycled Aggregate Concrete

Steps involved in recycled aggregate concrete:-

1. Crushing

2. Pre-sizing

3. Sorting

4. Screening

5. Contaminant elimination

3.1.9 Recycling Process

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 Figure 4: Flowchart of recycling process

3.2 Cement

3.2.1 Introduction

A cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other materials together.
The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the term opus caementicium to describe
masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as
binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick supplements that were added to the burnt lime,
to obtain a hydraulic binder, were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment, and
cement. Cements used in construction can be characterized as being either hydraulic or non-
hydraulic, depending upon the ability of the cement to be used in the presence of water. Non-

12
hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or underwater, rather it sets as it dries and reacts
with carbon dioxide in the air. It can be attacked by some aggressive chemicals after setting.

3.2.2 Types of cements

i. Portland cement

ii. Energetically modified cement

iii. Portland cement blends

iv. Portland blast furnace cement

v. Portland fly ash cement

vi. Portland Pozzolana cement

vii. Portland silica fume cement

viii. Masonry cements

ix. Expansive cements

x. White blended cements

xi. Coloured cements

xii. Very finely ground cements

xiii. Pozzolana-lime cements

xiv. Slag-lime cements

xv. Super-sulphated cements

xvi. Calcium sulfo aluminate cements

xvii. Natural cements

xviii. Geo polymer cements

13
3.2.3 Curing Of Concrete

Curing of Concrete is a method by which the concrete is protected against loss of moisture
required for hydration and kept within the recommended temperature range. Curing
will increase the strength and decrease the permeability of hardened concrete. Curing is
also helps in mitigating thermal and plastic cracks, which can severely impact durability of
structures.

Figure 5: Ponding concrete slab

A curing practice involves keeping the concrete damp or moist until the hydration of concrete
is complete and strength is attained. Curing of concrete should begin soon after initial setting
time of concrete or formwork/shuttering is removed and must continue for a reasonable period
of time as per the specified standards, for the concrete to achieve its desired strength and
durability.

It is important to make sure an uninterrupted hydration of PCC & RC after concrete is placed
and finished in its position. Uniform temperature ought to be maintained throughout the
concrete-section depth to avoid thermal shrinkage cracks.

14
3.2.4 Methods to Cure Concrete

Depending upon the site constraints, type of structure and other material parameters, different
methods of curing are adopted at site. Methods of curing concrete fall into the following
categories:

Figure 6: Curing by passing water through tubes

Water curing:

Water curing prevents the water loss from the concrete surface by uninterrupted wetting of the
exposed surface of concrete. It’s done by spraying or sprinkling water or curing agents over
the concrete surface to ensure that the concrete surface is continuously moist. Moisture from
the body of concrete is retained from evaporating and contributes to the strength-gain of
concrete.

Water curing methods are:

1. Ponding
2. Sprinkling, fogging & mist curing
3. Wet coverings

15
 Figure 7: Steam Curing in Precast Plant

Steam curing keeps the surface moist and raises the temperature of concrete to quicken the rate
of strength achievement. It is a process done to speed up the early hardening of concrete and
mortars by subjecting it to steam and humidity. This method is most commonly used for precast
concrete plants where products are mass-produced and the turnaround or striking time of the
formwork is very quick.

3.2.5 Green cement

Green cement is a cementitious material that meets or exceeds the functional performance
capabilities of ordinary Portland cement by incorporating and optimizing recycled materials,
thereby reducing consumption of natural raw materials, water, and energy, resulting in a more
sustainable construction material. The manufacturing process for green cement succeeds in
reducing, and even eliminating, the production and release of damaging pollutants and
greenhouse gasses, particularly CO2.Growing environmental concerns and increasing cost of
fuels of fossil origin have resulted in many countries in sharp reduction of the resources needed
to produce cement and effluents (dust and exhaust gases).Peter Trimble, a design student at the
University of Edinburgh has proposed 'DUPE' based on sporosarcinapasteurii, a bacterium with
binding qualities which, when mixed with sand and urine produces a concrete said to be 70%
as strong as conventional materials. The idea has been commercialized in the USA.

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3.3 Aggregates: Fine Aggregates
3.3.1 Introduction

Fine aggregate (Sand) is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided
rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt.
Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type; i.e. a soil containing more than 85%
sand-sized particles (by mass). The composition of sand varies, depending on the local rock
sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings
and non-tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of
quartz. The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate, for example aragonite,
which has mostly been created, over the past half billion years, by various forms of life, like
coral and shellfish. It is, for example, the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs
have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean.

3.3.2 Resources and environmental concerns

Only some sands are suitable for the construction industry, for example for making concrete.
Because of the growth of population and of cities and the consequent construction activity there
is a huge demand for these special kinds of sand, and natural sources are running low. In 2012
French director Denis Delestrac made a documentary called "Sand Wars" about the impact of
the lack of construction sand. It shows the ecological and economic effects of both legal and
illegal trade in construction sand. Sand's many uses require a significant dredging industry,
raising environmental concerns over fish depletion, landslides, and flooding. Countries such as
China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Cambodia ban sand exports, citing these issues as a major
factor.

3.3.3 Hazards

While sand is generally non-toxic, sand-using activities such as sandblasting require

precautions. Bags of silica sand used for sandblasting now carry labels warning the user to
wear respiratory protection to avoid breathing the resulting fine silica dust. Material safety data
sheets (MSDS) for silica sand state that "excessive inhalation of crystalline silica is a serious
health concern". In areas of high pore water pressure sand and salt water can form quicksand,

17
which is a colloid hydrogel that behaves like a liquid. Quicksand produces a considerable
barrier to escape for creatures caught within, who often die from exposure (not from
submersion) as a result.

3.4 Aggregates: Coarse Aggregates

3.4.1 Introduction

Construction aggregate (coarse aggregate), or simply “aggregate”, is a broad category of coarse

particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled
concrete and geo-synthetic aggregates. Aggregates are the most mined materials in the world.
Aggregates are a component of composite materials such as concrete and asphalt concrete; the
aggregate serves as reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite material. Due to the
relatively high hydraulic conductivity value as compared to most soils, aggregates are widely
used in drainage applications such as foundation and French drains, septic drain fields,
retaining wall drains, and road side edge drains. Aggregates are also used as base material
under foundations, roads, and railroads. In other words, aggregates are used as a stable
foundation or road/rail base with predictable, uniform properties (e.g. to help prevent
differential settling under the road or building), or as a lowcost extender that binds with more
expensive cement or asphalt to form concrete. Preferred bituminous aggregate sizes for road
construction are given in EN 13043 as d/D (where the range shows the smallest and largest
square mesh grating that the particles can pass). The same classification sizing is used for larger
armour stone sizes in EN 13383, EN 12620 for concrete aggregate, EN 13242 for base layers
of road construction and EN 13450 for railway ballast.

Sources for these basic materials can be grouped into three main areas: Mining of mineral
aggregate deposits, including sand, gravel, and stone; use of waste slag from the manufacture
of iron and steel; and recycling of concrete, which is itself chiefly manufactured from mineral
aggregates. In addition, there are some (minor) materials that are used as specialty lightweight
aggregates: clay, pumice, perlite, and vermiculite.

3.4.2 Recycled materials for aggregates

18
The largest-volume of recycled material used as construction aggregate is blast furnace and
steel furnace slag. Blast furnace slag is either air-cooled (slow cooling in the open) or
granulated (formed by quenching molten slag in water to form sand-sized glass-like particles).
If the granulated blast furnace slag accesses free lime during hydration, it develops strong
hydraulic cementitious properties and can partly substitute for portland cement in concrete.
Steel furnace slag is also air-cooled. In 2006, according to the USGS, air-cooled blast furnace
slag sold or used in the U.S. was 7.3 million tonnes valued at $49 million, granulated blast
furnace slag sold or used in the U.S. was 4.2 million tonnes valued at $318 million, and steel
furnace slag sold or used in the U.S. was 8.7 million tonnes valued at $40 million. Air-cooled
blast furnace slag sales in 2006 were for use in road bases and surfaces (41%), asphaltic
concrete (13%), ready-mixed concrete (16%), and the balance for other uses. Granulated blast
furnace slag sales in 2006 were for use in cementitious materials (94%), and the balance for
other uses. Steel furnace slag sales in 2006 were for use in road bases and surfaces (51%),
asphaltic concrete (12%), for fill (18%), and the balance for other uses.

Aggregates themselves can be recycled as aggregates. Unlike deposits of sand and gravel or
stone suitable for crushing into aggregate, which can be anywhere and may require overburden
removal and/or blasting, "deposits" of recyclable aggregate tend to be concentrated near urban
areas, and production from them cannot be raised or lowered to meet demand for aggregates.
Supply of recycled aggregate depends on physical decay of structures and their demolition.
The recycling plant can be fixed or mobile; the smaller capacity mobile plant works best for
asphalt-aggregate recycling. The material being recycled is usually highly variable in quality
and properties.

According to the USGS in 2006, 2.9 million tonnes of Portland cement concrete (including
aggregate) worth $21.9 million was recycled, and 1.6 million tonnes of asphalt concrete
(including aggregate) worth $11.8 million was recycled, both by crushed stone operations.
Much more of both materials are recycled by construction and demolition firms not in the
USGS survey. For sand and gravel, the USGS survey for 2006 showed that 3.2.7 million tonnes
of cement concrete valued at $32.0 million was recycled, and 3.4.17 million tonnes of asphalt
concrete valued at $43.3.1 million was recycled. Again, more of both materials are recycled by
construction and demolition firms not in this USGS survey. The Construction Materials
Recycling Association indicates that there are 325 million tonnes of recoverable construction
and demolition materials produced annually. Many geo synthetic aggregates are also made

19
from recycled materials. Being polymer based, recyclable plastics can be reused in the
production of these new age of aggregates.

3.5 Methodology

3.5.1 Mix design

The mix design for M25 grade was done in accordance with a specification of code IS:10262-
1982 as shown in table

Water cement ratio Cement Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregates

0.44 1 1.73 3.03
Table: 3.1 Design proportion of M25 grade

3.5.2 Mixing of Concrete

Proper mixing of concrete ingredients is of utmost importance in order to produce good quality
of fresh concrete. During the process of mixing the surface of all the aggregate particles is
coated with cement paste. Well mixed concrete is required for the desired workability and
performance of concrete in both the fresh as well as the hardened state. If the concrete is not
well mixed, then it tends to segregation and bleeding.

Mixing of concrete should be either with hand, mixer machine or ready mix concrete (Mixing
in automatic batching plant). There are various types of machine mixers which is used are
tilting mixer, pan mixer, non-tilting mixer.

The mixer used for my project work is tilting mixer.

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 Figure 8: Tilting Mixer

3.5.3 Preparation of Test Specimen

RCC Beams of 450 x 100 x 100 mm size was casted, 3 for 7-days testing and 3 for 14-days
testing. A sample consists of 3 RCC beam specimens and their average shear strength
represents the test result of that sample.

The mould plates was removed, properly cleaned assembled. A thin layer of oil was applied on
all the faces of the mould.

For uniform mixing of material a tilting type mixer was used for the preparation of mix after
mixer has made 300 revolutions concrete is discharged from mixer and then material is placed
in moulds. The specimen de moulded after 24hr immersed in water for curing for 7 and 14
days.

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 Figure: 9 Casted Beam

3.5.4 Curing

After casting, beam is kept in curing tank for 28 days to avoid shrinkage cracks and proper
hydration of cement and premature stressing and disturbance.

3.5.5 Shear Test

After curing of cubes for 7 days shear test was performed and 14 days shear test was performed
on RCC beams

A shear test is designed to apply stress to a test sample so that it experiences a sliding failure
along a plane that is parallel to the forces applied. Generally, shear forces cause one surface of
a material to move in one direction and the other surface to move in the opposite direction so
that the material is stressed in a sliding motion. Shear tests differ from tension and compression
tests in that the forces applied are parallel to the two contact surface, whereas, in tension and
compression they are perpendicular to the contact surfaces.

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CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Tests On Cement

4.1.1 Specific gravity of cement

Specific gravity is determined by use of Specific Gravity Bottle. In the determination of

specific gravity of cement, kerosene is used as a medium instead of water, because water
undergoes hydration reaction with cement, while kerosene does not react.

Procedure:

The specific gravity test procedure contains only four steps. Followings are the four steps to
be followed to perform specific gravity test of cement:

1. The Flask should be free from the liquid that means it should be fully dry. Weigh the empty
flask. Which is W1.

2. Next, fill the cement on the bottle up to half of the flask around 50gm and weigh with its
stopper. And it is W2.

3. Add Kerosene to the cement up to the top of the bottle. Mix well to remove the air bubbles
in it. Weigh the flask with cement and kerosene. And it is W3.

4. Empty the flask. Fill the bottle with kerosene up to the top and weigh the flask for counting
W4.

Cement specific gravity formula: S= W2-W1/(W2-W1)-(W3-W4)*0.76

Note-: Specific Gravity of Kerosene = 0.76

23
 Table 4.1 Specific Gravity Of Cement
Description Results in gm
Mass of Empty Bottel = W1 31
Mass of Empty bottle + Cement = W2 80.80
W2 + Kerosene = W3 114
W1 + Kerosene = W4 69.5
Specific Gravity 3.11

4.1.2 Standard consistency of cement

Standard consistency is defined as the percentage water requirement of cement paste at which
viscosity of the paste becomes such that the plunger in a specially designed apparatus (known
as Vicat’s apparatus) penetrates a depth 5 to 7mm, measured from the bottom of the mould.
Practical importance of Standard consistency value is to determine amount of water needed to
make paste for other tests of cement. Apparatus: Vicat’s Apparatus with plunger, needles, stop
watch etc.

Procedure:

(1) Prepare a paste of weighed quantity of cement (approx. 400 gms) with weighed quantity of
water (start from 20%-25%) taking care that mixing (gauging) remains between 3 to 5 minutes
and mixing shall be completed before any signs of setting becomes visible.

(2) Fill the Vicat’s mould with the paste, mould should rest on non-porous base.

(3) Place the mould under Vicat’s apparatus. The plunger attached to a movable rod is gently
lowered on the paste.

(4) Settlement of plunger is noted, penetration from bottom is equal to the difference of mould
height and settlement of plunger. If penetration of the plunger is within 5-7mm from bottom,
then water added is correct. Otherwise, water is added and process is repeated.

Mass of Cement taken = 400 gm

Results -: Consistency of OPC Grade 43 = Weight of water/Weight of Cement*100

= 32%

24
4.1.3 Setting time of cement

Initial Setting time and Final setting time

Initial setting time is defined as the time taken by the paste to stiffen to an extent such that the
Vicat’S needle is not permitted to move down through the paste within 5 ± 0.5 mm measured
from the bottom of the mould. Time is measured from the instant water is added to the paste.

Figure: 10: Vicat’S needle

25
Procedure

(1) Take approx. 400 gms of dry cement and add 0.85 P where P is the weight of water for
standard consistency to make paste.

(2) Fill the mould with paste, attach square needle to moving rod of apparatus.

(3) The needle is quickly released and is allowed to penetrate cement paste.

(4) Note down the time and penetration from bottom.

(5) Plot a curve between time (min) and penetration (mm).

(6) Find initial setting time (minutes) when penetration of needle (from bottom) is within 5
±0.5mm.

Results :-0.85*32% = 27.2%

= 108gm

Table :-4.2 Time Initial and Final

Sample Start Time Stop Time

Initial Setting Time 9:30am 10:15am 43min
Final Setting Time 9:30am 3:50 6hr 20mins

4.1.4 Specific Gravity of Coarse Aggregates

1 Weight of sample = 1000gm

2 Weight of vessel + Sample +Water(x) = 2400gm
3 Weight of vessel + Water(y) = 1776gm
4 Weight of saturated and surface dry sample(z) = 995gm
5 Weight of oven dry sample (D) = 980gm

Specific Gravity = D/z-(x-y) = 980/995-(2400-1776)

=2.64

26
4.1.5 Specific Gravity of Fine Aggregates

1 Weight of pynometer + Sample + Water(X) =1813gm

2 Weight of pynometer +Water(Y) =1500gm
3 Weight of saturated and Surface dry aggregates(Z) =500gm
4 Weight of oven dry sample(D) =490

Specific Gravity = 2.61

4.2 Concrete mix design

4.2.1 Introduction

The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative amounts
with the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength, durability, and workability
as economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design. The proportioning of ingredient
of concrete is governed by the required performance of concrete in 2 states, namely the plastic
and the hardened states. If the plastic concrete is not workable, it cannot be properly placed
and compacted. The property of workability, therefore, becomes of vital importance. The
compressive strength of hardened concrete which is generally considered to be an index of its
other properties, depends upon many factors, e.g. quality and quantity of cement, water and
aggregates; batching and mixing; placing, compaction and curing. The cost of concrete is made
up of the cost of materials, plant and labour. The variations in the cost of materials arise from
the fact that the cement is several times costly than the aggregate, thus the aim is to produce as
lean a mix as possible. From technical point of view the rich mixes may lead to high shrinkage
and cracking in the structural concrete, and to evolution of high heat of hydration in mass
concrete which may cause cracking. The actual cost of concrete is related to the cost of
materials required for producing a minimum mean strength called characteristic strength that
is specified by the designer of the structure. This depends on the quality control measures, but
there is no doubt that the quality control adds to the cost of concrete. The extent of quality
control is often an economic compromise, and depends on the size and type of job.

4.2.2 Requirements Of Concrete Mix Design

27
The requirements which form the basis of selection and proportioning of mix ingredients are:

a) The minimum compressive strength required from structural consideration

b) The adequate workability necessary for full compaction with the compacting equipment
available.

c) Maximum water-cement ratio and/or maximum cement content to give adequate durability
for the particular site condition to meet the site condition and meet strength.

d) Maximum cement content to avoid shrinkage cracking due to temperature cycle in mass
concrete.

4.2.3 Types Of Mixes

Nominal Mixes

In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement, fine and coarse
aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures adequate strength are
termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and under normal circumstances, have a margin
of strength above that specified. However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the nominal
concrete for a given workability varies widely in strength.

Standard Mixes

The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in strength and
may result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive strength
has been included in many specifications. These mixes are termed standard mixes. IS 456-2000
has designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10, M15, M20, M25, M30,
M35 and M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the mix and the number to the specified
28 day cube strength of mix in N/mm 2 . The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20 and M25
correspond approximately to the mix proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2)
respectively.

Designed Mixes
28
In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the mix
proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement
content can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the selection of mix proportions
with specific materials in mind possessing more or less unique characteristics. The approach
results in the production of concrete with the appropriate properties most economically.
However, the designed mix does not serve as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct
mix proportions for the prescribed performance. For the concrete with undemanding
performance nominal or standard mixes (prescribed in the codes by quantities of dry
ingredients per cubic meter and by slump) may be used only for very small jobs, when the 28-
day strength of concrete does not exceed 30 N/mm2. No control testing is necessary reliance
being placed on the masses of the ingredients.

4.2.4 Mix Proportion Designations

The common method of expressing the proportions of ingredients of a concrete mix is in the
terms of parts or ratios of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. For e.g., a concrete mix of
proportions 1:1:2 means that cement, fine and coarse aggregate are in the ratio 1:1:2 or the mix
contains one part of cement, two parts of fine aggregate and four parts of coarse aggregate. The
proportions are either by volume or by mass. The water-cement ratio is usually expressed in
mass

Factors to be considered for mix design

1. The grade designation giving the characteristic strength requirement of concrete.

2. The type of cement influences the rate of development of compressive strength of concrete.
3. Maximum nominal size of aggregates to be used in concrete may be as large as possible
within the limits prescribed by IS 456:2000.
4. The cement content is to be limited from shrinkage, cracking and creep.
5. The workability of concrete for satisfactory placing and compaction is related to size and
shape of section, quantity and spacing of reinforcement and technique used for
transportation, placing and compaction.

A-1 Concrete Mix Design M25

1. Characteristic compressive strength required = 25

29
 2. Nominal size of aggregates = 20mm
3. Type of cement = OPC 43 (IS 8112)
4. Type of work = RCC
5. Exposure Condition = Moderate
6. Max cement content = 450kg/m3
7. Min Cement content = 320kg/m3
8. Max W/C ratio = 0.44
9. Workability = 100mm

A-2 Test data for materials

1. Cement used : OPC 43

2. Specific gravity of cement : 3.11
3. Specific gravity of Coarse aggregate : 2.64
4. Fine aggregate : 2.61
5. Water absorption Coarse aggregate : 0.5percent
6. Fine aggregate : 1.2percent

A-3 TARGET STRENGTH FOR MIX PROPORTIONING

f’ck= fck + 1.65 s

Where

f’ck = Target average compressive strength at 28 days,

fck = Characteristic compressive strength at 28 days

s= Standard deviation

From Table 1 standard deviation, s = 4 N/mm2

Therefore target strength = 25 + 1.65 x 4 = 31.60 N/mm2

A-4 Water Cement Ratio

30
For moderate condition from IS 456 Table 5:

Max W/C Ratio = 0.50

From IS 10262:

W/C Ratio = 0.44

Adopt Min = 0.44

Selection of Water Content

From Table 4 (IS 10262)

For 20mm aggregates and 50 mm slump:

Max Water Content = 186kg

Adopt Water = 160kg

@3% increase per 25mm slump we get for 100 mm slump:

Water Content = 170kg

A-5 Calculation of cement content

Water / cement ratio = 0.44

Cement Content = 170/0.44 = 386kg

As per IS 456 min cement is 320kg

386 >320 Hence OK

A-6 Calculation of volume of coarse and fine aggregates

From table 5 (IS 10262)

31
Present Water/Cement ratio = 0.44

So volume of coarse aggregates is to be increased by + -0.01 for every + -0.05

Reduced Water content = 0.50-0.44

= 0.06

Thus corrected volume of coarse aggregates = 0.634

Volume of fine aggerates = 1- 0.634= 0.366

A-7 Mix Proportion

Cement = 386kg/m3

Water = 170kg/m3

Fine aggregates = 670kg/m3

Coarse aggregates = 1170kg/m3

4.3 Tests on concrete

4.3.1 Shear strength test

Testing hardened concrete plays an important role in controlling and conforming the quality of
cement concrete work. A shear load is a force that tends to produce a sliding failure on a
material along a plane that is parallel to the direction of the force whereas the shear strength is
the strength of a material or component against the type of yield or structural failure where the
material or components fails in shear.

Shear stress is max at 45 degree in the cross section of the beam.

This experimental program of this project is on RCC beams. For this concrete made with
recycled aggregates (RCA) instead of natural coarse aggregates (NCA).some amount of RCA
replaced with NCA and will check the effect of shear strength on beam with this replacement

32
Apparatus: Beam moulds 450mm x100mm x100mm size, weighing machine, ramming rods,
Beam testing machine

Procedure:

1) Take Three Beam moulds for each mix. Assemble the mould with base plate so that it is
rigidly held together.

2) Clean the inside of the mould and see that joints (at the edges) are perfectly tight.

3) Pour properly mixed concrete for the given mix to the Beam moulds.

4) Compaction by needle vibrator will be preferred. If vibrator is not available, hand

compaction is to be done by placing concrete in three layers; each layer be compacted with the
help of standard temping rod by means of 25 blows.

5) Level the concrete at the top of the mould by means of trowel and give proper identification
mark of the specimen.

6) Keep the beams in laboratory for 24 hours.

7) After 24 hours, dismantle the plates of beam mould and take out the hardened concrete
beams carefully so that edges specimens are not damaged.

8) Immerse the Beams in curing tank filled with water. Keep it for curing up to 7 or 14 days.

9) Test the beams after 7 and14 days of curing to find the shear strength.

10) Tabulate Shear strength for each cube and calculate average value for each.

Table 4.3 Shear Strength of RCC Beams

33
 Specimen Designation 7 Days 14 Days

RAC 0% 2.8+ 3.7+

RAC 30% 3.2+ 3.9+

RAC 50% 2.5+ 3.1+

Flow Chart

Diagram shows comparative analysis for the test performed to check the shear strength of
RCC beams with RAC 0%, RAC 30% and RAC 50% kept for 7 days and 14 days .

4.5

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
RAC 0% RAC 30% RAC 50%

7 DAYS 14 DAYS

Figure: 11: Comparison chart

34
 Figure 12: Shear Strength Test 1 Figure 13: Shear Strength Test 2

Figure 14: Shear Strength Test 3 Figure 15: Shear Strength Test 4

Figure 16: Reading 1 Figure 17: Reading 2

35
CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

5.1 Conclusion

The experimental results have shown the use of Recycled Concrete Aggregates in making
concrete/mortar can provide an alternative solution to minimize the environmental impact. The
following conclusions were drawn:

1. The properties of concrete containing various percentage of Recycled Aggregates (0%,

30%, and 50%) were tested for its physical properties and shear strength.
2. At 30% replacement of natural aggregates with recycled aggregates there is slight increase
of shear strength of rcc beam in 7 days but decrease in 14 days. As shown in table 4.3.
3. At 50% replacement of natural aggregates with recycled aggregates there is slight decrease
of shear strength of rcc beam in 7 days and in 14 days. As shown in table 4.3.

4. Maximum strength of 30.90 MPa can be achieved for M25grade concrete by 30%
replacement of recycled aggregates.

From the results obtained recycled aggregates can be used upto 30% replacement as result
shows increase in strength of concrete.

5.2Future Scope

The present research can be extended to

1. The test can be carried out for different grades of concrete.

2. The use of admixtures in the test can be performed to get improved strength.
3. Different percentages more than 30% replacement can be used to test the concrete.

REFERENCES
36
1. ‘Shear strength of recycled aggregates concrete’

6th International Workshop on Performance, Protection & Strengthening of Structures

under Extreme Loading, PROTECT2017, 11-12 December 2017, Guangzhou
(Canton), China”.

2. (June 2015)”Strength and Durability Evaluation of Recycled Aggregate Concrete”.

a. International Journal of Concrete Structures and Materials
b. Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Ioannina,
45110 Ioannina, Greece

3. (2007) “Mechanical Properties of Concrete with Recycled Coarse Aggregate”.

a. Building and Environment, 42: 407–415

4. IS 10262 (2009): Guidelines for concrete mix design.

5. IS 456 : 2000 Indian Standard PLAIN AND REINFORCED CONCRETE - CODE OF

PRACTICE

6. “Properties of concrete made with recycled coarse aggregate from waste brick
a. Shipping”. Zhang LanZong

7. MS Shetty, Concrete Technology, Theory and Practice, Revised Edition, 2010

8. Shear behaviour of three types of recycled aggregate concrete by Bing Liua,b, Chao
Fenga Zhiheng Denga

9. Shear strength of RC beam made with recycled brick aggregate by Tarek

UddinMohammeda, ,Kamal Hossain ShikdaraM.A.A Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Islamic University of
Technology(IUT),BoardBazar,Gazipur1704, Bangladesh

10. (Volume-2, Issue-2, January 2013), “Utilization of Recycled Wastes as Ingredients in

Concrete Mix”,

37
 a. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering
(IJITEE),
11. “Engineering properties of treated recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) forstructural
applications”.
a. Building and Planning, UniversitiSains Malaysia, 11800 Pulau Pinang, Malay.

38