Jewish holidays

Jewish holidays, also known as Jewish festivals or Yamim

Tovim (Hebrew: ‫ימים טובים‬, lit. 'Good Days', or singular ‫יום טוב‬
Yom Tov, in transliterated Hebrew [English: /ˈjɔːm ˈtɔːv, joʊm
ˈtoʊv/]),[1] are holidays observed in Judaism and by Jews[Note 1]
throughout the Hebrew calendar. They include religious, cultural
and national elements, derived from three sources: biblical
mitzvot ("commandments"); rabbinic mandates; Jewish history
and the history of the State of Israel.

Jewish holidays occur on the same dates every year in the

Hebrew calendar, but the dates vary in the Gregorian. This is
because the Hebrew calendar is a lunisolar calendar (based on the Candles are lit on the eve of the
Jewish Sabbath ("Shabbat") and on
cycles of both the sun and moon), whereas the Gregorian is a
Jewish holidays.
solar calendar.

Contents
General concepts
Groupings
Terminology used to describe holidays
"Work" on Sabbath and biblical holidays
Second day of biblical festivals
Holidays of biblical and rabbinic (Talmudic) origin
Shabbat—The Sabbath
Rosh Chodesh—The New Month
Rosh Hashanah—The Jewish New Year
Selichot
Rosh Hashanah
Four New Years
Aseret Yemei Teshuva—Ten Days of
Repentance
Tzom Gedalia—Fast of Gedalia
Yom Kippur—Day of Atonement
Sukkot—Feast of Booths (or Tabernacles)
Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah
Hanukkah—Festival of Lights
Tenth of Tevet
Tu Bishvat—New Year of the Trees
Purim—Festival of Lots
Purim Katan
 Ta'anit Esther–Fast of Esther
Purim and Shushan Purim
Pesach—Passover
Month of Nisan
Eve of Passover and Fast of the Firstborn
Passover
Pesach Sheni
Sefirah—Counting of the Omer
Lag Ba'Omer
Shavuot—Feast of Weeks—Yom HaBikurim
Mourning for Jerusalem: Seventeenth of Tammuz
and Tisha B'Av
Fast of the Seventeenth of Tammuz
The Three Weeks and the Nine Days
Tisha B'Av—Ninth of Av
Tu B'Av
Other fasts
Israeli/Jewish national holidays and days of
remembrance
Yom HaShoah—Holocaust Remembrance Day
Yom Hazikaron—Memorial Day
Yom Ha'atzmaut—Israel Independence Day
Yom Yerushalayim—Jerusalem Day
Yom HaAliyah—Aliyah Day
Day to commemorate the expulsion of Jews from
Arab lands and Iran
Ethnic holidays
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

General concepts

Groupings
Certain terms are used very commonly for groups of holidays.

The Hebrew-language term Yom Tov (‫)יום טוב‬, sometimes referred to as "festival day,"
usually refers to the six biblically-mandated festival dates on which all activities prohibited
on Shabbat are prohibited, except for some related to food preparation.[2] These include the
first and seventh days of Passover, [first day of] Shavuot, both days of Rosh Hashanah, first
day of Sukkot, and [first day of] Shemini Atzeret. By extension, outside the Land of Israel,
the second-day holidays known under the rubric Yom tov sheni shel galuyot (literally,
 "Second Yom Tov of the Diaspora")—including Simchat Torah—are also included in this
grouping. Colloquially, Yom Kippur, a biblically-mandated date on which even food
preparation is prohibited, is often included in this grouping. The tradition of keeping two
days of Yom Tov in the diaspora has existed since roughly 300 BCE.
The English-language term High Holy Days (or High Holidays) refers to Rosh Hashanah
and Yom Kippur collectively. Its Hebrew analogue, Yamim Nora'im (‫)ימים נוראים‬, "Days of
Awe”, is more flexible: it can refer just to those holidays, or to the Ten Days of Repentance,
or to the entire penitential period, starting as early as the beginning of Elul, and (more
rarely) ending as late as Shemini Atzeret.
The term Three Pilgrimage Festivals (‫שלוש רגלים‬, shalosh regalim) refers to Passover,
Shavuot and Sukkot. Within this grouping Sukkot normally includes Shemini Atzeret and
Simchat Torah.

Terminology used to describe holidays

Certain terminology is used in referring to different categories of holidays, depending on their source and
their nature:

Shabbat (‫( )שבת‬Ashkenazi pron. from Yiddish shabbos), or Sabbath, is referred to by that name
exclusively. Similarly, Rosh Chodesh (‫ )ראש חודש‬is referred to by that name exclusively.

Yom tov (‫( )יום טוב‬Ashkenazi pron. from Yid. yontif) (lit., "good day"): See "Groupings"
above.
Moed (‫"( )מועד‬festive season"), plural moadim (‫)מועדים‬, refers to any of the Three Pilgrimage
Festivals of Passover, Shavuot and Sukkot. When used in comparison to Yom Tov, it refers
to Chol HaMoed, the intermediate days of Passover and Sukkot.
Ḥag or chag (‫"( )חג‬festival"), plural chagim (‫)חגים‬, can be used whenever yom tov or moed
is. It is also used to describe Hanukkah and Purim, as well as Yom Ha'atzmaut (Israeli
Independence Day) and Yom Yerushalayim (Jerusalem Day).
Ta'anit (‫)תענית‬, or, less commonly, tzom (‫)צום‬, refers to a fast. These terms are generally
used to describe the rabbinic fasts, although tzom is used liturgically to refer to Yom Kippur
as well.[3]

"Work" on Sabbath and biblical holidays

The most notable common feature of Shabbat and the biblical festivals is the requirement to refrain from
melacha on these days.[Note 2] Melacha is most commonly translated as "work"; perhaps a better
translation is "creative-constructive work". Strictly speaking, Melacha is defined in Jewish law (halacha)
by 39 categories of labor that were used in constructing the Tabernacle while the Jews wandered in the
desert. As understood traditionally and in Orthodox Judaism:

On Shabbat and Yom Kippur all melacha is prohibited.

On a Yom Tov (other than Yom Kippur) which falls on a weekday, not Shabbat, most
melacha is prohibited. Some melacha related to preparation of food is
permitted.[Note 3][Note 4]
On weekdays during Chol HaMoed, melacha is not prohibited per se. However, melacha
should be limited to that required either to enhance the enjoyment of the remainder of the
festival or to avoid great financial loss.
On other days, there are no restrictions on melacha.[Note 5]
In principle, Conservative Judaism understands the requirement to refrain from melacha in the same way
as Orthodox Judaism. In practice, Conservative rabbis frequently rule on prohibitions around melacha
differently from Orthodox authorities.[6] Still, there are a number of Conservative/Masorti communities
around the world where Sabbath and Festival observance fairly closely resembles Orthodox
observance.[Note 6]

However, many, if not most, lay members of Conservative congregations in North America do not
consider themselves Sabbath-observant, even by Conservative standards.[7] At the same time, adherents
of Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism do not accept halacha, and therefore restrictions on
melacha, as binding at all.[Note 7] Jews fitting any of these descriptions refrain from melacha in practice
only as they personally see fit.

Shabbat and holiday work restrictions are always put aside in cases of pikuach nefesh, which is saving a
human life. At the most fundamental level, if there is any possibility whatsoever that action must be
taken to save a life, Shabbat restrictions are set aside immediately, and without reservation.[Note 8] Where
the danger to life is present but less immediate, there is some preference to minimize violation of Shabbat
work restrictions where possible. The laws in this area are complex.[8]

Second day of biblical festivals

The Torah specifies a single date on the Jewish calendar for observance of holidays. Nevertheless,
festivals of biblical origin other than Shabbat and Yom Kippur are observed for two days outside the land
of Israel, and Rosh Hashanah is observed for two days even inside the land of Israel.

Dates for holidays on the Jewish calendar are expressed in the Torah as "day x of month y." Accordingly,
the beginning of month y needs to be determined before the proper date of the holiday on day x can be
fixed. Months in the Jewish calendar are lunar, and originally were proclaimed by the blowing of a
shofar. Later, the Sanhedrin received testimony of witnesses saying they saw the new crescent
moon.[Note 9] Then the Sanhedrin would inform Jewish communities away from its meeting place that it
had proclaimed a new moon. The practice of observing a second festival day stemmed from delays in
disseminating that information.[9]

Rosh Hashanah. Because of holiday restrictions on travel, messengers could not even
leave the seat of the Sanhedrin until the holiday was over. Inherently, there was no possible
way for anyone living away from the seat of the Sanhedrin to receive news of the
proclamation of the new month until messengers arrived after the fact. Accordingly, the
practice emerged that Rosh Hashanah was observed on both possible days, as calculated
from the previous month's start, everywhere in the world.[10][Note 10]
Three Pilgrimage Festivals. Sukkot and Passover fall on the 15th day of their respective
months. This gave messengers two weeks to inform communities about the proclamation of
the new month. Normally, they would reach most communities within the land of Israel
within that time, but they might fail to reach communities farther away (such as those in
Babylonia or overseas). Consequently, the practice developed that these holidays be
observed for one day within Israel, but for two days (both possible days as calculated from
the previous month's start) outside Israel. This practice is known as yom tov sheni shel
galuyot, "second day of festivals in exile communities".[11]

For Shavuot, calculated as the fiftieth day from Passover, the above issue did not
pertain directly, as the "correct" date for Passover would be known by then.
 Nevertheless, the Talmud applies the same rule to Shavuot, and to the Seventh Day
of Passover and Shemini Atzeret, for consistency.[12]

Yom Kippur is not observed for two days anywhere because of the difficulty of maintaining a fast over
two days.[Note 11]

Shabbat is not observed based on a calendar date, but simply at intervals of seven days.
Accordingly, there is never a doubt of the date of Shabbat, and it need never be observed
for two days.[Note 12]

Adherents of Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism generally do not observe the second day of
festivals,[13] although some do observe two days of Rosh Hashanah.[14]

Holidays of biblical and rabbinic (Talmudic) origin

Shabbat—The Sabbath
Jewish law (halacha) accords Shabbat (‫ )שבת‬the status of a
holiday, a day of rest celebrated on the seventh day of each
week. Jewish law defines a day as ending at either sundown
or nightfall, when the next day then begins. Thus,

Shabbat begins just before sundown Friday night.

Its start is marked by the lighting of Shabbat
candles and the recitation of Kiddush over a cup of
wine; and
Shabbat ends at nightfall Saturday night. Its
conclusion is marked by the prayer known as Shabbat candles and kiddush cup
Havdalah.
The fundamental rituals and observances of Shabbat include:

Reading of the Weekly Torah portion

Abbreviation of the Amidah in the three regular daily services to eliminate requests for
everyday needs
Addition of a musaf service to the daily prayer services
Enjoyment of three meals, often elaborate or ritualized, through the course of the day
Restraint from performing melacha (see above).
In many ways, halakha (Jewish law) sees Shabbat as the most important holy day in the Jewish calendar.

It is the first holiday mentioned in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), and God was the first one to
observe it (Genesis).
The Torah reading on Shabbat has more sections of parshiot (Torah readings) than on Yom
Kippur or any other Jewish holiday.
The prescribed penalty in the Torah for a transgression of Shabbat prohibitions is death by
stoning (Exodus 31), while for other holidays the penalty is (relatively) less severe.
Observance of Shabbat is the benchmark used in halacha to determine whether an
individual is a religiously observant, religiously reliable member of the community.
Rosh Chodesh—The New Month
Rosh Chodesh (‫( )ראש חודש‬lit., "head of the month") is a minor holiday or observance occurring on the
first day of each month of the Jewish calendar, as well as the last day of the preceding month if it has
thirty days.

Rosh Chodesh observance during at least a portion of the period of the prophets could be
fairly elaborate.[15]
Over time there have been varying levels of observance of a custom that women are
excused from certain types of work.[16]
Fasting is normally prohibited on Rosh Chodesh.
Beyond the preceding, current observance is limited to changes in liturgy.

In the month of Tishrei, this observance is superseded by the observance of Rosh

Hashanah, a major holiday.

Related observances:

The date of the forthcoming Rosh Chodesh is announced in synagogue on the preceding
Sabbath.
There are special prayers said upon observing the waxing moon for the first time each
month.

Rosh Hashanah—The Jewish New Year

Selichot
The month of Elul that precedes Rosh Hashanah is considered to be a propitious time for repentance.[17]
For this reason, additional penitential prayers called Selichot are added to the daily prayers, except on
Shabbat. Sephardi Jews add these prayers each weekday during Elul. Ashkenazi Jews recite them from
the last Sunday (or Saturday night) preceding Rosh Hashanah that allows at least four days of recitations.

Rosh Hashanah
Erev Rosh Hashanah (eve of the first day): 29 Elul
Rosh Hashanah: 1–2 Tishrei
According to oral tradition, Rosh Hashanah (‫( )ראש השנה‬lit., "Head of the Year") is the Day of Memorial
or Remembrance (‫יום הזכרון‬, Yom HaZikaron),[18] and the day of judgment (‫יום הדין‬, Yom HaDin).[19] God
appears in the role of King, remembering and judging each person individually according to his/her
deeds, and making a decree for each person for the following year.[20]

The holiday is characterized by one specific mitzvah: blowing the shofar.[21] According to the Torah, this
is the first day of the seventh month of the calendar year,[21] and marks the beginning of a ten-day period
leading up to Yom Kippur. According to one of two Talmudic opinions, the creation of the world was
completed on Rosh Hashanah.[22]

Morning prayer services are lengthy on Rosh Hashanah, and focus on the themes described above:
majesty and judgment, remembrance, the birth of the world, and the blowing of the shofar. Ashkenazi
Jews recite the brief Tashlikh prayer, a symbolic casting off of the previous year's sins, during the
afternoon of Rosh Hashanah.

The Bible specifies Rosh Hashanah as a one-day holiday,[21] but it is

traditionally celebrated for two days, even within the Land of Israel.
(See Second day of biblical festivals, above.)

Four New Years

The Torah itself does not use any term like "new year" in reference
to Rosh Hashanah. The Mishnah in Rosh Hashanah[23] specifies four
different "New Year's Days" for different purposes:

1 Tishrei (conventional "Rosh Hashanah"): "new year" for

calculating calendar years, sabbatical-year (shmita) and
jubilee cycles, and the age of trees for purposes of Jewish
law; and for separating grain tithes. Rosh Hashana symbols: shofar,
apples and honey,
15 Shevat (Tu Bishvat): "new year" for trees–i.e., their
pomegranates, kiddush wine
current agricultural cycle and related tithes.
1 Nisan: "new year" for counting months and major
festivals and for calculating the years of the reign of a
Jewish king
In biblical times, the day following 29 Adar, Year 1 of the reign of ___, would be followed
by 1 Nisan, Year 2 of the reign of ___.
In modern times, although the Jewish calendar year number changes on Rosh
Hashanah, the months are still numbered from Nisan.
The three pilgrimage festivals are always reckoned as coming in the order Passover-
Shavuot-Sukkot. This can have religious law consequences even in modern times.
1 Elul (Rosh Hashanah LaBehema): "new year" for animal tithes.

Aseret Yemei Teshuva—Ten Days of Repentance

The first ten days of Tishrei (from the beginning of Rosh Hashana until the end of Yom Kippur) are
known as the Ten Days of Repentance (‫עשרת ימי תשובה‬, Aseret Yemei Teshuva). During this time, in
anticipation of Yom Kippur, it is "exceedingly appropriate"[24] for Jews to practice teshuvah (literally
"return"), an examination of one's deeds and repentance for sins one has committed against other people
and God. This repentance can take the form of additional supplications, confessing one's deeds before
God, fasting, self-reflection, and an increase of involvement with, or donations to, charity.

Tzom Gedalia—Fast of Gedalia

Tzom Gedalia: 3 Tishrei
The Fast of Gedalia (‫ )צום גדליה‬is a minor Jewish fast day. It commemorates the assassination of the
governor of Judah, Gedalia, which ended any level of Jewish rule following the destruction of the First
Temple.

The assassination apparently occurred on Rosh Hashanah (1 Tishrei),[25] but the fast is
postponed to 3 Tishrei in respect for the holiday. It is further postponed to 4 Tishrei if 3
Tishrei is Shabbat.
As on all minor fast days, fasting from dawn to dusk is required, but other laws of mourning are not
normally observed. A Torah reading is included in both the Shacharit and Mincha prayers, and a
Haftarah is also included at Mincha. There are also a number of additions to the liturgy of both
services.[26]

Yom Kippur—Day of Atonement

Erev Yom Kippur: 9 Tishrei
Yom Kippur: 10 Tishrei (begins at sunset)
Yom Kippur (‫ )יום כיפור‬is the holiest day of the year for
Jews.[Note 13] Its central theme is atonement and reconciliation.
This is accomplished through prayer and complete fasting—
including abstinence from all food and drink (including water)—
by all healthy adults.[Note 14] Bathing, wearing of perfume or
cologne, wearing of leather shoes, and sexual relations are some
of the other prohibitions on Yom Kippur—all them designed to
ensure one's attention is completely and absolutely focused on the
quest for atonement with God. Yom Kippur is also unique among
holidays as having work-related restrictions identical to those of
Shabbat. The fast and other prohibitions commence on 10 Tishrei
at sunset—sunset being the beginning of the day in Jewish
tradition.
A man in a tallit blows the shofar

A traditional prayer in Aramaic called Kol Nidre ("All Vows") is

traditionally recited just before sunset. Although often regarded as the start of the Yom Kippur evening
service—to such a degree that Erev Yom Kippur ("Yom Kippur Evening") is often called "Kol Nidre"
(also spelled "Kol Nidrei")—it is technically a separate tradition. This is especially so because, being
recited before sunset, it is actually recited on 9 Tishrei, which is the day before Yom Kippur; it is not
recited on Yom Kippur itself (on 10 Tishrei, which begins after the sun sets).

The words of Kol Nidre differ slightly between Ashkenazic and Sephardic traditions. In
both, the supplicant prays to be released from all personal vows made to God during the
year, so that any unfulfilled promises made to God will be annulled and, thus, forgiven. In
Ashkenazi tradition, the reference is to the coming year; in Sephardic tradition, the
reference is to the year just ended. Only vows between the supplicant and God are
relevant. Vows made between the supplicant and other people remain perfectly valid,
since they are unaffected by the prayer.

A Tallit (four-cornered prayer shawl) is donned for evening and afternoon prayers–the only day of the
year in which this is done. In traditional Ashkenazi communities, men wear the kittel throughout the
day's prayers. The prayers on Yom Kippur evening are lengthier than on any other night of the year. Once
services reconvene in the morning, the services (in all traditions) are the longest of the year. In some
traditional synagogues prayers run continuously from morning until nightfall, or nearly so. Two
highlights of the morning prayers in traditional synagogues are the recitation of Yizkor, the prayer of
remembrance, and of liturgical poems (piyyutim) describing the temple service of Yom Kippur.

Two other highlights happen late in the day. During the Minchah prayer, the haftarah reading features the
entire Book of Jonah. Finally, the day concludes with Ne'ilah, a special service recited only on the day of
Yom Kippur. Ne'ilah deals with the closing of the holiday, and contains a fervent final plea to God for
forgiveness just before the conclusion of the fast. Yom Kippur comes to an end with the blowing of the
shofar, which marks the conclusion of the fast. It is always observed as a one-day holiday, both inside
and outside the boundaries of the Land of Israel.

Yom Kippur is considered, along with 15th of Av, as the happiest days of the year (Talmud Bavli—
Tractate Ta'anit).[27]

Sukkot—Feast of Booths (or Tabernacles)

Erev Sukkot: 14 Tishrei
Sukkot: 15–21 Tishrei (22 outside Israel)
The first day of Sukkot is (outside Israel, first two days
are) full yom tov, while the remainder of Sukkot has the
status of Chol Hamoed, "intermediate days".
Sukkot (‫ סוכות‬or ‫סֻכּוֹת‬, sukkōt) or Succoth is a seven-day festival,
also known as the Feast of Booths, the Feast of Tabernacles, or A sukkah booth
just Tabernacles. It is one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals
(shalosh regalim) mentioned in the Bible. Sukkot commemorates
the years that the Jews spent in the desert on their way to the Promised Land, and celebrates the way in
which God protected them under difficult desert conditions. The word sukkot is the plural of the Hebrew
word sukkah, meaning booth. Jews are commanded to "dwell" in booths during the holiday.[28] This
generally means taking meals, but some sleep in the sukkah as well, particularly in Israel. There are
specific rules for constructing a sukkah.

Along with dwelling in a sukkah, the principal ritual unique to this holiday is use of the Four Species:
lulav (palm), hadass (myrtle), aravah (willow) and etrog (citron).[29] On each day of the holiday other
than Shabbat, these are waved in association with the recitation of Hallel in the synagogue, then walked
in a procession around the synagogue called the Hoshanot.

The seventh day of the Sukkot is called Hoshanah Rabbah, the "Great Hoshanah" (singular of Hoshanot
and the source of the English word hosanna). The climax of the day's prayers includes seven processions
of Hoshanot around the synagogue. This tradition mimics practices from the Temple in Jerusalem. Many
aspects of the day's customs also resemble those of Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. Hoshanah Rabbah
is traditionally taken to be the day of the "delivery" of the final judgment of Yom Kippur, and offers a last
opportunity for pleas of repentance before the holiday season closes.

Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah

Shemini Atzeret: 22 Tishrei (combined with Simchat Torah in Israel)
Simchat Torah outside Israel: 23 Tishrei
The holiday of Shemini Atzeret (‫ )שמיני עצרת‬immediately follows the conclusion of the holiday of
Sukkot. The Hebrew word shemini means "eighth”, and refers to its position on "the eighth day" of
Sukkot, actually a seven-day holiday. This name reflects the fact that while in many respects Shemini
Atzeret is a separate holiday in its own right, in certain respects its celebration is linked to that of Sukkot.
Outside Israel, meals are still taken in the Sukkah on this day.
The main notable custom of this holiday is the celebration of
Simchat Torah (‫)שמחת תורה‬, meaning "rejoicing with the Torah".
This name originally referred to a special "ceremony": the last
weekly Torah portion is read from Deuteronomy, completing the
annual cycle, and is followed immediately by the reading of the first
chapter of Genesis, beginning the new annual cycle. Services are
especially joyous, and all attendees, young and old, are involved.

This ceremony so dominates the holiday that in Israel, where the

holiday is one day long, the whole holiday is often referred to as
Simchat Torah. Outside Israel, the holiday is two days long; the
name Shemini Atzeret is used for the first day, while the second is
normally called Simchat Torah.

Dancing with the Torah

Hanukkah—Festival of Lights
Erev Hanukkah: 24 Kislev
Hanukkah: 25 Kislev–2 or 3 Tevet
The story of Hanukkah (‫ )חנוכה‬is preserved in the books of the
First and Second Maccabees. These books are not part of the
Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), they are apocryphal books instead. The
miracle of the one-day supply of olive oil miraculously lasting
eight days is first described in the Talmud (Shabbat 21b), written
about 600 years after the events described in the books of Hanukkiah
Maccabees.[30]

Hanukkah marks the defeat of Seleucid Empire forces that had tried to prevent the people of Israel from
practicing Judaism. Judah Maccabee and his brothers destroyed overwhelming forces, and rededicated
the Temple in Jerusalem. The eight-day festival is marked by the kindling of lights—one on the first
night, two on the second, and so on—using a special candle holder called a Hanukkiah, or a Hanukkah
menorah.

Religiously, Hanukkah is a minor holiday. Except on Shabbat, restrictions on work do not apply.[Note 15]
Aside from the kindling of lights, formal religious observance is restricted to changes in liturgy.
Hanukkah celebration tends to be informal and based on custom rather than law. Three widely practiced
customs include:

Consumption of foods prepared in oil, such as potato pancakes or sufganiyot,

commemorating the miracle of oil
Playing the game of dreidel (called a sevivon in Hebrew), symbolizing Jews' disguising of
illegal Torah study sessions as gambling meetings during the period leading to the
Maccabees' revolt[Note 16]
Giving children money, especially coins, called Hanukkah gelt. However, the custom of
giving presents is of far more recent, North American, origin, and is connected to the gift
economy prevalent around North American Christmas celebrations.[Note 17]

Tenth of Tevet
 Asarah B'Tevet: 10 Tevet
The Tenth of Tevet (‫עשרה בטבת‬, Asarah B'Tevet) is a minor fast day, marking the beginning of the siege
of Jerusalem as outlined in 2 Kings 25:1

And it came to pass in the ninth year of his reign, in the tenth month, in the tenth day of
the month, that Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came, he and all his army, against
Jerusalem, and encamped against it; and they built forts against it round about.

This fast's commemoration also includes other events occurring on 8, 9 and 10 Tevet.

This fast is observed like other minor fasts (see Tzom Gedalia, above). This is the only minor fast that
can fall on a Friday under the current fixed Jewish calendar.

Tu Bishvat—New Year of the Trees

Tu Bishvat: 15 Shevat
Tu Bishvat (‫( )ט"ו בשבט‬lit., "fifteenth of Shevat”, as ‫ ט״ו‬is the
number "15" in Hebrew letters), is the new year for trees. It is
also known as ‫( חג האילנות‬Ḥag ha-Ilanot, Festival of Trees), or
‫( ראש השנה לאילנות‬Rosh ha-Shanah la-Ilanot, New Year for
Trees). According to the Mishnah, it marks the day from which
fruit tithes are counted each year. Starting on this date, the
biblical prohibition on eating the first three years of fruit (orlah)
and the requirement to bring the fourth year fruit (neta revai) to
the Temple in Jerusalem were counted.[31]
Nuts and dried fruits, traditionally
During the 17th century, Rabbi Yitzchak Luria of Safed and his eaten on Tu Bishvat
disciples created a short seder, called Hemdat ha‑Yamim,
reminiscent of the seder that Jews observe on Passover, that
explores the holiday's Kabbalistic themes. This Tu Bishvat seder has witnessed a revival in recent years.
More generally, Tu Bishvat is celebrated in modern times by eating various fruits and nuts associated
with the Land of Israel.

Traditionally, trees are planted on this day.[32] Many children collect funds leading up to this day to plant
trees in Israel. Trees are usually planted locally as well.

Purim—Festival of Lots
Fast of Esther: normally 13 Adar
Purim: 14 Adar
Shushan Purim: 15 Adar
In leap years on the Hebrew calendar, the above dates are observed in the Second Adar
(Adar Sheni). The 14th and 15th of First Adar (Adar Rishon) are known as Purim Katan

Purim Katan
Purim Katan (‫( )פורים קטן‬lit., "small Purim") is observed on the 14th and 15th of First Adar in leap years.
These days are marked by a small increase in festivity, including a prohibition on fasting, and slight
changes in the liturgy.

Ta'anit Esther–Fast of Esther

Ta'anit Esther (‫)תענית אסתר‬, or "Fast of Esther", is named in
honor of the fast of Esther and her court as Esther prepared
to approach the king unbidden to invite him and Haman to a
banquet.[33] It commemorates that fast, as well as one
alluded to later in the Book of Esther,[34] undertaken as the
Jews prepared to battle their enemies.

This fast is observed like other minor fasts (see Tzom

Gedalia, above). While normally observed on 13 Adar, the
eve of Purim, this fast is advanced to Thursday, 11 Adar,
when 13 Adar falls on Shabbat.
The opening chapter of a hand-written
scroll of the Book of Esther, with reader's
pointer

Purim and Shushan Purim

Purim (‫ )פורים‬commemorates the events that took place in the
Book of Esther. The principal celebrations or commemorations
include:[35]

The reading of the Megillah. Traditionally, this is read

from a scroll twice during Purim–once in the evening
and again in the morning. Ashkenazim have a custom
of making disparaging noises at every mention of Mishloah manot
Haman's name during the reading.
The giving of Mishloakh Manot, gifts of food and drink to
friends and neighbors.
The giving of Matanot La'evyonim, gifts to the poor and the needy.
The Purim meal (Se'udat Purim or Purim Se'udah). This meal is traditionally accompanied
by consumption of alcohol, often heavy,[36] although Jewish sages have warned about the
need to adhere to all religious laws even in a drunken state.[Note 18]
Several customs have evolved from these principal commemorations. One widespread custom to act out
the story of Purim. The Purim spiel, or Purim play, has its origins in this, although the Purim spiel is not
limited to that subject.[37] Wearing of costumes and masks is also very common. These may be an
outgrowth of Purim plays, but there are several theories as to the origin of the custom, most related in
some way to the "hidden" nature of the miracles of Purim.[Note 19]

Purim carnivals of various types have also become customary. In Israel there are festive parades, known
as Ad-D'lo-Yada,[38] in the town's main street. The largest and most renowned is in Holon.[39]

Most Jews celebrate Purim on 14 Adar, the day of celebration after the Jews defeated their enemies.
Because Jews in the capital city of Shushan fought with their enemies an extra day, Purim is celebrated a
day later there, on the day known as ‫שושן פורים‬, Shushan Purim. This observance was expanded to
"walled cities",[35] which are defined as cities "walled since the time of Joshua".[40] In practice, there are
no Jews living in Shushan (Shush, Iran), and Shushan Purim is observed fully only in Jerusalem. Cities
like Safed and Tiberias also partially observe Shushan Purim. Elsewhere, Shushan Purim is marked only
by a small increase in festivity, including a prohibition on fasting, and slight changes in the liturgy.

Pesach—Passover
Erev Pesach and Fast of the Firstborn, ("Ta'anit Bechorot"): 14 Nisan
Pesach[Note 20] (Passover): 15–21 Nisan (outside Israel 15–22 Nisan)
The first day and last day of Passover (outside Israel, first two and last two days) are full
yom tov, while the remainder of Passover has the status of Chol Hamoed, "intermediate
days".
Pesach Sheni (second Passover): 14 Iyar

Month of Nisan
As a rule, the month of Nisan is considered to be one of extra joy. Traditionally, throughout the entire
month, Tahanun is omitted from the prayer service, many public mourning practices (such as delivering a
eulogy at a funeral) are eliminated, and voluntary fasting is prohibited.[41] However, practices sometimes
vary.[42]

Eve of Passover and Fast of the Firstborn

The day before Passover (Erev Pesach, lit., "Passover eve")
is significant for three reasons:

It is the day that all of the involved preparations for

Passover, especially elimination of leavened food,
or chametz, must be completed. In particular, a
formal search for remaining chametz is done during
the evening of Erev Pesach, and all remaining
chametz is finally destroyed, disposed of or nullified
during the morning of Erev Pesach.[43] Traditional arrangement of symbolic foods
It is the day observed as the Fast of the Firstborn on a Passover Seder Plate
(‫)תענית בכורות‬. Jews who are firstborn [Note 21] fast, in
remembrance of the tenth plague, when God killed
the Egyptian firstborn, while sparing the Jewish firstborn.[44] This fast is overridden by a
seudat mitzvah, a meal celebrating the fulfillment of a commandment; accordingly, it is
almost universal for firstborn Jews to attend such a meal on this day[Note 22] so as to obviate
their need to fast.
During the era of the Temple in Jerusalem, the Korban Pesach, or sacrifice of the Paschal
Lamb, was carried out the afternoon of 14 Nisan in anticipation of its consumption on
Passover night.[43]
When Passover starts on Sunday, and the eve of Passover is therefore Shabbat, the above schedule is
altered. See Eve of Passover on Shabbat for details.

Passover
Passover (‫( )פּסח‬Pesach), also known liturgically as ‫"( חג המצות‬Ḥag
haMatzot", the "Festival of Unleavened Bread"), is one of the Three
Pilgrimage Festivals (shalosh regalim) mentioned in the Torah.
Passover commemorates the Exodus, the liberation of the Israelite
slaves from Egypt.[45][46] No chametz (leavened food) is eaten, or
even owned, during the week of Passover, in commemoration of the
biblical narrative in which the Israelites left Egypt so quickly that
their bread did not have enough time to rise.[47] Observant Jews go
to great lengths to remove all chametz from their homes and offices
in the run-up to Passover.[48]

Along with the avoidance of chametz, the principal ritual unique to

this holiday is the seder. The seder, meaning "order", is an ordered
ritual meal eaten on the first night of Passover, and outside Israel
Table set for Passover seder
also on the second night. This meal is known for its distinctive ritual
foods—matzo (unleavened bread), maror (bitter herbs), and four
cups of wine—as well as its prayer text/handbook/study guide, the Haggadah. Participation in a Passover
seder is one of the most widely observed Jewish rituals, even among less affiliated or less observant
Jews.[49]

Passover lasts seven days in Israel,[50] and eight days outside Israel. The holiday of the last day of
Passover (outside Israel, last two days) commemorates the Splitting of the Red Sea; according to
tradition this occurred on the seventh day of Passover.[51]

Pesach Sheni
Pesach Sheni (‫"( )פסח שני‬Second Passover") is a day prescribed in the Torah[52] to allow those who did
not bring the Paschal Lamb offering (Korban Pesach) a second chance to do so. Eligibility was limited to
those who were distant from Jerusalem on Passover, or those who were ritually impure and ineligible to
participate in a sacrificial offering. Today, some have the custom to eat matzo on Pesach Sheni, and some
make a small change to the liturgy.

Sefirah—Counting of the Omer

Sefirat HaOmer (Counting of the Omer): 16 Nisan–5 Sivan[Note 23]
Sefirah (lit. "Counting"; more fully, Sefirat HaOmer, "Counting of the Omer") (‫)ספירת העומר‬, is the 49-
day period between the biblical pilgrimage festivals of Passover and Shavuot. The Torah states[53] that
this period is to be counted, both in days and in weeks. The first day of this period[Note 23] is the day of
the first grain offering of the new year's crop, an omer of barley. The day following the 49th day of the
period is the festival of Shavuot; the Torah specifies a grain offering of wheat on that day.[53]

Symbolically, this period has come to represent the spiritual development of the Israelites from slaves in
the polytheistic society of Ancient Egypt to free, monotheistic people worthy of the revelation of the
Torah, traditionally said to have occurred on Shavuot. Spiritual development remains a key rabbinic
teaching of this period.[54]
Sefirah has long been observed as a period of semi-mourning. The customary explanation[55] cites a
plague that killed 24,000 students of Rabbi Akiva (BT Yevamot 62b).[Note 24] In broad terms, the
mourning practices observed include limiting actual celebrations (such as weddings), not listening to
music, not wearing new clothing, and not shaving or taking a haircut.[55] There is a wide variety of
practice as to the specifics of this observance. See Counting of the Omer (Semi-mourning).

Lag Ba'Omer
Lag Ba'Omer: 18 Iyar
Lag Ba'Omer (‫ )ל ַ״ג ב ָּעוֹמֶר‬is the 33rd day in the Omer count (‫ ל ַ״ג‬is
the number 33 in Hebrew). By Ashkenazi practice, the semi-
mourning observed during the period of Sefirah (see above) is lifted
on Lag Ba'Omer, while Sefardi practice is to lift it at the end of Lag
Ba'Omer.[55][56] Minor liturgical changes are made on Lag Ba'omer;
because mourning practices are suspended, weddings are often
conducted on this day.

Lag Ba'Omer is identified as the Yom Hillula (yahrzeit) of Rabbi

Shimon bar Yochai, one of the leading Tannaim (teachers quoted in
the Mishna) and ascribed author of the core text of Kabbalah, the Lag Ba'Omer bonfire
Zohar. Customary celebrations include bonfires, picnics, and bow
and arrow play by children.[57] Boys sometimes receive their first
haircuts on Lag Ba'Omer,[58] while Hasidic rebbes hold tishes in honor of the day.

In Israel, Lag Ba'Omer is associated with the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire. In Zionist
thought, the plague that decimated Rabbi Akiva's 24,000 disciples is explained as a veiled reference to
the revolt; the 33rd day representing the end of the plague is explained as the day of Bar Kokhba's
victory. The traditional bonfires and bow-and-arrow play were thus reinterpreted as celebrations of
military victory.[57] In this vein, the order originally creating the Israel Defense Forces was issued on Lag
Ba'Omer 1948, 13 days after Israel declared independence.[59]

Shavuot—Feast of Weeks—Yom HaBikurim

Erev Shavuot: 5 Sivan
Shavuot: 6 (and outside Israel: 7) Sivan
Shavuot (‫)שבועות‬, the Feast of Weeks, is one of the three
pilgrimage festivals (Shalosh regalim) ordained in the Torah.
Different from other biblical holidays, the date for Shavuot is
not explicitly fixed in the Torah. Instead, it is observed on
the day following the 49th and final day in the counting of
the Omer.[53] In the current era of the fixed Jewish calendar,
this puts the date of Shavuot as 6 Sivan. In Israel and in Cheese blintzes, a traditional food on
Shavuot
Reform Judaism, it is a one-day holiday; elsewhere, it is a
two-day holiday extending through 7 Sivan.[Note 23]
According to Rabbinic tradition, codified in the Talmud at Shabbat 87b, the Ten Commandments were
given on this day. In the era of the Temple, there were certain specific offerings mandated for Shavuot,
and Shavuot was the first day for bringing of Bikkurim to the Temple. Other than those, there are no
explicit mitzvot unique to Shavuot given in the Torah (parallel to matzo on Passover or Sukkah on
Sukkot).

Nevertheless, there are a number of widespread customs observed on Shavuot. During this holiday the
Torah portion containing the Ten Commandments is read in the synagogue, and the biblical Book of Ruth
is read as well. It is traditional to eat dairy meals during Shavuot. In observant circles, all night Torah
study is common on the first night of Shavuot, while in Reform Judaism, Shavuot is the customary date
for Confirmation ceremonies.

Mourning for Jerusalem: Seventeenth of Tammuz and Tisha B'Av

The three-week period starting on 17 Tammuz and concluding after Tisha B'Av has traditionally been
observed as a period of mourning for the destruction of Jerusalem and the Holy Temple there.

Fast of the Seventeenth of Tammuz

Shiva Asar B'Tammuz: 17 Tammuz
The Seventeenth of Tamuz (‫שבעה עשר בתמוז‬, Shiva Asar B'Tamuz) traditionally marks the first breach in
the walls of the Jerusalem during the Roman conquest in 70 CE, at the end of the Second Temple
period.[Note 25] According to tradition, this day has had negative connotations since Moses broke the first
set of tablets on this day.[60] The Mishnah cites five negative events that happened on 17 Tammuz.[61]

This fast is observed like other minor fasts (see Tzom Gedalia, above). When this fast falls out on
Shabbat, its observance is postponed until Sunday.

The Three Weeks and the Nine Days

The Three Weeks: 17 Tammuz – 9 Av
The Nine Days: 1–9 Av
The Week of Tisha B'Av (beginning at the conclusion of Shabbat preceding Tisha B'Av)
The period between the fasts of 17 Tammuz and 9 Av, known as the "Three Weeks" (Hebrew: ‫בין המצרים‬,
"between the straits"[62]), features a steadily increasing level of mourning practices as Tisha B'Av
approaches. Ashkenazi Jews refrain from conducting weddings and other joyful events throughout the
period unless the date is established by Jewish law (as for a bris or pidyon haben). They do not cut their
hair during this period.[63] Starting on the first of Av and throughout the nine days between the 1st and
9th days of Av, Ashkenazim traditionally refrain from eating meat and drinking wine, except on Shabbat
or at a Seudat Mitzvah (a Mitzvah meal, such as for a bris or siyum).[63] They also refrain from bathing
for pleasure.[63] Sefardic practice varies some from this; the less severe restrictions usually begin on 1
Av, while the more severe restrictions apply during the week of Tisha B'Av itself.[63]

Subject to the variations described above, Orthodox Judaism continues to maintain the traditional
prohibitions. In Conservative Judaism, the Rabbinical Assembly's Committee on Jewish Law and
Standards has issued several responsa (legal rulings) which hold that the prohibitions against weddings in
this timeframe are deeply held traditions, but should not be construed as binding law. Thus, Conservative
Jewish practice would allow weddings during this time, except on the 17th of Tammuz and 9th of Av
themselves.[Note 26] Rabbis within Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism hold that halakha
(Jewish law) is no longer binding and follow their individual consciences on such matters. Nevertheless,
the rabbinical manual of the Reform movement encourages Reform rabbis not to conduct weddings on
Tisha B'Av itself "out of historical consciousness and respect" for the Jewish community.[64]

Tisha B'Av—Ninth of Av
Tisha B'Av : 9 Av
Tisha B'Av (‫ )תשעה באב‬is a major fast day and day of mourning.
A Midrashic tradition states that the spies' negative report
concerning the Land of Israel was delivered on Tisha B'Av.
Consequently, the day became auspicious for negative events in
Jewish history. Most notably, both the First Temple, originally
built by King Solomon, and the Second Temple of Roman times
were destroyed on Tisha B'Av.[61] Other calamities throughout
Jewish history are said to have taken place on Tisha B'Av, Worshipers seated on the floor of the
synagogue before the reading of
including King Edward I's edict compelling the Jews to leave
Lamentations on Tisha B'Av
England (1290) and the Jewish expulsion from Spain in 1492.

Tisha B'Av is a major fast. It is a 25-hour fast, running from

sundown to nightfall. As on Yom Kippur, not only are eating and drinking prohibited, but also bathing,
anointing, marital relations and the wearing of leather shoes. Work is not prohibited, as on biblical
holidays, but is discouraged. In the evening, the Book of Lamentations is read in the synagogue, while in
the morning lengthy kinot, poems of elegy, are recited. From evening until noon mourning rituals
resembling those of shiva are observed, including sitting on low stools or the floor; after noon those
restrictions are somewhat lightened, in keeping with the tradition that Messiah will be born on Tisha
B'Av.[65]

While the fast ends at nightfall of 9-10 Av, the restrictions of the Three Weeks and Nine Days continue
through noon on 10 Av because the Second Temple continued to burn through most of that day. When 9
Av falls on Shabbat, when fasting is prohibited, the fast is postponed until 10 Av. In that case, the
restrictions of the Three Weeks and Nine Days end with the fast, except for the prohibition against eating
meat and drinking wine, which extend until the morning of 10 Av.[65]

Tu B'Av
Tu B'Av: 15 Av
Tu B'av (‫)ט״ו באב‬, lit. "15th of Av", is a day mentioned in the Talmud alongside Yom Kippur as
"happiest of the year".[27] It was a day celebrating the bringing of wood used for the Temple Service, as
well as a day when marriages were arranged. Today, it is marked by a small change in liturgy. In modern
Israel, the day has become somewhat of an analog to Valentine's Day.

Other fasts
Several other fast days of ancient or medieval origin continue to be observed to some degree in modern
times. Such continued observance is usually by Orthodox Jews only, and is not universal today even
among Orthodox Jews.[Note 27]
 Fasts for droughts and other public troubles. Much of the Talmudic tractate Ta'anit is
devoted to the proclamation and execution of public fasts. The most detailed description
refers to fasts in times of drought in the Land of Israel.[66] Apparently these fasts included a
Ne'ilah (closing) prayer, a prayer now reserved for recitation on Yom Kippur only.[67]

While the specific fasts described in the Mishnah fell into disuse once Jews were exiled
from the land of Israel, various Jewish communities have declared fasts over the years,
using these as a model. Two examples include a fast among Polish Jews commemorating
the massacre of Jews during the Khmelnytsky Uprising and one among Russian Jews
during anti-Jewish pogroms of the 1880's.[68][69]
Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the Chief Rabbinate of Israel has urged
fasting in times of drought.[70]

Behab (‫)בה"ב‬. The fasts of bet-hey-bet—Monday-Thursday-Monday—were established as a

vehicle for atonement from possible excesses during the extended holiday periods of
Passover and Sukkot.[71] They are proclaimed on the first Shabbat of the month of Iyar
following Passover, and Marcheshvan following Sukkot. Based on the model of Mishnah
Ta'anit, they are then observed on the Monday, Thursday and Monday following that
Shabbat.
Yom Kippur Katan ("little Yom Kippur"). These fasts originated in the sixteenth-century
Kabbalistic community of Safed. They are conceptually linked to the sin-offerings that were
brought to the Temple in Jerusalem on each Rosh Chodesh.[72] These fasts are observed
on the day before Rosh Chodesh in most months.[73]

Israeli/Jewish national holidays and days of remembrance

As a general rule, the biblical Jewish holidays (Sabbath, Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Passover,
Shavuot, Sukkot and Purim) are observed as public holidays in Israel. Chanukah is a school holiday, but
businesses remain open. On Tisha B'Av, restaurants and places of entertainment are closed. Other Jewish
holidays listed above are observed in varying ways and to varying degrees.

Between the creation of the State of Israel in 1948 and the aftermath of the Six-Day War, the Knesset,
generally in consultation with the Chief Rabbinate of Israel, established four national holidays or days of
remembrance:

Yom HaShoah: Holocaust Remembrance Day

Yom Hazikaron: Memorial Day
Yom Ha'atzmaut: Israel Independence Day
Yom Yerushalayim: Jerusalem Day
The status of these days as religious events is not uniform within the Jewish world. Non-Orthodox,
Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox Jewish religious movements[Note 28] accept these days as
religious as well as national in nature.

As a rule, these four days are not accepted as religious observances by most Haredi Jews, including
Hasidim. Some ḥaredim are opposed to the existence of the State of Israel altogether on religious
grounds; others simply feel that there are not sufficient grounds under Jewish law to justify the
establishment of new religious holidays. For details, see Haredim and Zionism.
Observance of these days in Jewish communities outside Israel is typically more muted than their
observance in Israel. Events held in government and public venues within Israel are often held in Jewish
communal settings (synagogues and community centers) abroad.

More recently, the Knesset established two additional holidays:

Yom HaAliyah: Aliyah Day

A day to commemorate the expulsion of Jews from Arab lands and Iran
Finally, the Israeli government also recognizes several ethnic Jewish observances with holiday status.

Yom HaShoah—Holocaust Remembrance Day

Yom HaShoah: (nominally) 27 Nisan
Yom HaShoah (lit. "Holocaust Day") is a day of remembrance for
victims of the Holocaust. Its full name is Yom Hazikaron LaShoah
v'LiGevurah (lit. "Holocaust and Heroism Remembrance Day") (‫יום‬
‫)הזכרון לשואה ולגבורה‬, and reflects a desire to recognize martyrs
who died in active resistance to the Nazis alongside those who died
as passive victims. Its date, 27 Nisan, was chosen because it
commemorates the Warsaw Ghetto uprising, the best known of the A lit Yom HaShoah Yellow Candle
armed Jewish uprisings.[Note 29][Note 30]

Places of public entertainment are closed throughout Israel in recognition of the day.[74] Public
commemoration of Yom HaShoah usually includes religious elements such as the recitation of Psalms,
memorial prayers, and kaddish, and the lighting of memorial candles. In Israel, the most notable
observances are the State memorial ceremony at Yad Vashem and the sirens marking off a two-minute
silence at 10:00 am. Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox Jews generally participate in such public
observances along with secular Jews and Jews who adhere to more liberal religious movements. Outside
Israel, Jewish communities observe Yom HaShoah in addition to or instead of their countries' Holocaust
Memorial Days.[74] Probably the most notable commemoration is the March of the Living, held at the
site of Auschwitz-Birkenau, attended by Jews from all parts of the world.

Outside Orthodoxy, a liturgy for Yom HaShoah is beginning to develop. The Conservative, Reform and
Reconstructionist prayer books all include liturgical elements for Yom HaShoah, to be added to the
regular weekday prayers. Conservative Judaism has written a scroll, called Megillat HaShoah, intended
to become a definitive liturgical reading for Yom HaShoah.[75][76] The Orthodox world–even the
segment that participates publicly in Yom HaShoah–has been reluctant to write a liturgy for the day,
preferring to compose Kinnot (prayers of lamentation) for recitation on Tisha B'Av.[75][Note 31]

In order to ensure that public Yom HaShoah ceremonies in Israel do not violate Shabbat prohibitions, the
date for Yom HaShoah varies[Note 32] as follows:

If 27 Nisan occurs on a Friday, the observance of Yom HaShoah is advanced to the

previous day (Thursday, 26 Nisan).
If 27 Nisan occurs on a Sunday, the observance of Yom HaShoah is delayed to the
following day (Monday, 28 Nisan).
Yom Hazikaron—Memorial Day
Yom Hazikaron: (nominally) 4 Iyar
Yom Hazikaron (lit. "Memorial Day") is a day of
remembrance of the fallen of Israel's wars. During
the first years of Israel's independence, this
remembrance was observed on Yom Ha'atzmaut
(Independence Day) itself. However, by 1951, the
memorial observance was separated from the festive A moment of silence as the siren is sounded in Tel
Aviv, Yom Hazikaron 2007
celebration of Independence Day and moved to its
current date, the day before Yom
Ha'atzmaut. [77][Note 33] Since 2000, the scope of the memorial has expanded to include civilians slain by
acts of hostile terrorism. Its full name is now ‫"( יום הזכרון לחללי מערכות ישראל ולנפגעי פעולות האיבה‬Day
of Remembrance for the Fallen of the Battles of Israel and the Victims of Terror").[78]

Places of public entertainment are closed throughout Israel in recognition of the day.[79] Many schools,
businesses and other institutions conduct memorial services on this day, and it is customary to visit the
graves of fallen soldiers and to recite memorial prayers there. The principal public observances are the
evening opening ceremony at the Western Wall and the morning services of remembrance at military
cemeteries throughout the country, each opened by the sounding of sirens. The public observances
conclude with the service at the military cemetery on Mount Herzl that serves as the transition to Yom
Ha'atzmaut.

Outside Israel, Yom HaZikaron observances are often folded into Yom Ha'atzmaut celebrations. Within
Israel, Yom Hazikaron is always the day before Yom Ha'atzmaut, but that date moves to prevent violation
of Sabbath prohibitions during the ceremonies of either day. See following section for details.

Yom Ha'atzmaut—Israel Independence Day

Yom Ha'atzmaut: (nominally) 5 Iyar
Yom Ha'atzmaut (‫ )יום העצמאות‬is Israel's Independence Day.
Observance of this day by Jews inside and outside Israel is
widespread,[80] and varies in tone from secular (military parades
and barbecues) to religious (recitation of Hallel and new
liturgies).

Although Israel's independence was declared on a Friday, the The final round of the International
Chief Rabbinate has long been mindful of the possibility of Yom Bible Contest (here in 1985) is held
Ha'atzmaut (and Yom Hazikaron) observances leading to on Yom Ha'atzmaut
violation of Sabbath prohibitions. To prevent such violations, the
dates of Yom Hazikaron and Yom Ha'atzmaut vary[Note 32] as
follows:

If 4–5 Iyar occur on a Sunday-Monday, the observances are delayed to Monday-Tuesday,

5–6 Iyar.
If 4–5 Iyar occur on a Tuesday-Wednesday, the observances are not moved.
If 4–5 Iyar occur on a Thursday-Friday, the observances are advanced to Wednesday-
Thursday, 3–4 Iyar.
 If 4–5 Iyar occur on a Friday-Shabbat, the observances
are advanced to Wednesday-Thursday, 2–3 Iyar.
Nearly all non-ḥaredi Jewish religious communities have
incorporated changes or enhancements to the liturgy in honor of
Yom Ha'atzmaut and suspend the mourning practices of the
period of Sefirat Ha'Omer. (See Yom Ha'atzmaut—Religious
Customs for details.) Within the Religious Zionist and Modern
Orthodox communities, these changes are not without
controversy, and customs continue to evolve.[81]

Ḥaredi religious observance of Yom Ha'atzmaut varies widely. A

few ḥaredim (especially Sefardic Ḥaredim) celebrate the day in a
reasonably similar way to the way non-ḥaredim do.[82] Most
ḥaredim simply treat the day indifferently; i.e., as a regular
day.[81] And finally others (notably Satmar Ḥasidim and Neturei
Jerusalem Day celebrations
Karta) mourn on the day because of their opposition to the
enterprise of the State of Israel.[83]

Yom Yerushalayim—Jerusalem Day

Yom Yerushalayim: 28 Iyar
Jerusalem Day (‫ )יום ירושלים‬marks the 1967 reunification of Jerusalem under Israeli control during the
Six-Day War. This marked the first time in 19 years that the Temple Mount was accessible to Jews, and
the first time since the destruction of the Second Temple 1900 years earlier that the Temple Mount was
under Jewish political control.

As with Yom Ha'atzmaut, celebrations of Yom Yerushalayim range from completely secular (including
hikes to Jerusalem and a large parade through downtown Jerusalem) to religious (recitation of Hallel and
new liturgies). Although Haredim do not participate in the liturgical changes, they are somewhat more
likely to celebrate Yom Yerushalayim than the other modern Israeli holidays because of the importance of
the liberation of the Western Wall and the Old City of Jerusalem.[84]

Outside Israel, observance of Yom Yerushalayim is widespread, especially in Orthodox circles. It has not
gained as widespread acceptance as Yom Ha'atzmaut, especially among more politically liberal Jews,
because of the continuing conflicts over the future of the city.[85]

Yom Yerushalayim has not traditionally moved to avoid Shabbat desecration, although in 2012 the Chief
Rabbinate began some efforts in that direction.[86]

Yom HaAliyah—Aliyah Day

Yom HaAliyah: 10 Nisan
Aliyah Day (‫ )יום העלייה‬is an Israeli national holiday celebrated annually on the tenth of Nisan.[87] The
day was established to acknowledge Aliyah, immigration to the Jewish state, as a core value of the State
of Israel, and honor the ongoing contributions of Olim (immigrants) to Israeli society.[88]
Immigration to Israel is a recognized religious value of Judaism,
sometimes referred to as the Gathering of Israel.[89] The date
chosen for Yom HaAliyah, 10 Nisan, has religious significance: it
is the day on which Joshua and the Israelites crossed the Jordan
River at Gilgal into the Promised Land. It was thus the first
documented "mass Aliyah".[90] The alternative date observed in
the school system, 7 Heshvan, falls during the week of the Torah
portion in which God instructs Abraham to leave his home and
his family and go up to the Land of Israel.[91] Joshua passing the River Jordan
with the Ark of the Covenant by
At the present time, observance of this day appears to be secular Benjamin West

in nature.

Day to commemorate the expulsion of Jews from Arab lands and Iran
Day to Mark the Departure and Expulsion of Jews from the Arab Countries and Iran: 30
November (on the Gregorian calendar)
The Knesset established this observance in 2014. The purpose of this observance is to recognize the
collective trauma of Mizrahi Jews during the period around the establishment of the State of Israel. Many
Mizrachi Jews felt that their own suffering was being ignored, both in comparison to the suffering of
European Jewry during the Holocaust and in comparison to the Palestinian Nakba. The Gregorian-
calendar date chosen is the day after the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was adopted, as that
date marked the beginning of concentrated pressure and hostility against the community.[92]

At the present time, observance of this day appears to be secular in nature.

Ethnic holidays
The Israeli government officially recognizes three traditional holidays of ethnic Jewish communities in
Israel. These days are also observed by their respective communities outside Israel.

Mimouna began as a holiday of Moroccan Jews, while similar celebrations also exist among
Turkish Jews and Persian Jews.[93] These festivals are observed on the day after Passover,
when eating of ordinary food ("chametz") resumes. In Israel, observance of Mimouna has
spread widely in recent years; it has been estimated that up to two million Jews in Israel
now participate in Mimouna celebrations.[94]

On the evening concluding Passover,[Note 34] the celebration centers on visiting the
homes of friends and neighbors, Jewish and non-Jewish. A variety of traditional foods are
served, and symbols representing good luck and prosperity are prominently displayed.
The next day, barbecues and picnics are among the most widespread activities of the
celebration.[95]

The Seharane was celebrated by Kurdish Jews as a multi-day nature festival starting the
day after Passover. Communities would leave their villages and camp out for several days,
celebrating with eating and drinking, nature walks, singing and dancing.

Its observance was interrupted after the relocation of this community to Israel in the
1950s. In recent years it has been revived. But because of the already-widespread
 celebration of Mimouna in Israel, the celebration of the Seharane was moved to Chol
HaMoed Sukkot.[96]

The Sigd began as an evolution of the observance of Yom Kippur by the Beta Israel
(Ethiopian) community. Currently that community now observes it in addition to Yom Kippur;
its date is 29 Heshvan, 49 days after Yom Kippur. It shares some features of Yom Kippur,
Shavuot, and other holidays.[97]

The Sigd is modeled on a ceremony of fasting, study and prayer described in Nehemiah 8
(https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt35b08.htm#1), when the Jews rededicated
themselves to religious observance on return to Israel after the Babylonian exile. In
Ethiopia, the community would gather on a mountaintop and pray for a return to
Jerusalem. The modern Sigd is centered on a promenade overlooking the Old City of
Jerusalem. The day's observance ends with a celebratory break fast.[98]

See also
Jewish greetings
Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000–2050
List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar
List of Gregorian Jewish-related and Israeli holidays
Religious festival
Torah readings of Yom Tov

Notes
1. This article focuses on practices of mainstream Rabbinic Judaism. Karaite Jews and
Samaritans also observe the biblical festivals, but not in an identical fashion and not always
at exactly the same time.
2. This "negative" (refraining) requirement is paired with a positive requirement to honor and
enjoy the Sabbath or festival day. For information on the positive requirements, see
Shabbat: Rituals and Shabbat: Encouraged activities.
3. Carrying items needed for the holiday in a public domain—more technically, transferring
items between domains—is considered to be a melacha related to food preparation.[4]
4. Burials are also permitted on a yom tov, although not on Shabbat nor Yom Kippur. On the
first day of yom tov, burial is prohibited unless the bulk of the associated melacha is done by
non-Jews. On the second day of yom tov, including Rosh Hashanah, burial is permitted
even if the bulk of the associated melacha is done by Jews. In modern times, it is extremely
unusual for a yom tov burial to occur, except on the second day of Rosh Hashanah in
Jerusalem.[5] Further details are beyond the scope of this article.
5. There is a practice for women to refrain from some types of labor on Rosh Chodesh; see
Rosh Chodesh and women.
6. This is especially, though not exclusively, true outside the US. For example, Masorti
Judaism in Israel and the UK rejects North American Conservatism's position to permit
driving to synagogue on Shabbat.
7. See, for example, Reform Judaism's Position on Jewish Law and Reconstructionist Judaism
(Jewish Law and Tradition), and references in those articles.
8. The Babylonian Talmud (see at Sotah 20-21) describes one who fails to do so as a chasid
shoteh, a foolishly pious individual.
 9. Similar practices are still used in Islam as well as in the Karaite and Samaritan
communities.
10. This reasoning did not directly apply in the actual meeting place of the Sanhedrin, but there
are other reasons that the practice was applied there as well. See Rambam, Mishnah
Torah, Kiddush HaChodesh 5:8.
11. In practice, the Sanhedrin had the discretion to arrange the month proclamations so that
Elul would almost never be extended to 30 days. See BT Rosh Hashanah 19b, as well as
commentators there. This greatly reduced the practical level of doubt as to which day would
be the first day of Tishrei. The doubt still existed, so Rosh Hashanah and Sukkot were
observed for two days. However, the low level of the doubt–combined with the difficulty of a
49-hour fast–led to the exemption of Yom Kippur from the requirement for a second day of
observance. This complex issue is discussed more fully here (http://www.mail-archive.com/
daf-discuss@shemayisrael.co.il/msg02556.html).
12. There are differing opinions as to the location of the International Date Line for purposes of
Jewish law. Accordingly, some halachic authorities do have doubts as to which (secular)
day of the week should be considered Shabbat in some Pacific islands. See International
date line in Judaism for details.
13. That is, conventional (Rabbinic) Jews. Karaite Jews and Samaritans regard Passover as
the holiest day of the year.
14. Fasting begins at religious majority–age 13 for boys and age 12 for girls. Fasting is
prohibited for a variety of medical reasons (e.g., for nursing mothers, diabetics, people with
anorexia nervosa, etc.).
15. Some customs around cessation of work do exist–particularly work by women during the
period the candles are burning. See, for example, Eliyahu Kitov, "Working on Chanukah" (ht
tp://www.chabad.org/holidays/chanukah/article_cdo/aid/105100/jewish/Working-on-Chanuk
ah.htm), retrieved November 8, 2012.
16. The game of dreidel itself, though, is likely of much later origin. See, for example, David
Golinkin, "The Origin of the Dreidel" at myjewishlearning.com (http://www.myjewishlearning.
com/holidays/Jewish_Holidays/Hanukkah/At_Home/Dreidel.shtml), accessed November 8,
2012.
17. Hanukkah and Christmas fall out during the same period of the year, but are not related
religiously.
18. The requirement to drink at the Purim Se'udah does not create license for dangerous or
immoral behavior. See Se'udat Purim, as well as Josh Rossman and Shlomo Yaros (March
6, 2004). "Baruch Haman, Arur Mordechai" (http://www.koltorah.org/Volume%2013/24%20T
etzaveh%20and%20Purim.htm#Author4). Kol Torah, Vol. 13 No. 24. Torah Academy of
Bergen County. Retrieved August 8, 2012. and Jeffrey Spitzer. "Drinking on Purim" (http://w
ww.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Jewish_Holidays/Purim/At_Home/Meal/Drinking_on_Pur
im.shtml). MyJewishLearning.com. Retrieved August 8, 2012.
19. One common suggestion is that the custom comes from Esther's hiding her family
background when first brought to the palace (Esther 2:10 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/
p/pt/pt3302.htm#10)). See Ariela Pelaia. "Purim–Jewish Holiday of Purim" (http://judaism.ab
out.com/od/holidays/a/Purim.htm). about.com Judaism. Retrieved December 26, 2012. See
Rabbi Yair Hoffman (February 25, 2010). "New York–Purim Costumes–A History–Reasons
and Origins" (http://www.vosizneias.com/50116/2010/02/25/new-york-purim-costumes-%E
2%80%93-a-history-%E2%80%93-reasons-and-origins). Vos iz Neias.com. Retrieved
December 26, 2012., for another theory.
20. The text of the Torah itself uses the term Pesach to refer to the Korban Pesach, the offering
of the paschal lamb, as well as the day that the sacrifice is offered—14 Nisan. See Leviticus
23:5 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0323.htm#5). The long pilgrimage festival of
15–21 Nisan is always called Ḥag haMatzot, or "Festival of Unleavened Bread"; see Lev.
23:6 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0323.htm#6). This distinction is still made in
Karaite Judaism and in Samaritanism. In conventional Rabbinic Judaism the term Pesach
now commonly refers to the pilgrimage festival itself, although the text of the liturgy
continues to use the name Ḥag haMatzot.
21. Exactly what this means is disputed. See Fast of the Firstborn (Qualifications for fasting).
22. This is usually a siyum, a meal celebrating the conclusion of substantial study of Talmud, as
there is great flexibility around scheduling such an event.
23. Based on the source text at Lev. 23:11 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0323.htm#1
1), normative Jewish practice identifies the start of the Omer period as the second day of
Passover, or 16 Nisan. (See Shulchan Aruch OC 489 – via Wikisource.) Based on the same
source text, Karaite practice identifies this as the first Sunday on or after 16 Nisan, and
therefore places Shavuot on the eighth Sunday on or after 16 Nisan—both as reckoned on
the Karaite calendar. (See Karaite Judaism: Sephirath Ha‘Omer and Shavu‘oth.)
24. Neither the Torah nor the Talmud specifies Sefirah as a mourning period. However, there is
evidence that this custom was in place by the era of the Geonim, which ended around 1040
CE. See Kahn, Rabbi Ari (February 20, 2006). "Rebbe Akiva's 24,000 Students" (http://ww
w.aish.com/h/o/33o/48970241.html). aish.com. Retrieved January 18, 2013.
25. The Jerusalem Talmud at Ta'anit 4:5 states that the walls were breached on this date during
the First Temple period as well, notwithstanding the text of Jeremiah 39:2 (https://www.mec
hon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt1139.htm#2).
26. See, e.g., Rabbi David Golinkin, ed. (1998). Proceedings of the Committee on Jewish Law
and Standards of the Conservative Movement 1927-1970. III. Jerusalem: The Rabbinical
Assembly and The Institute of Applied Halakhah.. Based on these responsa, many
Conservative rabbis will only perform small weddings in the rabbi's study between 1-9 Av.
27. Private fasts are beyond the scope of this article.
28. Inter alia:
Non-orthodox: Union for Traditional Judaism, Conservative Judaism, Reform Judaism
and Reconstructionist Judaism
Religious Zionist: Mizrachi–Bnai Akiva
Modern Orthodox: Union of Orthodox Congregations, Rabbinical Council of America,
United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth
29. The uprising began on 14 Nisan, Passover eve. There was sufficient opposition to the
selection of that date for the memorial that its observance was moved to 27 Nisan,
approximately halfway between the end of Passover and Yom Ha'Atzmaut, and still within
the period of the uprising. See Rosenberg, Jennifer. "Holocaust Remembrance Day" (http://
history1900s.about.com/cs/holocaust/a/yomhashoah.htm). about.com. Retrieved
January 22, 2013.
30. In contrast, International Holocaust Remembrance Day is observed on January 27, the day
the Auschwitz-Birkenau camp was liberated in 1945.
31. Along with the ḥaredi resistance to new days of commemoration, there is a reluctance to
introduce unnecessary mourning during the month of Nisan (see above).
32. These changes are not uniformly observed by communities outside Israel, where the
ceremonies are not official in nature. And, in fact, sometimes observances outside of Israel
are moved to nearby non-working days (like Sundays) to encourage participation.
33. As early as 1940, 4 Iyar had been established as a memorial day for victims of Arab terror
attacks. See ‫( לישוב‬http://jpress.org.il/Default/Scripting/ArticleWin.asp?From=Archive&Skin=
TAUHe&BaseHref=DAV/1940/05/06&EntityId=Ar00120&ViewMode=HTML) [Notice to the
Yishuv]. Davar (in Hebrew). Tel Aviv. May 6, 1940.
34. When this is Friday night in Israel, the celebration is deferred until after Shabbat.

References
1. "yom tov" (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/yom+tov). Random House Webster's
Unabridged Dictionary.
2. Mishneh Torah, Moshe ben Maimon, vol. 1, Jerusalem, 1974, s.v. Shevitat Yom-Tov 1:1
(Hebrew).
3. See text from the Yom Kippur liturgy available at Unetanneh Tokef (He Judges Us).
4. Beitza 12a and Shulchan Aruch OC 495:1 – via Wikisource.
5. See Beitza 6a and Igrot Moshe OC III, 76.
6. See, for example, Nevins, Daniel, The Use of Electrical and Electronic Devices on Shabbat
(http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/2011-2020/el
ectrical-electronic-devices-shabbat.pdf) (PDF), retrieved October 23, 2012, as an illustration
both on general concepts and on specific rulings.
7. This is widely recognized as true. The best objective source is probably Jewish Identity and
Religious Commitment: The North American Study of Conservative Synagogues and Their
Members, 1995–96, edited by Jack Wertheimer, 1997, Ratner Center for the Study of
Conservative Judaism. But reliable, updated figures are difficult to come by.
8. YU Torah shiurim on Pikuach Nefesh: Part I (http://www.yutorah.org/_shiurim/Pikuach%20N
efesh%20Part%20I.html), Part II (http://www.yutorah.org/_shiurim/Pikuach%20Nefesh%20P
art%20II.html), and Part III (http://www.yutorah.org/_shiurim/Pikuach%20Nefesh%20Part%2
0III.html), accessed July 11, 2013.
9. See, in general, Rambam, Mishnah Torah, Kiddush HaChodesh, Chapters 3 and 5.
10. Mishnah Rosh Hashanah 1:3 – via Wikisource.
11. Rambam, Mishnah Torah, Kiddush HaChodesh 5:9–12.
12. Rambam, Mishnah Torah, Kiddush HaChodesh 3:12.
13. "The Second Festival Day and Reform Judaism (Responsum 5759.7)" (http://ccarnet.org/re
sponsa/nyp-no-5759-7/). CCAR Responsa. 1999. Retrieved July 15, 2013.. See in particular
footnotes 1 and 2 to the responsum.
14. "Rosh Hashanah: Customs" (http://www.reformjudaism.org/rosh-hashanah-customs).
ReformJudaism.org. Union for Reform Judaism. Retrieved July 14, 2013.
15. See, for example, I Samuel 20.
16. See, for example, Megillah 22b.
17. "The Month of Elul: Stocktaking and Introspection" (http://www.chabad.org/holidays/Jewish
NewYear/template_cdo/aid/4685/jewish/Elul.htm). Chabad.org. Retrieved July 11, 2013.
18. Babylonian Talmud (BT) Rosh Hashanah 16a
19. Jerusalem Talmud Rosh Hashanah 1:2
20. See, for example, the liturgical poem Unetanneh Tokef in the Machzor (holiday prayer book)
for Rosh Hashanah.
21. Numbers 29:1 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0429.htm#1)
22. See BT Rosh Hashanah 10b. The other opinion is that the creation was completed on 1
Nisan.
23. Mishnah Rosh Hashanah 1:1
24. Rambam, Mishneh Torah, Laws of Repentance 2:6.
25. See Jeremiah 41:1 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt1141.htm#1), ff.
26. See Amidah (Fast Days), Avinu Malkenu, and Selichot of Fast Days.
27. Nachum Mohl. "The Fifteenth Av and Yom Kippur" (http://www.jewishmag.co.il/136mag/tu_b
av_yom_kippur/tu_bav_yom_kippur.htm). www.jewishmag.co.il.
28. Leviticus 23:42 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0323.htm#42) and other places
29. Leviticus 23:40 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0323.htm#40) and other places
30. Shawna Dolansky, "The Truth(s) About Hanukkah”, The Huffington Post, December 23,
2011 (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/shawna-dolansky/the-truth-about-hanukah_b_116570
8.html), accessed most recently November 8, 2012.
31. Tractate Orlah is dedicated to these topics.
32. See, just as one example, Rinat, Zafrir (January 20, 2011). "Israelis Go Green For Tu
Bishvat" (http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/israelis-go-green-for-tu-bishvat-1.338092).
Haaretz. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
33. See Esther 4:16 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt3304.htm#16).
34. Esther 9:2 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt3309.htm#2)
35. See Esther 9 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt3309.htm#1).
36. Megillah 7b
37. Lisa Katz. "Purim Shpiels" (http://judaism.about.com/od/purim/a/purim_play.htm). about.com
Judaism. Retrieved December 26, 2012.
38. Literally, "until you don't know", a phrase from (Babylonian Talmud) Megillah 7b about
drinking on Purim. See Purim (Purim meal [se'udah] and festive drinking).
39. See, for example, "ADLOYADA-The Purim Parade in Israel" (http://www.theicenter.org/reso
urce/adloyadah-%E2%80%93-purim-parade-israel). theicenter.org. Retrieved June 2, 2017.
40. Babylonian Talmud: Megillah 2b, 3b, 10b.
41. See Mashechet Soferim 21:3 and BT Menachot 65, discussed at "Insights to the Daf—
Menachos 65" (http://dafyomi.co.il/menachos/insites/mn-dt-065.htm). dafyomi.co.il. Kollel
Iyun Hadaf of Yerushalayim. Retrieved January 15, 2013, which differ in their explanation
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42. See, for example, Wenger, Eliezer. "The Laws Concerning the Thirty Days before Passover"
(http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/260800/jewish/The-Laws-Concerning-the-Thir
ty-Days-before-Passover.htm). chabad.org. Retrieved January 15, 2013.
43. See the Talmud tractate Pesaḥim in both the Mishnah and Gemara, among many sources.
44. See Masechet Soferim 21:3 and Shulḥan Aruch Oraḥ Ḥayyim 470:1.
45. See, for example, Exodus 12:14 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0212.htm#14) and
following verses.
46. Collins, John J. (November 15, 2005). The Bible After Babel: Historical Criticism in a
Postmodern Age (https://books.google.com/books?id=yqClWOhqso0C&pg=PA45&dq=%22
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48. See Chametz (Stringency) and Chametz (Removal of Chametz).
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50. as per Ex. 12:15 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0212.htm#15)
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Further reading
Brofsky, David. "Hilkhot Moadim: Understanding the Laws of the Festivals." Jerusalem:
Koren Publishers, 2013.
Greenberg, Irving. The Jewish Way: Living the Holidays. New York: Touchstone, 1988.
Renberg, Dalia H. The Complete Family Guide to Jewish Holidays. New York: Adama,
1985.
Strassfeld, Michael. The Jewish Holidays: A Guide and Commentary. New York: Harper &
Row, 1985.

External links
Jewish Holidays Online (http://jewishholidaysonline.com)—List of all Jewish holidays for the
current year (or any given year)
Hebcal (http://www.hebcal.com/)—Interactive Jewish calendar with candle lighting times
and Torah readings.
Jewish Holidays (http://www.ou.org/holidays)
A calculator that figures out the dates of Jewish holidays in any year (http://www.jewishgen.
org/jos/josfest.htm)
Jewish Holidays: A Primer (https://web.archive.org/web/20100407064324/http://www.patheo
s.com/Resources/Additional-Resources/Jewish-Holidays-A-Primer.html)—Patheos
What are the main Jewish festivals? (http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/19150793)—BBC
2016-2017 Jewish Calendar (https://www.jewishgiftplace.com/jewish-calendar.html)

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