Speed Control of Three Phase Induction Motor

A three phase induction motor is basically a constant speed motor so it’s

somewhat difficult to control its speed. The speed control of induction motor
is done at the cost of decrease in efficiency and low electrical power factor.
Before discussing the methods to control the speed of three phase induction
motor one should know the basic formulas of speed and torque of three phase
induction motor as the methods of speed control depends upon these
formulas.
Synchronous Speed

Where, f = frequency and P is the number of poles

The speed of induction motor is given by,

Where,
N is the speed of the rotor of an induction motor,
Ns is the synchronous speed,
S is the slip.
The torque produced by three phase induction motor is given by,

When the rotor is at standstill slip, s is one.

So the equation of torque is,

Where,
E2 is the rotor emf
Ns is the synchronous speed
R2 is the rotor resistance
X2 is the rotor inductive reactance
The Speed of Induction Motor is changed from Both Stator and Rotor Side.
The speed control of three phase induction motor from stator side are further
classified as :
 V / f control or frequency control.
 Changing the number of stator poles.
  Controlling supply voltage.
 Adding rheostat in the stator circuit.
The speed controls of three phase induction motor from rotor side are further
classified as:

 Adding external resistance on rotor side.

 Cascade control method.
 Injecting slip frequency emf into rotor side.
Speed Control from Stator Side

 V / f Control or Frequency Control

Whenever three phase supply is given to three phase induction

motor rotating magnetic field is produced which rotates at
synchronous speed given by

In three phase induction motor emf is induced by induction similar

to that of transformer which is given by

Where, K is the winding constant, T is the number of turns per phase

and f is frequency. Now if we change frequency synchronous speed
changes but with decrease in frequency flux will increase and this
change in value of flux causes saturation of rotor and stator cores
which will further cause increase in no load current of the motor . So,
its important to maintain flux , φ constant and it is only possible if
we change voltage. i.e if we decrease frequency flux increases but at
the same time if we decrease voltage flux will also decease causing
no change in flux and hence it remains constant. So, here we are
keeping the ratio of V/f as constant. Hence its name is V/ f method.
For controlling the speed of three phase induction motor by V/f
method we have to supply variable voltage and frequency which is
easily obtained by using converter and inverter set.
 Controlling Supply Voltage
 The torque produced by running three phase induction motor is
given by

In low slip region (sX)2 is very very small as compared to R2. So, it
can be neglected. So torque becomes

Since rotor resistance, R2 is constant so the equation of torque further

reduces to

We know that rotor induced emf E2 ∝ V. So, T ∝ sV2.

The equation above clears that if we decrease supply voltage torque
will also decrease. But for supplying the same load, the torque must
remain the same, and it is only possible if we increase the slip and if
the slip increases the motor will run at a reduced speed. This method
of speed control is rarely used because a small change in speed
requires a large reduction in voltage, and hence the current drawn by
motor increases, which cause overheating of the induction motor.
 Changing the number of stator poles:

The stator poles can be changed by two methods

 Multiple stator winding method.

 Pole amplitude modulation method (PAM)

 Multiple Stator Winding Method

In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor, we

provide two separate windings in the stator. These two stator
windings are electrically isolated from each other and are wound for
two different numbers of poles. Using a switching arrangement, at a
time, supply is given to one winding only and hence speed control is
possible. Disadvantages of this method are that the smooth speed
control is not possible. This method is more costly and less efficient
 as two different stator windings are required. This method of speed
control can only be applied to squirrel cage motor.
 Pole Amplitude Modulation Method (PAM)

In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor the

original sinusoidal mmf wave is modulated by another sinusoidal
mmf wave having the different number of poles.

Let f 1(θ) be the original mmf wave of induction motor whose speed is to be
controlled.
f2(θ) be the modulation mmf wave.
P1 be the number of poles of induction motor whose speed is to be controlled.
P2 be the number of poles of modulation wave.

After modulation resultant mmf wave

So we get, resultant mmf wave

Therefore the resultant mmf wave will have two different number of poles

Therefore by changing the number of poles we can easily change the speed of
three phase induction motor.
 Adding Rheostat in Stator Circuit

In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor rheostat

is added in the stator circuit due to this voltage gets dropped .In case of
three phase induction motor torque produced is given by T ∝ sV22. If we
decrease supply voltage torque will also decrease. But for supplying the
same load, the torque must remains the same and it is only possible if
we increase the slip and if the slip increase motor will run reduced
speed.
Speed Control from Rotor Side
 Adding External Resistance on Rotor Side
 In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor external
resistance are added on rotor side. The equation of torque for three
phase induction motor is

The three-phase induction motor operates in a low slip region. In low

slip region term (sX)2 becomes very very small as compared to R2. So, it
can be neglected. and also E2 is constant. So the equation of torque after
simplification becomes,

Now if we increase rotor resistance, R2 torque decreases but to supply

the same load torque must remain constant. So, we increase slip, which
will further result in the decrease in rotor speed. Thus by adding
additional resistance in the rotor circuit, we can decrease the speed of
the three-phase induction motor. The main advantage of this method is
that with an addition of external resistance starting torque increases but
this method of speed control of three phase induction motor also suffers
from some disadvantages :
 The speed above the normal value is not possible.
 Large speed change requires a large value of resistance, and if such
large value of resistance is added in the circuit, it will cause large
copper loss and hence reduction in efficiency.
 Presence of resistance causes more losses.
 This method cannot be used for squirrel cage induction motor.
 Cascade Control Method

In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor, the two
three-phase induction motors are connected on a common shaft and
hence called cascaded motor. One motor is the called the main motor,
and another motor is called the auxiliary motor. The three-phase supply
is given to the stator of the main motor while the auxiliary motor is
derived at a slip frequency from the slip ring of the main motor.
Let NS1 be the synchronous speed of the main motor.
NS2 be the synchronous speed of the auxiliary motor.
P1 be the number of poles of the main motor.
P2 be the number of poles of the auxiliary motor.
F is the supply frequency.
F1 is the frequency of rotor induced emf of the main motor.
N is the speed of set, and it remains same for both the main and
auxiliary motor as both the motors are mounted on the common shaft.
S1 is the slip of main motor.

The auxiliary motor is supplied with same frequency as the main motor
i.e

Now put the value of

Now at no load , the speed of auxiliary rotor is almost same as its

synchronous speed i.e N = NS2

Now rearrange the above equation and find out the value of N, we get,

This cascaded set of two motors will now run at new speed having
number of poles (P1 + P2). In the above method the torque produced by
the main and auxiliary motor will act in same direction, resulting in
number of poles (P1 + P2). Such type of cascading is called cumulative
cascading. There is one more type of cascading in which the torque
produced by the main motor is in opposite direction to that of auxiliary
motor. Such type of cascading is called differential cascading; resulting
in speed corresponds to number of poles (P1 – P2).
In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor, four
different speeds can be obtained
 When only main induction motor work, having speed corresponds to

.
 When only auxiliary induction motor work, having speed

corresponds to .
 When cumulative cascading is done, then the complete set runs at a

speed of .
  When differential cascading is done, then the complete set runs at a

speed of .
 Injecting Slip Frequency EMF into Rotor Side

When the speed control of three phase induction motor is done by

adding resistance in rotor circuit, some part of power called, the slip
power is lost as I2R losses. Therefore the efficiency of three phase
induction motor is reduced by this method of speed control. This slip
power loss can be recovered and supplied back to improve the overall
efficiency of the three-phase induction motor, and this scheme of
recovering the power is called slip power recovery scheme and this is
done by connecting an external source of emf of slip frequency to the
rotor circuit. The injected emf can either oppose the rotor induced emf
or aids the rotor induced emf. If it opposes the rotor induced emf, the
total rotor resistance increases and hence the speed is decreased and if
the injected emf aids the main rotor emf the total decreases and hence
speed increases. Therefore by injecting induced emf in the rotor circuit,
the speed can be easily controlled. The main advantage of this type of
speed control of three phase induction motor is that a wide range of
speed control is possible whether it is above normal or below normal
speed.
How to Control the Speed of Induction
Motors? | Electrical Engineering
control of electrical motors in general and of induction motors in particular is of great
practical importance.

In a number of industries motors must satisfy very strict speed characteristic requirements,
both with respect to the range and smoothness of control and also with respect to
economical operation. From the view point of speed control characteristics, induction
motors are inferior to dc motors. The speed of a dc shunt motor can be adjusted between
wide range with good efficiency and speed regulation, but in induction motors speed cannot
be varied without losing efficiency and good speed regulation.

The speed of an induction motor is given by the expression N = 120f/P(1 – s). Thus there
are three factors viz, supply frequency f, number of poles P and slip s on which the speed of
an induction motor depends. Hence to change the speed of an induction motor it is
essential to change at least one of the above three factors.

Methods of speed control are distinguished according to the main action on the
motor:
(i) From the stator side, and

(ii) From the rotor side.

Various methods of speed control from stator side are:

(a) Variation of supply frequency

(b) Variation of applied voltage and

(c) By changing the number of poles.

From the rotor side the speed may be controlled:

(a) By changing the resistance in the rotor circuit and

(b) By introducing into the rotor circuit an additional emf of the same frequency as the
fundamental emf of the rotor.
For the latter method of speed control of induction motors, an additional electrical machine
or several such machines are required. A set consisting of a regulated induction motor and
one or more additional electrical machines connected to it electrically or mechanically is
called cascade. Commutator machines are commonly used as the additional machines.

1. Speed Control by Variation of Supply Frequency:

This method of speed control provides wide speed-control range with gradual variation of
the speed throughout this range. The major difficulty with this method is how to get the
variable frequency supply. The auxiliary equipment required for this purpose results in a
high first cost, increased maintenance and lowering of the overall efficiency. That is why this
method is not employed for general-purpose speed control applications. Inspite of the fact
that this scheme is complicated, there are certain applications in which its wide,
continuously variable, speed range and good speed regulation makes its use highly
desirable.

If an induction motor is to be operated at different frequencies with practically constant

values of efficiency, power factor, overload capacity and a constant absolute slip, then, with
the iron unsaturated, it is essential that the supply voltage be varied in proportion to supply
frequency.

This kind of variation can occur for example, if the supply generator is subjected to the
speed variations, either due to momentary overloads or because of a noticeable speed
regulation. Both output voltage and frequency vary as the speed if no automatic correction
is provided. On some large marine drives, the propeller motors are induction type and are
speed controlled from such a local supply which is provided by synchronous generators
coupled to variable speed turbines. Even in such cases the range of speed variation is
limited, because the efficiency of the prime movers falls rapidly with the change in speed
from that for what they are designed.

2. Speed Control by Variation of Supply Voltage:

This is a slip-control method with constant frequency variable supply voltage. In this method
of speed control of induction motors, the voltage applied to the stator is varied for varying
the speed.

This method of speed control is simple, low in first cost and has low maintenance
cost but it has limited use because:
(i) The operation at voltages exceeding rated voltage is restricted by magnetic saturation,
(ii) A large change in voltage is required for a relatively small change in speed

(iii) The developed torque reduces greatly with the reduction in supply voltage and the
motor will come to standstill if the load torque exceeds the pull-out torque of the motor
corresponding to reduced supply voltage and,

(iv) The range of speed control is very limited in the downward direction i.e., from rated
speed to lower speeds.

In general, this method of speed control is used only on loads where the torque required
drops off considerably as the speed is reduced such as with small squirrel cage motors
driving fans.

The variable voltage may be obtained by means of either saturable reactors, variac, or tap-
changing transformers.

3. Speed Control by Changing the Number of Poles:

This method is easily applicable to squirrel cage motors because a cage winding
automatically reacts to create the same number of poles as the stator. This method of
speed control is generally not practicable with wound rotor motors as in such machines this
method would involve considerable complications of design and switching, since the
interconnections of both primary and secondary would have to be changed simultaneously
in a manner to produce the same number of poles in both windings. Otherwise, negative
torque will be developed by certain of the rotor conductor belts.

The number of pole pairs in the stator can be changed as follows:

(a) By Using Multiple Stator Windings:
In this method of speed control two or more completely independent windings, each wound
for different number of poles, are placed in the same stator slots. The number of stator
winding poles are in this case in no way interrelated and can be arbitrarily chosen
depending on the operating conditions of this motor. For example, a two speed motor may
have two stator windings, one wound for 4 poles and another for 6 poles which will give
synchronous speeds of 1,500 rpm and 1,000 rpm with a supply frequency of 50 Hz. Motors
with four independent stator windings are also used sometimes and they give four different
synchronous (and hence running) speeds. Of course, one winding is used at a time, the
others being entirely inoperative.
Change-over from one speed to another may be done by a mechanical switch or by
contactors. With such an arrangement, the winding or windings which is/are not being used
must be kept open circuited by the switch, or at least left in star. Otherwise, because of
transformer action, the winding which is connected to the supply would induce voltages in
the idle winding(s) and cause overheating due to the subsequent circulating currents.

The regulation itself amounts to changing the motor speed in steps as one or another stator
winding is connected to the supply mains. At each change, the motor finds itself under
conditions essentially analogous to the starting conditions, i.e., a large current and reduced
torque. Because of inactive conductors, this method of pole changing requires a large stator
than a single-speed motor of the same rating. This method has been used for elevator
motors, traction motors and also for small motors driving machine tools.

(b) Consequent Pole Method:

The method of pole changing for speed control of 3- phase induction motor described above
in (a) i.e., multiple stator winding method, is employed only in small motors. In large motors,
it is more expedient to employ consequent pole technique which eliminates the necessity of
having multiple stator windings for changing the number of stator poles. This method of
speed control makes use of the entire winding for each speed. Normally, for a single speed
motor, successive coil groups are wound so as to create poles of opposite polarity in
succession. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.83, where one phase of a four-pole winding is
developed.
It should be noted that all the coils are in series but that the end connections are made to
alternate groups, i.e., group 1 to group 3, and group 4 to group 2. Now the end connections
of the groups, with the same coils, can be changed so as to have successive coils of the
same polarity, as illustrated in Fig. 1.84. By paralleling the series connections of groups 2-4
with that groups 1-3, the polarity of group 2 and 4 has changed, so that there are now four
successive north poles.

As a consequence of this south poles are created between each of the north poles and the
motor now has an 8-pole winding. Thus for a 50 Hz supply, the series arrangement gives a
synchronous speed of 1,500 rpm while the series-parallel arrangement gives a synchronous
speed of 750 rpm. It is also possible to use a series parallel arrangement for the 4-pole
winding and then switch to the series arrangement for 8-pole winding. A circuit for switching
a three phase winding from 2 to 4 pole winding is shown in Fig. 1.85.

By reconnecting all the coil groups for the same polarity, the stator acts as though it has
twice as many poles as pole groups. The additional poles so created are called the
consequent poles, and the winding is known as a consequent pole winding. By an unique
switching arrangement, it is possible to have the standard (or conventional) connection on
one side of a double-throw switch and the consequent pole connection on the other side of
the switch. Thus two speeds can be obtained, the higher speed with the conventional
connection and half speed with consequent-pole connection.

In the motors using consequent-pole technique for speed control, the best possible design
is not usually obtainable at both speeds. That is, desirable characteristics, such as high
power factor, are sacrificed at one speed in order that a reasonably good power factor be
obtained at the other speed. Sometimes the stator connections are changed from delta to
star at the same time that the pole connections are changed. This changes the voltage and
makes possible a better motor at each speed.

Two-speed motors are usually made with one winding on the stator, the number of poles
being changed in the ratio 1:2. Three- and four-speed motors are provided with two
windings on the stators, one or both of which are made with changing the number of poles.
For example if it is desired to obtain a motor for four synchronous speeds; 1500, 1,000, 750
and 500 rpm, two windings should be placed on the stator, one of which giving 4 and 8
poles and the other giving 6 and 12 poles.

Employing a series-parallel connection of phase groups of individual phases, the phases

can themselves be connected in star/delta resulting in two-speed operation with the three
types of torque-speed characteristics viz., constant torque, constant power output and
variable torque.

Owing to complications in the design and switching of interconnection of the stator

windings, it is not feasible to obtain more than four speeds for any motor through this
method of speed control. This method also does not provide gradual speed control. That is
why this method is not employed for general-purpose speed control applications. However,
this method is very satisfactory for applications, such as ventilating fans, conveyors,
machine tools, or other applications which require operation at only two or four
approximately constant speeds which it will provide. This method has the advantage of
simplicity, good speed regulation for each setting, high efficiency and moderate initial cost
and maintenance.

The number of pole pairs on the stator can also be changed by using pole amplitude
modulation technique-a suppressed- carrier modulation technique. This method of pole
changing has the advantage that the ratio of the two speeds obtainable need not be
necessarily 2:1 as in the consequent pole method.

4. Stator Impedance Control:

Reduced voltage at the machine terminals can be had by inserting balanced resistors or
inductors in series with each stator lead. Under such conditions, the motor terminal voltage
becomes dependent on motor current and the voltage changes with the acceleration of
motor. Typical-speed torque characteristics are illustrated in Fig. 1.86.
If impedance (R or X) is adjusted so as to provide the same starting torque, the speed-
torque characteristic in case of addition of inductor would have larger torque than with
additional resistance. Besides, both of these characteristics enable us to have torques
larger than that obtainable with the characteristic with reduced applied voltage, for same
starting torque. Insertion of resistor in the stator circuit improves the power factor, but at the
cost of greater energy losses.

5. Speed Control by Variation of Rotor Resistance (or Rotor Resistance

Control):
Wound rotor motors are usually started by connecting starting resistances in the secondary
circuit, which are shorted out in steps as the motor speeds up. If the ohmic values of these
resistances are properly chosen and if these resistances are designed for continuous
operation, they can serve dual purpose, starting and speed control. As obvious this method
can be applied to wound rotor motors alone.

Smoothness of speed control depends upon the number of steps of resistances that are
available. Control is provided in the direction downward from the base speed. The range of
speed control is not constant and depends on the value of the load. This method of speed-
control has characteristics similar to those of dc shunt motor speed control by means of
resistance in series with the armature. Its main disadvantages are lower efficiency and poor
speed regulation due to increase in rotor resistance at low-speed settings.

For instance, at 50 per cent of synchronous speed the efficiency of rotor is only 50 per cent
and the efficiency of the motor would be somewhat less. The speed variation is limited to a
range of 50-100% only. Liquid rheostats are preferred over metallic rheostats as they have
no inductance and the resistances can be cut out smoothly giving a uniform torque. The
introduction of external resistors in the rotor circuit of a slip-ring induction motor will modify
the speed-torque characteristics.

This method of speed control as such is, therefore, not suitable for controlling speed at
constant torque. But this method is widely used for loads where the torque required drops
off considerably as the speed is reduced such as fan loads for which the power input drops
noticeably as the speed is reduced which in turn reduces the rotor copper losses. Moreover,
this method is not adopted for continuous speed control but is preferred for intermittent
(short time) operation. Such a method of speed control is widely used in practice, for low-
power motors and in overhead cranes.

It is sometimes used however, for speed regulation of rolling mills especially where they are
provided with flywheels for reducing the load peaks in the circuit. Here the rheostat, called
the speed regulator, is automatically switched on when the load increases, and as a result
speed decreases and part of the load is compensated at the expense of kinetic energy of
the flywheel. Conversely, when the load decreases, the rotor circuit resistance is reduced;
the speed increases and the flywheel begins to store kinetic energy.

6. Secondary Foreign Voltage Control:

In this method, the speed of an induction motor is controlled by injecting a voltage of slip
frequency in the secondary circuit. If injected voltage is in phase with the induced emf in the
secondary circuit, it is equivalent to decreasing of resistance in the secondary circuit,
therefore, slip decreases or speed increases. It is possible to achieve super-synchronous
speeds by injecting a voltage of slip frequency in phase with the induced emf in the rotor
circuit.

If injected voltage is in phase opposition to the induced emf in the secondary circuit, it is
equivalent to increasing of resistance in the secondary circuit, hence resulting in increase in
slip or reduction in speed. Thus a large range of speed control is possible by this method by
including frequency-converting equipment in the rotor circuit.

In this method the disadvantages of lower efficiency and poor speed regulation are
overcome, but, since it requires one and usually more auxiliary machines to inject emf of
slip frequency in the secondary circuit, therefore, it is costlier and used with motors of very
large rating, such as for motors in steel mills.
Several methods have been developed to control speed of induction motors by injecting a
voltage of slip frequency in the secondary circuit. The different methods vary in their
requirements for auxiliary equipment; from the incorporation of the auxiliary equipment in
the design of induction motor itself to a fairly complicated system of auxiliary rotating
machines and adjustable ratio transformers.

The basic criteria that such a system must fulfill are:

(i) That the variable foreign voltage have a slip frequency, i.e., frequency equal to s f and
(ii) That the energy associated with the foreign voltage be recoverable.

The most common systems based on this principle are Kramer system, Leblanc system and
Scherbius system of speed control of polyphase induction motors.

7. Speed Control by Concatenation:

In this method, two motors are required, at least one of which must have a wound rotor. The
two motors may be mechanically coupled together to drive a common load. If the stator
winding of one of them, a wound rotor motor, is connected to 3-phase ac supply, and its
rotor winding is connected to the stator winding of the second motor, the speed of the
combination will be determinate by the sum or difference of the number of poles in the two
machines. In practice, it is customary, to connect the rotor output of the first machine to the
stator of the second machine in such a way that the revolving fields of both are in the same
direction; under this condition, the resulting speed will be determined by the following
expression-

Where, f is supply frequency, P1 and P2 are the number of poles on machines I and II
respectively.
For obtaining speed, above normal the torque of the second motor is reversed by simply
changing two of the leads of the second motor. This is called the differential cascading and
under this condition speed will be given by the expression-

Further speed control, if desired, can be obtained by having second machine also of wound
rotor type and inserting control resistance in the rotor circuit of the second machine.
If the two motors have the same number of poles and are connected in cumulative cascade
[Eq. (1.77)], they will operate at practically half speed. Since the shaft torque is largely
reduced in differential cascade, it is not employed in practice.

The mechanical output of the two machines are approximately in the ratio of (1 – s1): or

or P1 : P2, i.e., in the ratio of number of poles on the machines.

Electrical Braking in Polyphase Induction
Motors | Electrical Engineering
The following points highlight the methods of electrical breaking used in polyphase induction
motors. The methods are: 1. Plugging (or Counter-Current Braking) 2. Dynamic (or
Rheostatic) Braking 3. Regenerative Braking.

Method # 1. Plugging (or Counter-Current Braking):

Plugging can be achieved in an induction motor merely by reversing two of the three phases
which causes a reversal of the direction of the rotating magnetic field. At the instant of
switching the motor to the plugging position the motor runs in the opposite direction to that
of the field and the relative speed is approximately twice [(2 – s) times] of synchronous
speed i.e., the slip is very nearly equal to two, being equal to (2 – So voltage induced in the
rotor will be twice of normally induced voltage at standstill and the winding must be provided
with the additional insulation to withstand this much voltage.

During plugging period, the motor acts as a brake and it absorbs kinetic energy from the still
revolving load causing its speed to fall. The associated power Pmech is dissipated as heat in
the motor. At the same time, the rotor also continues to draw power from the stator which is
also dissipated as heat. Due to increased rotor frequency there are additional iron losses in
the rotor. Thus the heat developed in the rotor during braking period are about three times
the heat developed during starting period (or under blocked condition of rotor).
ADVERTISEMENTS:

The size of the induction motor where plugging is to be applied, is therefore, decided not by
loading conditions alone but by braking condition also.

In case of a squirrel cage motor, energy is dissipated wholly within the machine; whereas in
case of wound rotor motor this energy is dissipated also in the external resistance added in
the rotor circuit for this purpose.

The conditions for braking an induction motor can be studied by considering the torque-slip
curves of the motor when extended beyond the point of 100 % slip, as shown in Fig.
1.103(a). The ordinate at the point B represents the torque at the instant of plugging and we
can see that the torque increases gradually as the motor approaches the standstill, after
which, of course, if the supply line is not disconnected it will start up again in the reverse
direction in accordance with the ordinary torque-speed curves from A to O. Thus we see
that for bringing the motor to rest, it is essential to disconnect the supply to the motor at
zero speed.

From the torque-slip curves shown in Fig. 1.103 (a), it is observed that magnitude of the
braking torque is very much low as compared to the maximum torque exerted by the motor.
This is specially so for low rotor resistances. As more and more resistance is inserted in the
rotor circuit, maximum torque occurs at increasing values of the slip.

This is the reason that squirrel cage induction motors, which are primarily designed for
maximum efficiency and, therefore, for low resistance are not much suitable for such type of
braking. In case of wound rotor motors, addition of resistance in the rotor circuit gives rise to
more and more braking torque and, therefore, wound rotor motors are more suitable for
plugging. If the change in rotor resistance is so adjusted that maximum braking torque is
exerted throughout, optimum braking will be achieved in minimum time.

The expression for the braking torque neglecting stator impedance and magnetizing
reactance, can be deduced, and is given as-

The rotor current can be determined during the braking period from the following relation
and is plotted, as shown in Fig. 1.103 (b).

Where, E2 is the emf induced in each phase of the rotor at standstill, R2 is the rotor
resistance per phase and X2 is the rotor standstill reactance per phase and s is the slip.

During plugging period, since the induced emf in the rotor is very high, so the rotor current
and thereby stator current are very high. However, braking current can be reduced by
inserting external resistance in the rotor circuit. From this point also, the wound rotor motors
are beneficial as compared to squirrel cage rotor motors.

Cage motors of about 20 kW output are plugged directly, using the star connection if a star-
delta switch is provided. Larger motors need stator resistors. Wound rotor motors employ
rotor resistors for current limitation as well as developing higher braking torques. Problems
of thermal rating may arise for frequent braking duty, and contactors may need frequent
servicing.

Simultaneous reversal of stator connections and inclusion of rotor resistance in the wound
rotor motors is quite practicable, but the same effect can be achieved by including
saturators in the rotor windings. Alternatively a deep bar rotor cage may give rise in
effective rotor resistance following the plugging operation as the slip frequency is suddenly
increased from sf to (2 – s) f where f is the supply frequency.

In practice, for reversing drives where braking and starting up of induction motor in reverse
direction comprises stages of the same continuous process, plugging is advantageously
employed.

The plugging operation can also be explained with the help of quadrantal diagram shown in
Fig. 1.103 (c). Speed- torque characteristics shown in Fig. 1.103 (c) are actually extension
of the motor characteristics in the second and fourth quadrant. The explanation of Fig.
1.103 (c) is exactly identical to one for Fig. 1.94 (a) or 1.94 (b).

Method # 2. Dynamic (or Rheostatic) Braking:

The rheostatic braking with a polyphase induction motor can be obtained by disconnecting
the stator winding from the ac supply and exciting it from a dc source to produce a
stationary dc field. In rheostatic braking, the stator winding is employed as a dc field winding
and the rotor winding as an armature winding. With a wound rotor machine, external
resistors can be inserted into the rotor circuit to provide a load. With squirrel cage
machines, however, the rotor winding itself has to form the load.

The source of excitation may be provided either by an independent dc source or from the ac
mains through a transformer rectifier set, as shown in Fig. 1.105.

Various methods of connecting the stator winding to a dc source are shown in Fig. 1.104.
Though connections shown in Figs. 1.104 (c) and 1.104 (f) give uniform current loading of
all the three phases but are complicated in switching operation. Being simpler in this
respect, the connections shown in Figs. 1.104. (a) and (b) are usually employed.

Atypical connection diagram is given in Fig. 1.105; the machine operates as a motor with
contactors L closed, while with L open and B closed a direct current is supplied through two
stator phases, the third being left open circuited. The resistance R’ is inserted in the stator
circuit to limit its current. In case of wound rotor motors additional resistance R is inserted in
the rotor circuit to control the braking effect.

While the machine is operating normally as a motor, its stator magnetic field is rotating at a
synchronous speed in the same direction as that of the rotor, but slightly faster than the
rotor conductors. When the stator windings are disconnected from the ac supply and
excited with dc, the magnetic field produced will be stationary in space, thus making the
rotor conductors move past the field with a speed (1 – s)Ns or SNs. The currents induced in
the rotor conductors will be opposite in direction to that corresponding to motoring
operation, producing a braking torque.
Although the air-gap flux is stationary, there will be the same number of poles as when the
machine is excited with ac and the rotor currents will, therefore, have a frequency which is
near to the frequency corresponding to synchronous speed (i.e., initially, but which
decreases with rotor speed and becomes zero at standstill i.e., rotor current frequency can
be expressed as Sf, where f is the frequency of ac supply. Likewise, the emf induced in the
rotor decreases from a maximum when the rotor is running, to zero at standstill.

In other words, the emf induced in the rotor will be given by SE2 where E2 is the magnitude
of the emf induced in the rotor when it rotates past the field at speed N s. It is, thus seen that
the conditions in rotor during dc rheostatic braking with the speed falling from synchronous
to standstill are very much the same as when the motor accelerates in the normal manner.
Hence the equivalent circuit of the rotor can be represented as shown in Fig. 1.106 (a).
Dividing the voltage and the impedance by S, we have the circuit shown in Fig. 1.106 (b)
carrying the same current I2.
Since the stator winding carries only direct current, the inductance of the stator has no
effect under steady-state operation. The dc voltage applied across the stator winding is
fixed only by the stator winding resistance. There will be no iron loss in the stator core. But
the rotor core loss will be of considerable magnitude and hence the rotor resistance value
referred to stator, which determines the torque developed during braking, must be corrected
to take this into account.

The emf induced in the rotor, at synchronous speed, E’2 will be given by ImXm where
Im represents the magnetizing current passing through the magnetizing reactance. The
circuit shown in Fig. 1.106 (b) can be modified into a circuit shown in Fig. 1.106 (c). The
phasor diagram corresponding to this modified circuit is shown in Fig. 1.106 (d).
The rotor current is alternating in nature although it is produced by a constant flux, caused
by a magnetizing mmf ImN1, which remains stationary in space. However, when viewed from
the rotor, both the magnetizing mmf and the resultant flux in the stator will appear as
alternating. Also, since the rotor ampere-turns I2 N2 (= r2N,) must be balanced by the stator
ampere-turns so as to maintain the magnetizing ampere-turns ImN1, the stator ampere-turns
ImN1 as seen from the rotor, represents the phasor sum of ImN1 and I’2N1. The effective
alternating current I1 depends on the magnitude of direct current carried by the stator and
the nature of the stator winding connections.
It can be concluded that the operation of the motor during dc rheostatic braking can be
analysed by using the equivalent circuit (the type of which we are already familiar) shown in
Fig. 1.106 (c).

The braking torque can be determined from the relation-

The above equation enables us to determine the braking torque at any speed of a given
induction motor, when excited by direct current, I, corresponding to an equivalent ac, which
would have produced the same mmf as that by the actual direct current carried by the stator
windings.
Differentiating Eq. (1.83) w.r.t. S and equating it to zero for a maximum we have slip
corresponding to maximum braking torque-

Typical performance characteristics of an induction motor are illustrated in Fig. 1.107. The
magnitude of the braking torque developed by the motor depends upon the excitation
(strength of the field developed by the stator winding), the rotor circuit resistance, and the
speed of the motor. Effect of variation of excitation I1 and rotor resistance R2 are also
illustrated in Fig. 1.107 (a). For design purposes, the torque- rotor resistance curves
illustrated in Fig. 1.107 (b) are sometimes used. With the increase in rotor resistance R 2, the
speed at which maximum braking torque occurs also increases. But, the maximum torque
would not increase in proportion to the square of current (I12), as pointed out by Eq. (1.85),
because magnetising reactance Xm decreases due to saturation caused by increase in
current I1.

Stable braking operation is on the steeper portion of torque-speed curve [i.e., on the left
hand side of the maximum torque position in Fig. 1.107 (a)]. If inadvertently the speed rises
above that at which the torque is a maximum, further rise of speed is caused by a decrease
in braking torque, which may lead to a further rise in speed in the case of an overhauling
load. At the start of applying braking, therefore, we require high resistance in the rotor
circuit, which has to be gradually reduced with decrease in speed.

Braking torque can be controlled by any or both of the following methods:

(i) By controlling the dc excitation

(ii) By varying the rotor resistance.

AC dynamic braking may be obtained with self-excitation by connecting the stator windings
to a bank of static capacitors as shown in Fig. 1.108. In this case the induction machine
operates as an induction generator receiving its ac excitation from the static capacitors. The
generated electrical energy is dissipated as heat in the rotor circuit. AC dynamic braking is
not popular owing to relatively high cost of capacitor banks.

DC dynamic braking takes little power from the supply and provides smooth braking torque,
useful for mine winders and high inertia loads. Its advantages over plugging are the
absence of the reverse rotation air-gap field [and, therefore, no tendency for the machine to
run backwards] and a lower rotor I2R loss. By increasing rotor resistance, the braking torque
can be made more effective at higher speeds. This method is, therefore, very much suitable
for retarding overhauling loads. In case of a squirrel cage motor, since rotor resistance is
small, it will apply braking torque at very low speeds and, therefore, useful only for bringing
the load to rest.
The advent of automatic control of dynamic braking of induction motors employing closed
loop systems, has made the induction motors more popular than dc motors, especially for
the drives employing in mine hoists.

Figure 1.109 shows the quadrantal characteristics of induction motor under dynamic braking
condition.

Method # 3. Regenerative Braking:

Regenerative braking is an inherent characteristic of an induction motor, since it operates
as an induction generator when it runs at speed above synchronous and it feeds power
back to the supply line.

The 3-phase induction motor can be made to operate at speed above synchronous
speed by employing any one of the following processes:
(i) Switching over to a low frequency supply in frequency controlled induction motors in
order to reduce the speed of operation of the drive.

(ii) Downward motion of a loaded hoisting mechanism such as cranes, hoists, excavators
etc.

(iii) Switching over to a larger pole number operation from a smaller one in multi-speed
squirrel cage motors.

In all the above processes, the slip and torque developed become negative, as shown in
Fig. 1.110, and thus the machine acts as a generator, receiving mechanical energy and
giving it back to the supply system in the form of electrical energy.

If the load drives the motor above synchronous speed, no switching operation is required.
Once the machine is driven above synchronous speed, the braking operation automatically
starts. The operating point will depend upon the magnitude of load torque and the nature of
torque-speed characteristic of the machine during generating operation.

By varying the resistance in the rotor circuit, it is possible to operate at any speed above
synchronous speed during braking. In case the driving torque of the load exceeds the
maximum braking torque, of which the machine is capable, the system will become unstable
and the speed will rise further, probably to a disastrous value, since, the faster the machine
runs, the lesser will be the braking torque developed.
In the case of a squirrel cage induction motor, stable speed is obtained at a speed
considerably in excess of the synchronous speed and the regenerative braking cannot be
applied unless the motor is specially designed to withstand the excessive speed.

Regenerative braking has the disadvantage of the possibility of braking only at super-
synchronous speeds and, therefore, is seldom used for braking. This method can be used
only in hoisting type of mechanism or with a multi-speed squirrel cage motor. It is
advantageous on mountain railways too. It returns about 20% of the total energy on certain
railway runs and saves a great deal of brake shoe wear.