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Laboratory Experiments In

College Physics
Seventh Edition ~,-<:~"-' .-
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Selected Experiments
Physics II .~ '

Cicero H. Bernard
Chirold D. Epp

for use by the


Department of Physics
Texas State Technical College
Harlingen, Texas
Copyright © 2000 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

All rights reserved.

Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that pennitted by Sections 107 and
108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the pennission of the copyright owner is
unlawful. Requests for pennission or further infonnation should be addressed to the Pennission
Department, John Wiley & Sons.

Printed in the United States of America.

ISBN 0-471-39189-1
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
IN COLLEGE PHYSICS
SEVENTH EDITION

CICERO H. BERNARD
Emeritus·-Midwestern State University

CHIROLD D. EPP
Johnson Space Center--Houston
Formerly--Midwestern State University
COVER PHOTO: Peter AprahamianlScience Photo Library

Copyright © 1995 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

All rights reserved.

Reproduction or translation of any part of this work


beyond that permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of
the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the
permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.
Requests for permission or further information
should be addressed to the Permissions Department,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

ISBN 0-471-00251-8

Printed in the United States of America

10987 65
IN MEMORIAL
On August 5, 1993 my friend, former colleague, and co-author, Cicero H. Bernard, went to be
with the Lord. He is best remembered as a wonderful Christian man, husband, father, friend, and
dedicated teacher. He dedicated most of his life to the teaching of Physics and was well known in
the Physics teaching community in the State of Texas for many years.
This laboratory manual was first published by Mr. Bernard in 1949 while he was on the
faculty at Texas A & M University. The value of his work is evident in the fact that this manual
is now in its seventh edition.
After 20 years on the faculty at Texas A & M University, Mr. Bernard was hired by
Midwestern State College in Wichita Falls, Texas to establish a Physics Program. He did an
excellent job in this endeavor by emphasizing sound teaching with emphasis on laboratory work
and demonstrations. He believed strongly that students should see and touch equipment in order
to understand and appreciate physical principles. When Mr. Bernard hired me in 1969 to join the
physics faculty at Midwestern State University, I found an excellent undergraduate Physics
Program with well equipped laboratories and a dedicated faculty.
Further evidence of Mr. Bernard's success as a physics teacher, is the large number of
physics majors and minors that graduated from the Midwestern State University program that he
built. Many of his students went on to earn advanced degrees in physics and other academic
areas.
In 1978 Mr. Bernard asked me to co-author the fifth edition of this manual. We worked
this manuscript together and it was the last time he was able to give support to the revision effort.
He believed strongly in the quality of the manual and expressed to me on several occasions how
much he appreciated me continuing this effort. Although the sixth and seventh editions were
done by this author, the manual still maintains the strong flavor of Mr. Bernard's work.

Chirold D. Epp

111
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION

I. General Laboratory Instructions 1


II. Significant Figures and Error Analysis 3
m. Graphical Representation of Experimental Data 10
IV. Units 14

PART FOUR--ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

25. Mapping of Electric Fields 185


26. A study of Series and Parallel Electric Circuits 189
27. Methods of Measuring Resistance 197
28. Measurements of Potential Difference with a Potentiometer 205
29. A Study of the Factors Affecting Resistance 211
30. The Heating Effects of an Electric Current 217
31. Circuits Containing More Than One Potential Source 223
32. A Study of Capacitance and Capacitor Transients 229
33. A Study of Magnetic Fields 237
34. Measurement of the Earth's Magnetic Field 245
35. Electromagnetic Induction 251
36. The Oscilloscope 257
37. A Study of Alternating Current Circuits 265

PART FIVE--LIGHT

38. Reflection and Refraction of Light 275


39. The Focal Length of a Concave Mirror 283
40. Properties of Converging and Diverging Lenses 289
41. Optical Instruments Employing Two Lenses 295
42. The Laser 303
43. Index of Refraction with the Prism Spectrometer 309
44. The Wavelength of Light 315
45. A Study of Spectra with the Grating Spectrometer 321
46. Polarized Light 327

PART SIX--NUCLEAR PHYSICS

47. A Study in Scientific Investigation 335


48. The Characteristics of a Geiger-Muller Tube 339

v
49. Statistics of Sample Measurement 347
50. The Geometry of Radioactive Radiation 353
51. Properties of Radioactive Radiation 359
52. Measurement of Radioactive Half Life 365

APPENDIXES

A. Trigonometric Relations 373


B. Tables of Physical Constants 375
C. The Use and Care of Electrical Instruments 381
D. Information Relative to Radioisotopes 385
E. Laser Safety 387

VI
INTRODUCTION
NOTE TO THE INSTRUCTOR: The order of experiments in this manual can be used in any order. In
particular, Experiments 47 and 49 can be done early or late in the student laboratory experience. They are
special experiments designed to teach concepts and methodology as opposed to physical principles. The
experiments are generally designed to use many different kinds of apparatus, however, some instruction
may be necessary, depending on the apparatus available.

I. GENERAL LABORATORY INSTRUCTIONS


The student should read the entire Introduction very carefully since references to it will be made
in many sections of this book.

Laboratory Objectives. The laboratory is a laboratory. The laboratory is a place for serious
workshop for students, the place where they get thought and investigation, and the following
firsthand knowledge of physical principles and suggestions should help you to develop the above-
experimental methods through the handling of mentioned traits.
apparatus designed to demonstrate the meaning
and application of these principles. Some of the a. Be prompt in arriving at your work station and
more specific objectives are (a) to acquire training be well prepared concerning the principles of
in scientific methods of observation and recording the experiment.
of data; (b) to acquire techniques in the handling b. Work quietly and attempt to make the most
and adjustment of equipment; (c) to gain an careful observations possible by adjusting the
understanding of the limitations and strengths of equipment so that it will give its best possible
experimentation; (d) to obtain experience in the perfonnance.
use of graphical representation; and (e) to collect c. Be honest In making and recording
data and to develop confidence in one's ability to observations. Record data as indicated by your
compute reliable answers or to detennine valid equipment and not as you thought they were
relationships. When one develops the skill of supposed to be. Copy no data, conclusions, or
computing answers from experimental data which computations from any source. If your results
check with known values of the desired quantities, seem to be outside the limits predicted by the
he or she acquires the confidence needed to experimental uncertainties, recheck your
perfonn an experiment and detennine some measurements and computations. If this does
quantity or relationship which was previously not not give the answer, make the best possible
known to anyone. explanation for the discrepancy.
d. Have the entire procedure well in mind and
Laboratory Attitudes and Sense of perfonn the various steps in the order that will
Responsibility. Prospective employers and make the best use of your time. Cooperate
placement offices frequently send questionnaires with your partner so that each of you gets
to physics instructors requesting infonnation experience in manipulating the equipment.
concerning the character, attitudes, honesty, and Then, each of you should compute your results
dependability of students. The instructor makes an independently to check on the accuracy of
evaluation of these traits from observations of the your work.
student's perfonnance in class and In the

INTRODUCTION 1
e. Always remain at your assigned station and do paper, straight edge, protractor, hand calculator,
not disturb other people in the class and watch with sweep second hand. You should
concerning any part of the experiment. Do not always have your textbook available for reference.
disturb other equipment that may be in the
room but is not a part of your present Performance of the Experiment. Before
experiment. beginning the experimental work always read the
f. Always abide by any precautions that your entire procedure to get a general idea of what is to
instructor may have given you regarding the be done. You should always arrange and adjust the
proper handling of the equipment. Delicate apparatus to give the best performance possible
equipment may be easily damaged. and then make and record readings as precisely as
the apparatus will permit. Always estimate one
Preparation for the Actual Laboratory Work. significant figure beyond the smallest graduation
The efficiency of performance in the laboratory on the instrument being read.
depends largely on the preparation made before Data should never be recorded on scrap
the experimental work begins. The entire paper and then transferred to your record form. If,
experiment should be read before any after you have recorded a reading, you decide that
measurements are made. It is also advisable for the it is in error and should be discarded, mark
student t9 review sections in the class textbook through it and record the corrected reading below
that deal with the principles under investigation. it. Always record the proper unit beside the
Laboratory experiments are usually number or at the heading of a column when a
intended as a discovery time for the students so whole column of readings use the same unit.
they should not be concerned if they do not know Do not hesitate to discuss any details of
the expected results before beginning. The the experiment with the laboratory instructor
instructor will discuss any required special during the laboratory· period. You may want to
instructions needed for the apparatus being used, question certain procedures or suggest
including precautions and perhaps some special improvements in the method. A good question
techniques which should be used to get the best may be more important than a good answer.
results. The instructor may also choose to discuss
the underlying theory at the start of the laboratory Report of Experimental Work. The form of the
period and/or discuss the results at the end of the report required will be designated by the instructor
laboratory period. The details of how to perform in the course. In any case, the original data should
the experiment can be found in the "Procedure" be presented in neat form, such as that suggested
section of each experiment. at the end of each experiment in this manual. The
data should be followed by sample calculations
Checking out Apparatus. A list of apparatus is showing the method of obtaining the results. If the
given with each experiment, and some apparatus experiment requires several computations of the
may need to be checked out of the storeroom by same type, only one of each type need be shown in
the student. Students are responsible the care of the report.
their apparatus. Check each item of equipment, Each experiment has a stated "purpose."
and make sure that you have all articles required Use this as a guide to your investigations. Your
and that all are in good condition. Report any report should include a separate section in which
irregularities to the instructor or assistant at once. you clearly and concisely state your results and
After completion of the laboratory work, the conclusions. This section should respond to the
equipment should be returned to its original question: ''To what extent was the experiment's
configuration. Police the laboratory and leave it purpose accomplished?" This discussion should
neat and clean. stick to the facts, and all conclusions should be
supported by reference to your data and
Materials Supplied by the Student. Students are observations. Avoid idle, unsupported speculation.
usually expected to supply items such as graph

INTRODUCTION 2
Many of the questions at the end of each 1. General laboratory performance including:
experiment are intended to stimulate thought and a. Conduct in the laboratory.
to guide the student in drawing conclusions b. Care and technique in operating the
concerning the results. These questions are to be equipment.
answered in discussion style, and the answers so c. Ability to grasp the fundamental principles
worded that the reader can ascertain the question demonstrated.
from the answer. The sheet containing the
questions may be removed from the manual if the 2. Presentation of experimental results including:
instructor prefers that both questions and answers a. Neatness and orderly arrangement of
be a part of the report. recorded data and computations.
b. Interpretation of experimental data and
Proficiency in the Laboratory. The factors that conclusions drawn from it.
will be used to measure your proficiency in the c. Answers to the assigned questions.
laboratory fall into two general categories as d. Answers to quiz questions if given.
defined below.

II. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND ERROR


ANAL YSIS
NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: For students qoing experimental work in physics for the first time,
Sections n and III of the Introduction can provide a worthwhile introductory laboratory (or class)
exercise. A discussion by the instructor, coupled with student participation and examples, may be
used to jump start the students in the techniques and importance of significant figures and error
analysis. The level of error analysis varies in the experiments, giving opportunity for the students
to apply some of the concepts without taking up the majority of their time. The instructor can add
more if desired or eliminate some if desired.

A. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES exactly 20 cm, it should have been recorded as


20.00 cm, since lengths can be estimated by means
The digits required to express a number to of this instrument to about 0.01 cm. When the
the same accuracy as the measurement it measurement is written as 20 cm it indicates that
represents are known as significant figures. If the the value is known to be somewhere between 19
length of a cylinder is measured as 20.64 cm, this and 20 cm, whereas the value is actually known to
quantity is said to be measured to four significant be between 19.99 and 20.01 cm.
figures. If written as 0.0002064 km, it still has It is usually a simple matter to determine
only four significant figures. The zeros preceding the number of significant figures that should be
the 2 are used only to indicate the position of the recorded from a measurement, but difficulties can
decimal point. The zero between the 2 and 6 is a arise when these numbers are used in calculations.
significant figure, but the other zeros are not. If Calculations can produce a large number of figures
the above measurement is made with a meter stick, which look significant but really are not. In this
the last digit recorded is an estimated figure age of electronic calculators and computers people
representing a fractional part of a millimeter have a tendency to enter all figures and go through
division. All recorded data should include the last with their computatioos, recording their final
estimated figure in the result, even though it may results with all the figures they see on their
be zero. If this measurement had appeared to be display. Doing the calculation this way will not

INTRODUCTION 3
cause an error; however, recording all the figures accurate number entering into a calculation. In
in the final result gives a physically meaningless arriving at this result the student should always
answer. No mathematical computation can give a carry one extra decimal place for intermediate
result whose accuracy is greater than that of the calculations.
quantities used.
As a general rule it is better to carry too B. ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
many figures than not enough. Suppose we desire
to find the sum of the three numbers shown in the No measurement is absolutely accurate or
first column in the following example: exact. Human and instrumental limitations cause
unavoidable deviations from the "true" values of
81.572 82 the quantities we are measuring. The deviation of
1024.7 1025 the value of a particular measurement from its
710 _71_0 "true" value 1S called the error in that
1816.272 1817 measurement. While we cannot know the error in
individual measurements, we can, by taking
Since 710 is only known to the nearest enough repeated measurements, obtain enough
units one might argue that all quantities could be information to make good estimates of the average
written to the nearest units place before adding as size of these errors in the data. We can also use
shown in the second column at the right. This says this information to predict the expected size of
that the answer is between 1816 and 1818, while in errors in results.
fact the answer is 1816, which is between 1815 A measurement or experimental result is
and 1817. This round-off technique failed to take of little value if nothing is known about the
into account the fact that the sum of the first two probable size of its error. We know nothing about
numbers is known to be closer to 1106 than to the reliability of a result unless we know
1107. something about the probable errors which were
In addition· or subtraction of experimental used to obtain that result.
data it is a simple matter to determine what figures There are many types of errors which
to carry and how many figures must be retained in affect measured quantities, and there are several
the final result. Thefinal result should contain the ways to classify them. The most general
same accuracy as the least accurate quantity used classification is determinate (or systematic) errors
in the calculation. Numbers used 1D the and indeterminate (also called chance or random)
calculation need only retain one more figure than errors.
the least accurate number. Indeterminate errors are present in all
In multiplication, division, and other experimental measurements. The name
mathematical operations with experimental data, "indeterminate" indicates that we have no way to
things are not so obvious. These computations determine the size or sign of the error in any
may involve unrelated quantities (length, time, individual measurement. Indeterminate errors
mass, volume, etc.). It is still true that the show up as variability in the size of a particular
accuracy of the final result cannot be more measurement when that measurement is repeated
accurate than the least accurate measurement: many times (assuming all other conditions are held
however, it is not so clear what the accuracy of the constant to the best of the experimenter's ability).
final result means in this case, because the units These types of errors may have many causes,
may be different from those entering into the including operator errors or biases, fluctuating
computation. To fully explain how to make experimental conditions, varying environmental
correct computations with experimental data conditions, and inherent variability of measuring
requires a discussion on error analysis(see below). instruments.
The basic rule to be remembered when doing The effect of indeterminate errors can be
calculations with data is: The final result should minimized by taking a number of repeated
contain the same decimal accuracy as the least measurements and then taking their average. The

INTRODUCTION 4
average is generally "better" than any single also be worn by use to such an extent that precise
measurement. This is because errors of positive settings cannot be made. One must also choose an
and negative sign tend to compensate each other. instrument which IS calibrated to give the
Determinate errors can be more serious precIsion required m the measurement. For
because their effects cannot be reduced by example, an ordinary meter stick would not be
averaging repeated measurements. This is because appropriate for measuring the diameter of a small
the determinate error has the same size and sign in wire, which may be no larger than the smallest
repeated measurements, so there is no opportunity division on the stick.
for positive and negative errors to compensate
each other. Causes of determinate errors include Errors Inherent in Reading the Scale. A
defective or miscalibrated apparatus, a constant student's personal bias is often responsible for
bias in observation or procedure, or even blunders inaccurate results. When a series of trials are to be
such as failure to include a correction term. Every made for a certain measurement, students very
effort should be made to minimize these errors, often assume the first trial to be about correct and
including careful calibration of the apparatus and attempt to make all the others agree with it, thus
use of the best possible measurement techniques. giving more significance to the first reading than
One additional note. The term uncertainty to any of the succeeding ones. Other personal
IS frequently used when talking about errors are introduced because of insufficient care
measurement errors. As used in this manual the being used in adjusting instruments, inaccurate
terms uncertainty and error are synonymous. estimations of fractional divisions, and parallax.
The words precision and accuracy are The apparent distance between two objects
frequently used when discussing measurement will depend on the position of the eye. Two
errors and it IS important that the student objects may appear to be in line when viewed with
understand what they mean. A measurement with one eye but out of line when viewed with the other
relatively small indeterminate error is said to have eye or when the head is moved to one side. This
high precision. A measurement which has small apparent change in position due to sidewise
determinate error is said to have high accuracy. A motion of the eye is called parallax.
measurement which has both high precision and
high accuracy is sometimes called highly reliable.
These words can be tricky. A precise measurement
may be inaccurate if it has a determinate error. An
accurate measurement may be imprecise if its
random error is large.
It is most important for students to learn
how to estimate the experimental errors and to see
how these errors affect the reliability of the final
result. Entire books have been written on this
subject. The following discussion is designed to
make the student aware of some common errors
and some simple ways to quantify them.

Errors in the Calibration of the Instruments.


These errors may result from an instrument being
used under conditions different from those for
which the calibration was made. A measuring tape,
calibrated to be used at 20°C, will not give correct
values for measurements made at 30°C. Some very
delicate instruments must have the calibration
checked at periodic intervals. Instruments may
III. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF
EXPERIMENTAL DATA

From an examination of the tabulated values of a be needed. In such cases, the origin should be
number of measurements of related quantities, it is shifted to the lower left-hand corner of the sheet of
often difficult to grasp the relationship existing graph paper. When possible, draw the axes inside
between the numbers. A method widely used to the margins of the graph paper. Always allow
discover such relationships is the graphical enough space in which to write the scale and the
method, which gives a pictorial view of the results. names of the variables being plotted (Figure 1-2).
Visual results provide very valuable information In general, the curve should fill most of the sheet.
about the dependencies of measured and
calculated quantities. Choice of Scale. Note the range of values of the
independent variable (X quantity), and the number
Independent and Dependent Variables. In any of spaces along the X axis. Choose a scale for the
experimental study of cause and effect the aim is main divisions on the graph paper that are easily
to vary one condition at a time (the cause) and to subdivided and such that the entire range of values
observe the corresponding values of another may be included. Subdivisions such as 1,2,5, and
quantity (the effect) which is suspected of being 10 are best, but 4 is sometimes used; never use 3,
related to the first. This existing relationship is 7, or 9, because these make it very difficult to read
most easily interpreted from the graph if the first values from the graph. The same procedure should
of these quantities, the independent variable be used for the ordinate scale, but the divisions on
(cause), is plotted on the abscissa scale (X axis) the ordinate and abscissa scales need not be alike.
and the dependent variable (effect) is plotted on In many cases it is not necessary that the
the ordinate scale (Y axis). Very often the values intersection of the two axes represent the zero
to be plotted are all positive and only the first values of both variables. If the values to be plotted
quadrant of a rectangular coordinate system will
INTRODUCTION 10
PART FOUR
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
PROCEDURE

If using the galvanometer system, follow Steps 1 the instructor. (If earphones are used as a detector,
through 6 and Steps 10 through 13. If using the then no sound indicates zero potential difference.)
voltmeter system, follow Steps 1, 2 and Steps 7 5. With the switch closed and the movable probe
through 13. at a safe position, move it until the galvanometer
Your instructors will provide you with one shows zero deflection, thus indicating that the two
or more sheets, each with an electrode points located in the electric field are at the same
configuration on it, or they will provide material potential. Now locate a series of other points with
and instruction on how to create your own this same potential until you have some eight or
electrode configuration. Your principal data sheet ten points reaching across the general region of the
for this experiment will be your mapped electric field. If a smooth curve is drawn through these
field. Provide an additional organized sheet points, what could you say about other points on
containing recorded information and the answers this curve?
to assigned questions. 6. Choose a new location for your reference probe,
say 1 to 2 cm from the previous position, and
1. Carefully place the sheet on the board with the locate another series of equipotential points.
contact terminals firmly on the painted outlet from Continue this process until you have mapped the
the electrode. Then connect the battery of power entire electric field region. Continue with Step 11.
supply to the terminals, leaving the switch open ••••••••••••••••
until you are ready to operate the equipment. 7. Connect the fixed end of the voltmeter to one of
2. You will note a cross-section arrangement on the terminals. (The voltmeter polarity connected to
the sheet which will aid you in locating the this lead should be the same as that of the power
coordinates of the probe positions. Arrange a sheet source connected to the electrode.) Be sure all
of graph paper with the electrodC?configuration in contacts are clean and a good connection is made.
the proper position on. a coordinate system that Touch the free probe to the other electrode and
will correspond with the one surrounding the adjust the range of your voltmeter to some
electric field to be mapped. As the points are convenient value close to the full range of the
located their position can be plotted on the graph meter. Record this value. Now touch the free
paper. probe to the same electrode to which the fixed lead
•••••••••••••••• is connected, and record the voltage. If this value
3. Place the stationary probe on the sheet some is greater than 1 percent of your previous reading
place in the general region between the electrodes, across the electrodes, you should check your
preferably near the edge of the paper. The connections.
potential at this point will serve as your reference 8. Pick a point between the electrodes on the
potential in the location of a series of other points conducting sheet to start your mapping and mark it
with the same potential. with a + using a soft lead pencil. Touch the free
4. The galvanometer is a very delicate instrument probe to this point and record the voltmeter
and is easily damaged unless the current is limited reading. Move the probe around the sheet and
to very small values. The amount of current sent locate a series of points which provide the same
through it will be proportional to the difference in voltmeter reading. Mark these points and then
potential of the two probes as they make contact connect them with a smooth line. This line defines
with the sheet. Since we are now ready to begin, an equipotentialline.
where, with respect to the stationary probe, should 9. Repeat Step 8 for another equipotential line.
the movable probe be placed so as to protect the The new starting point should be between 1 and 2
galvanometer? If you have any doubts check with cm from the previous line. Continue this process
until the entire conducting sheet is mapped.

EXPERIMENT 25 187
INTRODUCTION

Electricity is a major part of our everyday dc circuit consisting of resistors. A resistor is


lives which is usually taken for granted. We don't really an electrical conductor which offers a
usually realize how dependent we are on electrical resistance to the flow of electrical charge, or
energy until we have a power outage. Like any energy is required to force the charge through it.
other commercial technology it can be understood This resistance is measured in ohms and depends
if one starts with some basic concepts which is the entirely on the physical characteristics of the
purpose of this experiment. material (composition, temperature, etc.) and will
Electricity is the flow of electrical charges be investigated in a later experiment.
between two points. Most of our everyday The current in a conductor is designated as
applications involves the flow of electrical charges the quantity of charge passing a point per unit
through a closed loop of electrical elements called time. The usual unit of current is the ampere (A)
a circuit. Electrical energy sources exist which can and, although it is defined by other relations, a
provide charge flow continuously in a given current of one ampere exists in a wire . if
direction through a circuit (direct current or dc) or approximately 6.21 x 1018 electrons flow through
charge flow which surges back and forth a given cross section of wire in one second. The
alternating directions at a well defined frequency quantity of charge carried by this number of
(alternating current or ac). The simplest circuit, electrons is called one coulomb (C); therefore, one
and best place to begin the study of electricity, is a ampere of current is equal to a flow of charge of

EXPERIMENT 26 189
EXPERIMENT 33
A STUDY OF MAGNETIC FIELDS
NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: This experiment may be to long for some students to complete in a
laboratory period unless they move along at a steady pace. Using two laboratory periods or omitting
selected procedures will ease this pace.

APP ARA TUS: Two small compasses, meter stick, bar magnet, horseshoe magnet, several sheets of
paper, dip needle, large compass, protractor, iron filings, reversing switch, tap key, small copper wire
(about 2 m long), iron rod, mounted conductor (see Figure 33-4), boards and cardboard for placing over
magnets, source of direct current (about 6 V), rheostat (about 6 ohms).

THE PURPOSE OF THIS EXPERIMENT is to investigate the nature of magnetic fields produced by
permanent magnets and electric currents.

THE METHODOLOGY OF THIS EXPERIMENT will consist of using magnetic compasses and iron
filings to map the magnetic fields about various magnet configurations. This technique will also be used
to map the magnetic fields around various configurations of current carrying conductors

INTRODUCTION
direction of the field at all points along which it
Magnetic fields can be produced in two ways. One
moved. A line which one might draw on a piece of
is by the presence of permanent magnets and the
paper, or an imaginary line drawn through space,
other is by the presence of moving charged
which indicates the direction of a magnetic field at
particles. Permanent magnets are ferromagnetic
every point, is called a line of force. The number
materials which show strong magnetic effects and
of such lines that might be drawn in a particular
are capable of maintaining their magnetism under
region is purely arbitrary, but a series of such lines
normal conditions. The most common magnetic
spread over the region in question will reveal the
fields are those produced by electric currents in
general nature of the magnetic field of the region.
conductors which are caused by moving electric
The relative spacing of the lines of force at
charges. Modern theories of magnetism have
different points indicate the relative intensity of
moving electric charges as the origin of all
magnetic fields. Thus, magnetism in matter is the magnetic field at these points.
The magnetic field of the earth is always
produced by atomic charges moving around in the
present and must be reckoned with in the analysis
atoms of the material.
A compass needle serves as a suitable of any other field. When more than one magnetic
field exists in a particular region, the individual
detector of the presence of a magnetic field and is
magnetic fields are superimposed upon each other
capable of indicating direction. We shall define the
and a compass needle placed in the region will
direction of a magnetic field at any point as the
indicate the direction resulting from the interaction
direction in which the north pole of a compass
of the fields. Since a magnetic field has both
needle points when placed at the point in question.
If one should move a small compass from magnitude and direction the resulting field
intensity at each point in the field is the vector sum
point to point, by letting the north pole of the
of the components at that point.
needle dictate the direction to be moved, the path
resulting from the motion would reveal the

EXPERIMENT 33 237
direction of the magnetic field intensity at a 5. If you had used a stronger magnet in Step 8,
neutral point? what effect would it have had on the position of
3. Suppose a bar magnet is brought near a the neutral point?
magnetic needle in a way that does not disturb the 6. Explain why a dip needle points down rather
latter's position in the magnetic meridian. What than horizontal as does a compass needle. Why
can be said concerning the direction of the field does a compass needle not indicate a dip angle?
due to the magnet? If you are not sure of the 7. Does the dip needle give any indication of the
answer, try it out. relative magnitudes of the horizontal and vertical
4. If the position of the magnet in Step 8 were components of the earth's magnetic field in your
reversed, would neutral points still exist at any locality? Explain, using vectors.
place in the area around the magnet? If so, where?
and the associated magnetic fields to the relative Now, without changing the current or the
positions of the thumb and fingers of either of positions of the wires, investigate the intensity of
your hands? When you are able to make this the field directly above the upper wire and below
association, use it to record a summary statement the lower wire and record your observations.
of your findings thus far. Analyze your setup and see if you can account for
4. The Extent of the Field. Replace the coil, R, the results.
with a rheostat (5 or 6 ohm range) in the circuit of Next arrange the two wires so that the
Figure 33-4, and adjust for as high a current as currents are in the same direction and repeat the
possible without heating the rheostat significantly. above procedure.
You will use the rheostat for the remainder of the 7. Effect of Loops. This test can best be made
experiment. with 1.5 to 2 m of small-size wire and a large
Now suppose we investigate the extent of compass with a calibrated circular scale. With the
the magnetic field in the general region of the compass directly under one strand of wire, align
vertical wire. Starting with the compass against the the wire with the compass needle with no current
wire, move it slowly away from the wire in a in the wire. Then close the switch and adjust the
horizontal plane in a direction north of the wire rheostat until the deflection is about 20°. Now
and note the action of the compass. Repeat by make one loop around the compass by folding the
moving in each of the other three geographic wire back underneath and note the deflection. Next
directions. In each case move away from the wire go to two loops, then three, and so on until you
until the compass seems to not be influenced by have a quite large deflection.
the current, and record the distance from the wire. 8. Magnetic Properties of a Solenoid. With one
These points may best be determined by opening section of your wire, make a solenoid (or helix) of
and closing the switch and noting the action of the 20 or more turns by winding the wire around your
compass needle. pencil. Remove the pencil and, with the helix
Reduce the current to about one-fourth (by replacing the platform in the circuit of Figure 33-
increasing the resistance about fourfold), repeat 4, arrange the solenoid (helix) in a direction at
the above procedure, and record your right angles to a compass needle (Figure 33-5).
observations. For all measurements which follow, it is necessary
5. Conductor Horizontal. Adjust the orientation to use a long wire in the battery section of the
of the current frame so that, with no current, the circuit to remove the rheostat to a considerable
horizontal portion of the conductor (or wire) is distance from the compass.
parallel to the compass needle. Now investigate
the direction of the magnetic field, both above and
below the horizontal wire. While holding the
compass still, in a specific position, increase and
decrease the current, by means of the rheostat, and
make note of your observations.
6. Magnetic Field in the Region of Two Parallel
Wires. Remove the platform frame from your
circuit and connect the two wires together with a
connector clip. Arrange them, one above the other, Close the switch and adjust the rheostat
along the table top in a north-south direction such until a small deflection is obtained. The size of the
that, with no current, they are parallel to a deflection can also be controlled by changing the
compass needle placed between them. Then with distance between the compass and the solenoid.
the current in opposite directions in the two wires, Reverse the current and note the effect for both
adjust the rheostat until the compass shows a large directions of the current. Now insert a large soft
deflection, and record the approximate angle and iron nail in the solenoid and make note of the
direction of the compass deflection. effect. Do you note any similarities between the
solenoid and a bar magnet?

EXPERIMENT 33 241
the relation of the current around a solenoid and
Now trace the current through the
the polarity of the ends such that you could predict
reversing switch, then through the solenoid as you
the polarity for any solenoid carrying a current.
note the polarity of the ends of the solenoid for
Write the rule as part of your report, along with a
both directions of current. See if you can
formulate a rule, using your thumb and fingers, for drawing to indicate your prediction.

QUESTIONS-PROCEDURE B
wire depend upon the amount of current? Also
1. With no current in a vertically oriented wire, did
check with the current reversed. Explain fully.
your compass indicate that it was influenced by a
5. Suppose two insulated parallel wires, carrying
magnetic field? Explain the reason for the action
equal currents in opposite directions and aligned
of the compass.
with the magnetic meridian, are placed against
2. From observation of the pattern of iron filings
each other and laid directly over a compass. What
around the vertical wire, what relation seems to
exist between the wire and the pattern of iron results would you expect? Explain.
6. As you increased the number of loops around
filings? Did all positions of the compass needle
the compass, what was the result? Does the
show this same relation? If not, explain.
magnetic field change direction inside a loop as
3. In attempting to determine the extent of the
the number of turns is increased? Does it change in
magnetic field about a vertical wire, did you find
magnitude? Explain both aspects of the effect
the distance to be the same in all directions?
Explain. Theoretically, how far do you think the (magnitude and direction).
7. With loops of wire around a compass, can you
field should extend? Why does your compass not
determine when the magnetic field due to the
indicate this?
loops is equal to the horizontal component of the
4. As you examined the magnetic field about a
earth's field? If so, explain how you would know.
single horizontal conductor, did the direction of
8. What was the effect of putting a soft iron nail
the field with respect to the wire correspond to
inside the solenoid while near the compass? Give a
your findings with a vertically arranged wire? Did
the compass needle deflection show the same possible explanation for the effect produced.
9. What advantage has the electromagnet over the
direction for all values of the current? If not, does
the direction of the field due to the current in the permanent magnet? What disadvantage?

EXPERIMENT 33 242
3. With the potential divider adjusted for the current in the solenoid. These currents may be
minimum output voltage, close the reversing considered as negative.
switch and then note the action of the suspended 8. Now let us determine if our experimental data
magnet as the potential applied to the solenoid is confirms the predictions of the theory by plotting
slowly increased. If the field of the solenoid is in Iff2 on the Y axis and the current on the X axis.
the same direction as that of the earth's horizontal Does it show a straight line as predicted by
component, the resultant field will be the direct Equation [5]? If so, extrapolate to the X axis and
sum of the two and the alignment of the magnet determine the intercept value on the current scale
will not be disturbed. Reverse the current and note used. If you performed Step 7 with negative
the effect on the magnet. currents, plot these data also. Record the intercept
4. Wifu the current in the direction for stable 10'
alignment, adjust the potential divider until the 9. Measure and record the length of the solenoid L
current in the solenoid circuit is 20 mA (If the and count the number of turns on the top layer; if
magnet, solenoid, and ammeter at your disposal the solenoid has more than one layer of wire, ask
suggest different values for the current, the or check the manufacturer's
the instructor
instructor will designate a different range of specifications for the number of layers. With this
current values to be used. The field will be more information and the value of the intercept iO'
uniform for currents below 200 mA). The
compute the magnitude of Be from Equation [6]
suspended magnet may be set into oscillation by
disturbing its alignment with a larger bar magnet and compare with the value from a handbook for
as it is brought up near the outside of the solenoid your local geographic region. Look under the
and then quickly removed. heading Horizontal Intensity of the Earth's Field.
S. As the magnet oscillates, determine its period From the range of values given for your state, you
by taking the time for about 100 vibrations. Make may have to estimate for your location within the
at least three trials of this measurement and record state. If a conversion of units is needed, use the
the information along with the current in the conversion factor: 1 Wb/m2 (or 1 tesla) =
104
solenoid. gauss. Record both values and find the percent
6. Repeat this procedure for other values of the discrepancy.
current, say steps of 10-20 mA, until you have 10. With no current in the solenoid, set the magnet
five or more sets of values. into vibration and determine its period, and record
7. If your magnet is small enough to reverse along with your other data. Would you expect this
direction inside the solenoid, repeat the above period to bear any relation to the graph you have
steps for some four or five values of a reversed plotted? Examine the Y intercept.

QUESTIONS

1. Look at the individual values determined for the 3. Does Equation [5] predict the same slope and
period of the magnet for a given current and intercept for equal magnitudes of negative and
compare them with their average. What sort of positive currents? Discuss this point and relate it to
accuracy does this indicate? your results.
2. Examine the trend of points along the line 4. As the current increased, what change did you
drawn on the graph. What does it indicate about observe in the period of the magnet? Is this effect
the accuracy of your data? Do you notice any predicted by the theory? If so, explain how the
correlation between the size of the period and the prediction is indicated.
uncertainty of its measurement? Explain in terms S. If, when the current is reversed in the solenoid,
of your data. the magnet tends to reverse direction, what does
this action indicate about the magnitude of the

EXPERIMENT 34 247
magnetic field Bs in the solenoid? If, for some plotted? How is this period related to Be?
Compute T from the Y intercept and compare with
given current, the magnet does not tend to reverse,
how would its period likely compare with that for measured value from Step 10.
the same current in the direct (or positive) 7. Now that you know the value of the horizontal
component of the earth's field in your locale,
direction? Why?
6. When you measured the period of the magnet explain how you could use a vibrating magnet to
with no current in the solenoid, what relation did determine the field intensity of some unknown
this value of the period bear to the graph you had magnetic field not associated with a solenoid.

EXPERIMENT 34 248
EXPERIMENT 35
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
APPARATUS: Table galvanometer, ammeter (0-2A), coil system consisting of primary and secondary
coils, bar magnet, brass rod, iron rod, high resistance (20,000 ohms), rheostat, switch (tap key type),
bundle of connecting wires, source of low-voltage dc current.

THE PURPOSE OF THIS EXPERIMENT is to study some of the phenomena of electromagnetic


induction and to determine the relation between induced current and magnetic flux change.

THE METHODOLOGY OF TmS EXPERIMENT will use a galvanometer to detect currents induced
in various conductor configurations by changing magnetic fields. The changing magnetic fields will be
produced by moving magnets, moving current carrying conductors, or varying currents in conductor
configurations.

INTRODUCTION

When magnetic lines of force thread through a coil


as shown in Figure 35-1, we say that there is a
magnetic flux linkage through the coil. The arrows
indicate the directions of the current and the
direction of the resulting flux lines. When the flux
linking a coil of wire changes, because of either a
change in the current in the coil or some outside
influence, a potential difference appears between
the ends of the coil. We call this potential presence of the emf produces an induced current
difference an emf for electromotive force. The flux which can be detected by a galvanometer. The
linking the coil could come from an external galvanometer may not be calibrated to give the
permanent magnet, the earth, or a nearby coil exact amount of current but it will indicate the
carrying an electric current. direction and the relative magnitude. The zero
In order to detect the presence of an current position on the scale is usually in the
induced emf, it is generally necessary that the center, and the scale is calibrated to indicate
change of flux take place within a coil which is a deflections in either direction from the zero
part of a closed electrical circuit. In this case, the reading.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS

One form of a primary-secondary coil set for this turns of small wire and has terminals at C and D.
type of experiment is shown in Figure 35-2. The The primary coil can be moved back and forth
primary, with a relatively small number of turns of inside the secondary and can accommodate a small
large wire, has terminals at A and B. The rod inside its core. The windings may be covered
secondary is wound on a hollow tube with many with a nonconducting material for protection.

EXPERIMENT 35 251
minimum deflection, and illustrate the relative current in steps of 0.2 A up to 1.0 A and record the
directions of the flux linkages. deflections (switch closed and open) for each 0.2
7. Place the coils, with the iron rod in the cores, A increment of the current. Also note the direction
back in the position shown in Figure 35-5 and of current in the secondary coil (same as, or
insert an ammeter in the circuit of the primary opposite to) with respect to current in the primary.
coil. Adjust the rheostat for a current of 0.2 A and Examine the current-deflection relations and make
note the galvanometer deflection for a make and a statement of your findings. If time permits, the
break of the primary circuit. If the deflection is relations can best be shown by plotting a graph
more than one-fifth of the maximum scale reading, with deflection as a function of the current.
partially withdraw the iron rod. Increase the

QUESTIONS

1. From your experimental results, what things in the primary to produce the same or different
seem to influence the magnitude (or amount) of directions of induced current? How did the
the induced current? What observations indicate magnitudes compare? What change does the flux
these? of the primary undergo in each case?
2. When using the bar magnet, what things 7. What is the effect of a brass (or aluminum) core
affected the direction of the induced current? on the flux linkage in a coil? What is the effect of
3. Did you decide whether a magnetic force an iron core? Can you give an explanation for the
resulted from the motion of the magnet? If so, difference.
write a statement which relates the direction 8. In Step 6 you were to find the relative positions
(attraction or repulsion) of the force to the of the coils for minimum deflection. Use the flux
direction of the induced current. linkage concept to explain the reason for this
4. As you moved the coils (with current in the minimum.
primary) relative to each other, when was the 9. What effect did increasing the current in the
induced current in the same direction as the primary have on the amount of induced current?
primary, and when in the opposite direction? Did Explain.
you observe any relation between these results and 10. Is there any induced current in the secondary
those with the moving bar magnet? If so, what? after the current in the primary has reached a
5. When two coils (one carrying a current) steady value? Explain.
undergo relative motion with respect to each other, 11. If you do not already know Lenz's law, look it
which one do you move to get the most induced up in your text, and then cite some part of your
current in the secondary? Explain. experimental observations which verifies the law.
6. Did you find the "make" and "break" of current Explain how.

EXPERIMENT 35 254
EXPERIMENT 36
THE OSCILLOSCOPE
APPARATUS: Oscilloscope, function generator, step-down transformer* (120 V to between 6 and 12
V), resistance box (0 to 20,000 ohms), diodes (4), capacitor (1 to 15 fJF), bundle of connecting wires
(with clip leads or some system for connecting components).

* Be sure that the low-voltage side of the transformer is isolated from the high-voltage side.
Many variable transformers are voltage dividers and do not give isolation, which could make
possible 120 Volts to ground even though the terminals have a voltage of 6 V. Inexpensive
transformers are available at electronic supply stores.

THE PURPOSE OF THIS EXPERIMENT is to familiarize the student with the oscilloscope and the
basic types of measurements that can be made with it.

THE METHODOLOGY OF THIS EXPERIMENT will consist of using a function generator to make
some initial measurements on an oscilloscope. The oscilloscope will then be used to make measurements
on several simple ac circuits including circuits containing resistance, capacitance, and diodes.

INTRODUCTION

One of the more versatile laboratory measuring beam of constant velocity electrons traveling down
tools is the cathode ray oscilloscope, frequently the center of the CRT.
just called an oscilloscope. The display part of an The key to the versatility of the CRT is
oscilloscope is the cathode ray tube (CRT), the two sets of electron deflection plates which deflect
general construction of which is shown in Figure the electron beam in the vertical and horizontal
36-1. The electron gun consists of a number of directions as a function of the voltage applied to
components including a source of electrons, high- each set of plates. By selecting the appropriate
voltage accelerating electrodes, and electron applied voltages to these plates it is possible to
focusing devices. The basic purpose of the deflect the beam so that it strikes any point of the
electron gun is to produce a very well defined screen. In practice the applied voltage on the
plates is usually varied as a function of time
causing the beam to sweep in some pattern across
the screen. The most common technique is to
cyclically apply a linearly increasing voltage to the
horizontal plates causing the beam to sweep from
left to right across the screen. Without any vertical
signal this appears as a continuous line across the
screen, because of the slow decay of the
fluorescent screen and the persistence of vision of
the human eye. When a signal is applied to the
vertical plates the beam will be deflected vertically
as it sweeps left to right causing a wave pattern to
form (Figure 36-2).

Focus: Controls how sharp the spot or trace is


on the screen.
Horizontal Plate Controls
Horizontal Position: Controls the center
position of the beam in the horizontal direction.
Horizontal (Sweep) Selector: This control
allows the operator to control the horizontal sweep
rate to one of several ranges from the internal
Figure 36-2 Sine Wave sweep generator. The internal sweep rates are
usually given in seconds per division. Thus, if the
'!he oscilloscope (Figure 36-3) is a very setting is 2 ~e~ the signal t~es 2 msec to sweep
popular Instrument and many different types exist. across one dIvIsIon on the honzontal axis.
There are generally three distinct sets of controls Associated with this control there may be
on any oscilloscope. One set controls the electron others such as horizontal gain and sweep vernier.
gun, one set controls the internal and external The horizontal gain determines the amplitude of
inputs to the horizontal plates, and one set controls the horizontal sweep and the sweep vernier
the external inputs to the vertical deflection plates. permits fine control of the internal sweep
The following discussion will include only the generator. Additional controls may allow the
basic controls in each set. All oscilloscopes will operator to select 60-Hz line sweep triggering or
contain the controls discussed below; however, the external signal sweep frequencies.
labels on the controls may be different and some
addi~ional c~ntrols may be present to operate Vertical, Plate C:0,ntrols
specIal functIOns or to perform the usual functions VertIcal PosItIOn:Controls the center position
more precisely. of the beam in the vertical direction.
Vertical Input: Other names for this control
Electron Gun Controls include attenuator and volts per division. This
Power: Turns the power to the oscilloscope on con~rol selects .the vertical sensitivity of the
or off. May be combined with another control. oscllloscope. It IS used to determine the vertical
Intensity: Controls the brightness of the spot b~am deflection as a function of the vertical input
or trace on the screen. This brightness should be sIgnal. Thus for a setting of a 1 V/div, a 5-V input
kept low to increase the life of the CRT. would deflect the beam five vertical divisions.

EXPERIMENT 36 258
Perhaps the simplest measurement one can
make with an oscilloscope is ac or dc voltage. The
oscilloscope becomes a high-resistance voltmeter
simply by calibrating the vertical deflections to
some known volts per division of deflection and
then connecting the unknown voltage to the
vertical (Y) input. The voltage is then easily
determined by reading the deflection on the CRT.
Note that the oscilloscope measures instantaneous
voltage. Thus, the maximum voltage is from zero
to a peak or peak-to-peak divided by 2.
The frequency of an ac source can be
determined by calibrating the horizontal sweep
rate and then connecting the unknown source to
the Y input. The periodic sweep of the beam
causes the input pattern to retrace itself and the
pattern appears to stand still (see Figure 3~3). By
determining the number of X divisions required
for one complete cycle of the waveform, the
period is easily determined. The sine wave in
Figure 3~3covers two divisions for one complete
cycle. If the sweep rate were 2 msec per division,
the period would be 4 msec; so the frequency
would be 250 Hz. The frequency is the reciprocal
of the period.

The relative phase between two ac signals


having the same frequency can also be measured
with an oscilloscope using a Lissajous pattern. If
one signal is input to the horizontal plates and the
other to the vertical plates, a pattern similar to
Figure 3~ will appear on the screen. If the
horizontal and vertical amplifiers are adjusted so
that the amplitudes of the two signals are the same,
PART FIVE
LIGHT
Mark the positions of all pins and, keeping the the relative motion between them increases or
object pin in place, remove the other pins from the decreases. Continue to adjust their positions until
paper. the apparent relative motion, or parallax, is zero.
Now move your eye to other positions (on What are their relative positions then?
the opposite side of the object pin would be best), 6. Place the mirror on the line MZ as before and
and repeat the above procedure to establish the adjust the height of the mirror on the block so that
direction of a second reflected ray. Again align the none of the block extends above the mirror. Stand
images of these two pins with the object pin and a pencil (it should be taller than the mirror) at the
set a fourth pin at some point F to establish the former object position, 0, and look at its image in
direction of the incident ray. the mirror. Now hold a second pencil behind the
3. Remove the mirror and draw lines along the mirror so that the part visible above the mirror
incident path and reflected path for each of the two appears to be an extension of the image of the
arrangements in the preceding setup. While your object pencil. Then move your head from side to
eye was behind points A and B, respectively, the side and adjust the position of the pencil behind
reflected rays appeared to come from some point the mirror until parallax between it and the image
behind the mirror, the image of the object O. Since is eliminated. Where, in general, with respect to
both reflected rays, CA and DB, appeared to come this reflecting face of the mirror, does this
from the same point, this image point would be at observation locate the image of the object pencil?
the point of intersection of these lines. You can Now look behind the mirror and compare the
locate the point by extending these two lines position of the second pencil with the point of
(dotted lines) behind the mirror until they intersection of the dotted lines constructed in Step
intersect. By means of arrows on the lines, indicate 3.
the directions of the rays, draw normals to the 7. The next observation may be made by both
mirror at the points where the reflections occur, partners as a team if convenient. Borrow your
and indicate on both the drawing and the summary partner's mirror and set the two mirrors at right
sheet the sizes of the angles of incidence and angles on a sheet of paper. Hold your pencil as an
reflection, and also the distances of the object and object somewhere between the mirrors and look at
image from the mirror. What conclusions can you the images. How many do you see? Does moving
draw about the comparison of the angles and of the the object around have any effect on the number of
distances? images seen? Now make the angle about 600 and
4. Hold the mirror up and look at your face as you again observe the images. Then change the angle
touch the right cheek with your right hand. Does to about 1200. What seems to determine the
this appear to be the right, or left, side of the number of images seen? Record the number of
image? What would you say is the relation of the images seen for each of these angles. On your data
orientation of the image with respect to the object? form draw two lines at right angles to represent the
Consider all directions. What do you observe 900 arrangement of the two mirrors. With some
about the relative sizes? Could you put this image point 0 out in front of the mirror position, use
on a screen? Why? Record your conclusions about what you learned about ray tracing earlier in this
all of these items on the data form. experiment and show that one should expect these
S. In order to perform the next step in this study images in the positions observed. This drawing
we need to review the meaning of parallax. While need not be exact but it should be approximate.
holding one pencil (or finger) vertically at arm's
length, hold another about 15 cm closer and, as B. Refraction of Light
you move your head from side to side, note which
way the nearer pencil appears to move with If the plastic dish described below is not available,
respect to your eye. Is it the same direction, or the Step 8 and 9 in the procedure can be performed
opposite direction? This apparent relative motion with a rectangular refraction plate as illustrated in
of the two pencils is called parallax. Now move Step 11. If the plastic dish is available, the
the pencils closer together and determine whether

EXPERIMENT 38 277
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS

There are many different types of optical benches. understand how to read distances on your
All have the same basic elements consisting of an apparatus. Ask your instructor for assistance if
illuminated source, a mirror holder, and an image needed. Figure 39-2 shows a simple optical bench
screen. All of the elements can be moved and made by clamping each end of a meter stick into
their positions read directly from the bench optical bench supports. Figure 39-3 shows an
markings. Spend a few minutes to ensure you advanced optical bench.

PROCEDURE

1. Focal Length by Direct Measurement. Mount mean and compute the focal length f by Equation
the mirror and a white screen on the optical bench [2].
and, while holding the mirror toward some distant As a means of studying the nature of
object such as a cloud, tree, or building, adjust the images formed by a concave mirror, mount the
distance until a distinct image is focused on the illuminated object near one end of the optical
screen. Record the image distance. Repeat for two bench and the mirror near the other. Now with the
other trials, using a different object each time, and image always in focus on a white cardboard
making an independent adjustment for each trial. screen, slowly move the object toward the mirror
Determine and record the mean of the three trials. and carefully note the changes which take place in
2. Focal Length from the Radius of Curvature. the image until the object almost reaches the
Set up your illuminated object on the optical bench mirror. Also note when it is inverted and when
and adjust the position of the mirror until a real erect. Describe your observations.
and distinct image of the cross-wire appears on the 3. Focal Length by Real Image Formation
white portion of the object screen just beside the When DO Is Greater Than 2f. Mount the mirror
cross wire. This gives the object and image at the at a convenient distance from the object equal to
same distance from the mirror. A little thought about two and one-half to three times the focal
will show that this distance is equal to R, the length as found in Observation 1. Make three
radius of curvature of the mirror. Make three independent determinations of the image distance
independent trials and record the distance. Find the and record as Di. With the third trial adjustment,

EXPERIMENT 39 -285
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS

There are many different types of optical directly from the bench markings. Spend a few
benches. All have the same basic elements minutes to ensure you understand how to read
consisting of an illuminated source, a mirror or distances on your apparatus. Ask your instructor
lens holder, and an image screen. All of the for assistance if needed. Figures 39-2 and 39-3 in
elements can be moved and their positions read Experiment 39 show several optical benches.

PROCEDURE

1. Focal Length by Direct Measurement. (a) image formation, and determine whether both the
Mount one of the lenses, to be known as lens 1, on enlarged and the diminished images are clear and
the optical bench, together with a white screen. By distinct. If not, change the distance between the
using three different distant brightly illuminated screen and the object until they are. distinct, and
objects, as viewed through a window, make three then record their positions (meter-stick readings).
independent trials to locate the positions of the real This setup is that of Figure 40-1. Now make three
images thus formed. Record the image distances independent trials for each position of the lens and
and, from their average (or mean) value and the record the positions of the lens, the object, and the
definition of the principal focus, determine the screen, together with the image distance for each.
focal length of lens 1. (b) Repeat the above Also, measure the object size and image size for
procedure for lens 2. each trial and record. Some time may be saved by
2. Focal Length of a Lens Combination. (a) alternating positions between trials. From the
Mount the two lenses in a single lens holder. A means of the values for Do and Dj compute the
strip of paper or masking tape about 2 cm wide focal length of the lens by Equation [2], making
placed around the periphery of the pair of lenses the computations a part of your report. Determine
will help hold them in the lens holder. Handle the the values of L and d, compute the focal length
lens combinations very carefully to avoid dropping from Equation [6] and compute the percent
one of the lenses and breaking it. Follow the difference from the Equation [2] results. Compare
procedure in Step la and determine and record the the results from Equation [2] with that obtained in
focal length of the lens combination. (b) Repeat Step 1 by computing the percent difference. Which
the above procedure using a combination of a technique do you think gave the best results and
diverging lens with the converging lens of shorter why?
focal length. Note that you have already measured Compute the measured magnification,
the focal length of the converging lens in Step 1. (I/O), and compare to the computed magnification
With this focal length known, and that of the by computing the percent difference. Which of
combination which you have just measured, use these results is the most accurate? Why?
Equation [1] to compute the focal length of the 4. Focal Length When Image Is Virtual. (a)
diverging lens. Record in the data form as f3· Remove the illuminated object and the screen and
3. Focal Length by Method of Conjugate Foci. mount a tall pin (the object marker) at a distance
Use the same lens here as was used in Step 3. less than f, say (2/3)f, from the lens used in Step 3.
Mount the illuminated object near one end of the Place your eye on the opposite side of the lens
optical bench, and place the screen at some from the object marker and look at it through the
convenient distance toward the other end so that lens in the same manner as you would use a
the distance between them is about 10 cm more reading glass. Place a second pin (the image
than 4f Adjust the lens at the two positions for marker) at the apparent position of the vertical

EXPERIMENT 40 291
on them. Now, while looking at the marks through magnifying power and compare with the value
the telescope with one eye and at the screen with obtained by use of Equation [4].
the other eye (unaided), direct your partner to Now focus on some object across the
make two marks on the screen which appear to street, such as a brick wall. Substitute a 15-cm-
coincide with the apparent positions of the images focus lens for the objective and make a
as seen through the telescope. Measure and record comparison of the magnifying power in the two
the distances between both sets of marks. cases. See Question 9.
Exchange places with your partner and make 6. The Opera Glass (Galilean Telescope). By
another trial. Record the positions of the lenses using the same 30-cm-focus objective as was used
and check the focal length of each by direct with the simple telescope, construct an opera glass
measurement while viewing a distant object. From by using a 30-cm-focal-Iength diverging lens as
the average of the two trials, compute the observed the eyepiece. Repeat Step 5 with the setup in
Figure 41-3.

QUESTIONS

The Compound Microscope 12. If cross hairs are to be put in the telescope, at
what point should they be placed? Why?
1. In using each lens as a reading glass, what 13. Did you notice any change in magnification
relationship do you observe between focal length when the focal length of the objective was
and magnifying power? changed? What other change could be made to
2. What movement of the lens was necessary to increase or decrease the magnification?
get a better image when viewing through the 14. What changes would be necessary in
periphery? Explain the reason for this. constructing a terrestrial telescope using convex
3. Describe the imperfections present in the lenses throughout? Construct an image diagram
microscope image. similar to Figure 41-2.
4. In setting up the microscope, where must the 15. What is the advantage of making the objective
object be placed with respect to the objective lens? lens of an astronomical telescope of large
5. Where is the image formed by the objective diameter?
with respect to the eyepiece?
6. What changes could be made to construct an The Opera Glass (or Galilean Telescope)
instrument with greater magnifying power?
7. What measurements in step 1 had the largest 16. Is any chromatic aberration observed?
errors? Estimate their value. Write your focal 17. How does the magnifying power compare with
length for each lens in standard form with errors. that of the astronomical telescope?
8. Repeat Question 7 for steps 2, 3, and 4. 18. What relation seems to exist between the two
focal lengths and the distance between the two
The Simple Telescope lenses? What advantage does this relation give to
the instrument which the astronomical telescope
9. When viewing a distant brick wall or tree, does not have?
where does the image appear to be with respect to 19. Is there a real image formed in the system? If
the space between the eye and the object? so, locate its position on a screen.
10. Did you see any chromatic aberration in the 20. Would an instrument which produces an erect
telescope? How can you tell? Which lens is most image be of any advantage as an astronomical
likely to contribute to it? telescope? Why?
11. How does the distance between the two lenses
compare with the sum of their focal lengths?

EXPERIMENT 41 299
same energy transition. This is called simulated 2. Coherence-All of the light waves emerging
emission of radiation. from the laser are in step or all the waves are in
Many different wavelengths of light are phase. Coherence is produced by the integral
emitted in the He-Ne plasma. By carefully wavelength separation of the mirrors which sets up
aligning the mirrors to be an integral number of the standing waves.
wavelengths apart, it is possible to select the 3. Monochromaticity-The laser beam consists
632.8-nm wavelength light. This technique sets up of a single wavelength of light.
standing waves for the selected wavelength. As 4. Intensity-Properties 1-3 combine to make the
this light moves back and forth between the energy concentrated in a laser beam very high. A
mirrors it amplifies the 632.8-nm light by I-mW laser beam is actually 100 times brighter
increasing the number of Ne atoms that undergo than the sun. There is no better source than the sun
this transition. The transmission mirror actually for lighting large areas but as a compact, spectrally
transmits a small percent of the light which is the pure light source, the laser stands alone.
red beam observed from a He-Ne laser. Because of these properties the laser has
A laser light source has four very special become a very useful tool for studying properties
properties which are not found in ordinary light of light. It makes available many observations and
sources. These are described below: measurements which cannot be done with other
1. Directionality-Because only the light moving light sources. It has also become a very important
along the axis defined by the two mirrors escapes, scientific and industrial tool. Before working with
the beam is highly directional. This gives a high the laser you should read the laser safety section in
concentration of light in a given direction. Appendix E.

PROCEDURE

Be sure you have read Appendix E on laser safety.


Turn on the laser only long enough to make
measurements and note carefully where it is
pointed before turning it on. In particular, be sure
that the beam does not shine in anyone's eyes.

A. Triangulation
1. Point the laser toward a wall several meters or
more away. Turn the laser on and identify the
approximate location of the red spot on the wall.
With the laser off tape a piece of paper with an X
in the center to the wall at the approximate
location identified for the red spot. Turn the laser
on long enough to adjust it to hit the X on the
paper.
2. Tape a meter stick firmly to the laboratory table
with one end lined up with one edge of the laser as
shown in Figure 42-3. Measure and record the
angle, cr, between the laser beam direction and the
baseline defined by the meter stick.
3. Move the laser to point B so that the edge as
before lines up with the other end of the meter
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS

Two forms of student spectrometers are shown values. If the spectrometer assigned to you is
below in Figure 43-3. In the force-table model, the equipped with a special prism table and the
collimator is shown at the left and consists of a slit conventional type of telescope and collimator,
and lens. The other movable arm on the right please do not disturb any of the adjustments until
carries the telescope, and is supplied with a vernier you are sure that it is necessary. Much time is
scale which will permit angles to be read to 0.1°. required to restore such adjustments once
When set up for operation, it is suggested that the disturbed. Study the circular scale and learn to
collimator arm be set at 0° on the circular scale. read angular settings to the limit of precision of
The precision model in Figure 43-3b has the instrument. Also examine the slit on the
essentially the same features as a force-table collimator and learn which way to turn the screw
model except that its components are enclosed, to adjust the width,.but do not change the length of
and therefore it does not require a darkened room. the collimator tube.
It is also capable of giving much better measured
PROCEDURE

1. Adjust the eyepiece of the telescope until the


cross hairs are in good focus and then focus the
telescope for parallel rays by sighting on a distant
object (prism not on table).
2. Mount a small electric lamp near the slit, the slit
being at the principal focus of the collimating lens.
While viewing the slit image with the unaided eye,
move the telescope in the line of sight and adjust
for a sharp, clear-cut image.
3. Now mount the prism in the center of the prism
table and orient it so that the ground glass face is
roughly perpendicular to the collimator tube. This
arrangement makes angle A face the collimator
tube (see Figure 43-4). In this position the prism
splits the parallel beam of light from the
collimator and reflects a portion of it from each of
the smooth faces.

6. Rotate the prism about 120° so that it is in the


position shown in Figure 43-5a. With the unaided
eye look along direction T 1B until you see the
spectrum of colors. Now move the telescope in
position and examine the spectrum more carefully,
noting how many colors are seen. Do you note any
change in the positions of the colors when the
4. With the unaided eye, locate the image of the telescope is used instead of the unaided eye?
slit as reflected from either face of the prism. If Change the width of the slit and note the effect.
you are unable to see either image, try moving the Set the cross hairs on the yellow portion of the
prism a small distance toward or away from the spectrum, and record the angle.
collimator. While viewing the image from face Now replace the electric light with a neon
AM (Figure 43-4), move the telescope in front of or sodium source and note the position of its
the eye and adjust the cross hairs on the center of spectrum with respect to the cross hairs of the
the image. This may best be done with the slow- telescope. You may have to readjust the slit width

EXPERIMENT 43 311
sources which the instructor may designate or
for this observation.
7. While observing the sodium spectrum with the repeat with other prisms of different composition.
unaided eye, rotate the prism back and forth 11. With the information now at hand, compute
slowly and follow the movement of the image. the index of refraction of the glass for the sources
Note the reversal of the direction of motion of the used by means of Equation [1]. Determine the
image while the prism is still rotating in the same percent discrepancy compared with tabulated
direction. When the prism is set for the position of values.
the reversal of the motion of the image, it is in the 12. Calibration of the Spectrometer. Place a
position for minimum deviation. Now view the sodium, mercury, or other spectral source near the
image in the telescope. Fine tune the reversal slit and with the prism position shown in Figure
position by rotating the prism while viewing 43-5a, note the spectral lines emitted. Select a
through the telescope. When the cross hairs have bright line near the center of the spread of colors
been set on the image in the minimum-angle and adjust the prism for minimum deviation for
position, read and record the position of the this line. Without disturbing the position of the
prism, measure and record the angular position of
telescope.
8. Rotate the prism to the position shown in Figure each line in the spectrum. Also record the color of
43-5b and record the position of the telescope for each line measured and look up the wavelength of
minimum deviation. each in Table 12 of Appendix B.
9. Now remove the prism and record the position Now plot a graph of wavelength versus
of the telescope when viewing the image of the slit angular position of the spectral lines. Start the
directly from the collimator along direction EB scale on each axis with numbers slightly less than
(Figure 43-5). Determine the angle of minimum the smallest values measured. Now use this
deviation D from each of the these trials, and calibration curve to determine the wavelength of
record the average as your determination of angle the spectral lines from other sources with the same
prism setting from your measurement of the
D.
10. Repeat Observations 7,8, and 9, for any other ~np'n1aT Dositions.

QUESTIONS

1. What distinct difference did you notice between 6. Compute the velocity of sodium light in the
the spectrum of the electric-light filament and the glass used in this experiment.
7. If your prism had had a smaller refracting angle,
sodium flame?
2. Does narrowing the slit cut out some of the how would the dispersion have been affected?
colors when viewing the electric-light spectrum? How would the index of refraction have been
Describe the effect. affected? Explain.
3. Do you think the index of refraction of glass for 8. When you were using the electric lamp as a
red light or blue light would be different from that source, why did the image of the slit look different
for yellow light? What observation did you make by reflected light (Figure 43-4) than by refracted
which verifies your answer? light (Figure 43-5)?
4. Which color of light has the greatest speed in 9. What difference did you observe in the positions
glass? What correlation do you observe between of the colors of the continuous spectrum when
the angle of deviation and the speed of light? viewed with the unaided eye? Why is this?
5. The handbooks usually give the index of 10. If, in Step 10, you used different prisms
refraction of materials with respect to the light instead of a variety of light sources, explain the
from sodium. Discuss the possible reason for this reason for the differences in the index of
designation. refraction.

EXPERIMENT 43 312
QUESTIONS-PROCEDURE A

1. How did the intensity of the first-order image 5. How did the spread of the second-order image
compare with that of the second-order image? of the continuous spectrum compare with that of
2. Why is there no illumination on the scale the first order image?
between the images? 6. If the meter stick AC (Figure 44-2) were
3. Why did the images from the electric lamp not replaced with a curved scale, shaped to fit the arc
appear as simple white images of the slit? of a circle, what advantages would it have over a
4. If the grating had had fewer lines to the linear scale? What disadvantages would a curved
centimeter, how would the angles have been scale have in this experiment?
affected?

QUESTIONS-PROCEDURE B

1. How did the intensity of the various order likely quantity?


images compare? 4. Perhaps it would be better to assume that the
2. Is there a linear relation between the angles wavelength of the laser is known and use this
associated with each order image? Explain. technique to determine the grating space, d. Make
3. How does your percent uncertainty compare to this computation and use the result to recompute
your percent discrepancy? Is it possible that some the wavelength of sodium light in Part A. Did your
quantity used in determining the wavelength may percent discrepancy change? Explain.
not have been accurate? What would be the most

EXPERIMENT 44 318
EXPERIMENT 45
A STUDY OF SPECTRA WITH THE GRATING
SPECTROMETER
APPARATUS: Small electric light, ruler, diffraction grating, sodium arc lamp, mercury spectral tube,
other spectral tubes for unknowns, spectrometer, high-voltage source for exciting the spectral tubes,
support for lamp.

THE PURPOSE OF THIS EXPERIMENT is to observe the nature of continuous and bright-line
spectra and to measure the wavelength of some of the prominent spectral lines of both known and
unknown elements.

THE METHODOLOGY OF THIS EXPERIMENT uses a grating spectrometer to measure the angles
at which the first and second order bright line spectra occur for various sources. This information for a
known wavelength can be used to calibrate the grating and then the wavelength of unknown sources can
be determined.

INTRODUCTION

When light is dispersed by a prism or diffracted by sodium vapor, is heated to incandescence, distinct
a grating so that the different wavelengths of wavelengths separated from each other are
which it is composed are separated, the array of produced and, emerging from the slit arrangement
colors is called a spectrum. When solids, such as of a spectroscope, show up as bright lines. These
carbon particles in a Bunsen flame or the filament lines are called bright-line spectra.
in an electric lamp, are heated to incandescence, The Diffraction Grating. A transmission
all wavelengths are produced, each color merging diffraction grating is a piece of glass on which has
gradually into the next. Such a spectrum is called a been ruled a large number of equally spaced
continuous spectrum. If a gas, such as neon or parallel lines a few wavelengths apart.
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS

Two forms of spectrometers are shown and briefly the instrument. Also examine the slit on the
described in Experiment 43, Figure 43-3. Refer to collimator and learn which way to turn the screw
these pictures as needed. If the spectrometer to adjust the width, but do not change the length of
assigned to you is equipped with a special prism the collimator tube. Ask the instructor if the
table and the conventional type of telescope and collimator and telescope have been adjusted for
collimator, please do not disturb any of the parallel light. If not, ask for instructions
adjustments until you are sure that it is necessary. concerning the adjustment.
Much time is required to restore such adjustments The most convenient sources of discrete
once disturbed. Study the circular scale and learn spectral lines are high voltage spectral tubes.
to read angular settings to the limit of precision of These tubes are filled with gas which is excited by

EXPERIMENT 45 322
the colors. Also observe the second-order image order. If the slit is of the variable width type, vary
and note its characteristics. the width, while viewing the first order, from
6. In order to determine the wavelength limits of fairly wide to as narrow as possible, and note the
the continuous spectrum, set the cross hairs of the effect on the image.
telescope on the red and violet extremities of the 8. Set the slit as narrow as practical for a distinct
color band of the first-order image, and read and image and determine the first-order angle for each
record the angle for each. Repeat for the first-order of the prominent lines in the mercury spectrum.
image on the other side of the direct, or zero-order, Use the average of the angles measured on both
Image. sides of the direct beam and, by using Equation
7. Now replace the electric lamp with a mercury [3], compute the wavelength for each line. Record
spectral tube, such as that shown in Figure 45-3. the wavelength and the color of the line measured,
Adjust the height so that the small portion of the and compare with those listed in Appendix B.
tube is in front of the spectrometer slit. Record the 9. Repeat the above procedure for unknown
number of lines seen and also their respective spectral tubes which the instructor may assign you
colors. Observe the second order and compare the and try to identify the elements by comparison
appearance and intensity with that of the first with tabulated spectral wavelengths in Appendix
B.
EXPERIMENT 46
POLARIZED LIGHT

SPECIAL APPARATUS: Photodetector with microammeter, two Polaroid disks each mounted so it
can rotate, glass plate, microscope slide, thin piece of mica, piece of cellophane, protractor, optical
bench, white light source (preferably with collimator).

THE PURPOSE OF Tms EXPERIMENT is to study the polarization of light by observing


polarization phenomena.

THE METHODOLOGY OF THIS EXPERIMENT consists of using a polarizing sheet to give


polarized light and then using a second polarizing sheet to analyze the light. The intensity of the
transmitted light will be measured by a photodetector. Some interesting observations will be made which
are not explained, thus challenging the student to seek explanations.

INTRODUCTION

There are two ways to transmit energy between Ordinary light sources emit unpolarized
two points: by waves and by particles. Waves may light, which means that the photons they emit have
have longitudinal vibrations (parallel to the their electric vectors oriented In random
propagation direction) or transverse vibrations directions, uncorrelated with other photons. If we
(perpendicular to the propagation direction). Some could keep track of the directions of the electric
waves, such as water waves, may have combined vectors of photons over a very large number of
longitudinal and transverse vibrations. The photons, we would find that they have no preferred
phenomena of interference and diffraction of light orientation direction. This may be schematically
show that light behaves like a wave. The fact that represented as shown in Figure 46-1, where the
light may be polarized demonstrates that light diagram shows that in a light beam consisting of
waves are transverse, because longitudinal waves very many photons all possible electric vector
cannot be polarized. directions are represented.
Visible light is an electromagnetic wave in
which the electric and magnetic fields oscillate
transverse to the direction of propagation. The
electric and magnetic field vectors at any point and
instant are perpendicular to each other and
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
These two field vectors oscillate in phase and are
proportional to each other, so we usually represent
the wave by referring only to the electric vector.
While much of this model of light is
"classical" in form, one quantum aspect of light is Several means exist for producing light in
essential for an understanding of polarization. That which all photons have their electric vectors
is the fact that light energy is not emitted in a oriented in the same plane. Such light is called
continuous stream, but is emitted in "bursts" of plane polarized. This may be schematically
energy called photons. represented as shown in Figure 46-2. The

EXPERIMENT 46 327
APPENDIX E
LASER SAFETY

It is recommended that all experiments in this manual use He-Ne lasers with a power rating of 1.0 mW
or less. Studies have shown that such lasers are safe; however, the following precautions and safety
procedures are recommended:

1. Treat all laser beams with respect.


2. Never look directly at a laser beam with the naked eye or any optical device. Do not rely on protective
eyeware.
3. Never allow the laser beam to shine in the area of anyone's eyes.
4. Never place highly reflective objects (such as rings, watches, glassware) in the laser beam path.
S. Turn the laser on only when actual measurements are taking place and be aware of where the beam is
shining.
6. Cover outside windows to protect passers-by.
7. Generally it is wise to keep the laser work area highly illuminated to keep the eye pupil small.
8. Treat the laser as any other electrical device. It should never be tampered with while the power cord is
connected.

APPENDIX E 387

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