Math Symbols

Table of mathematical symbols 1
Table of mathematical symbols

Common symbols
This is a listing of common symbols found within all branches of mathematics. Each symbol is listed in both HTML,
which depends on appropriate fonts to be installed, and in TeX, as an image.
This list is incomplete.
SymbolSymbolName Explanation Examples

in in Read as
HTML TeX
Category
= equality
is equal to; equals
x = y means x and y do represent the same
thing or value.
2 = 2
1 + 1 = 2
everywhere
≠ inequality
is not equal to; does not
x ≠ y means that x and y do not represent the 2 + 2 ≠ 5
same thing or value.
equal (The forms !=, /= or <> are generally used in
programming languages where ease of
everywhere
typing and use of ASCII text is preferred.)
< strict inequality

is less than, is greater than
x < y means x is less than y.
x > y means x is greater than y.
3 < 4
5 > 4
> order theory
proper subgroup H < G means H is a proper subgroup of G. 5Z < Z

is a proper subgroup of A3 < S3
group theory
≪ (very) strict inequality

is much less than, is much
x ≪ y means x is much less than y.
x ≫ y means x is much greater than y.
0.003 ≪ 1000000
≫ greater than
order theory
asymptotic comparison f ≪ g means the growth of f is x ≪ ex

of smaller (greater) orderasymptotically bounded by g.
than (This is I. M. Vinogradov's notation. Another
notation is the Big O notation, which looks
analytic number theory
like f = O(g).)
≤ inequality x ≤ y means x is less than or equal to y.

is less than or equal to, is x ≥ y means x is greater than or equal to y.
3 ≤ 4 and 5 ≤ 5
5 ≥ 4 and 5 ≥ 5
≥ greater than or equal to (The forms <= and >= are generally used in
programming languages where ease of
order theory
typing and use of ASCII text is preferred.)
subgroup H ≤ G means H is a subgroup of G. Z ≤ Z

is a subgroup of A3 ≤ S3
group theory
reduction A ≤ B means the problem A can be reduced If

is reducible to to the problem B. Subscripts can be added to
the ≤ to indicate what kind of reduction.
computational complexity then
theory
≺ Karp reduction
is Karp reducible to; is
L1 ≺ L2 means that the problem L1 is Karp
reducible to L2.
[1]
If L1 ≺ L2 and L2 ∈ P, then L1 ∈ P.
polynomial-time many-one
reducible to
computational complexity
theory
∝ proportionality
is proportional to; varies as
y ∝ x means that y = kx for some constant k. if y = 2x, then y ∝ x.
everywhere
[2] A ∝ B means the problem A can be If L1 ∝ L2 and L2 ∈ P, then L1 ∈ P.
Karp reduction
polynomially reduced to the problem B.
is Karp reducible to; is
polynomial-time many-one
reducible to
computational complexity
theory
+ addition
plus; add
4 + 6 means the sum of 4 and 6. 2+7=9
arithmetic
disjoint union A1 + A2 means the disjoint union of sets A1 A1 = {3, 4, 5, 6} ∧ A2 = {7, 8, 9, 10} ⇒
the disjoint union of ... and and A2. A1 + A2 = {(3,1), (4,1), (5,1), (6,1), (7,2), (8,2), (9,2),
... (10,2)}
set theory
− subtraction
minus; take; subtract
9 − 4 means the subtraction of 4 from 9. 8−3=5
arithmetic
negative sign −3 means the negative of the number 3. −(−5) = 5

negative; minus; the
opposite of
arithmetic
set-theoretic complement A − B means the set that contains all the {1,2,4} − {1,3,4} = {2}
minus; without elements of A that are not in B.
(∖ can also be used for set-theoretic
set theory
complement as described below.)
× multiplication
times; multiplied by
3 × 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4. 7 × 8 = 56
arithmetic
Cartesian product X×Y means the set of all ordered pairs with {1,2} × {3,4} = {(1,3),(1,4),(2,3),(2,4)}
the Cartesian product of ... the first element of each pair selected from X
and ...; the direct product of and the second element selected from Y.
... and ...
set theory
cross product u × v means the cross product of vectors u (1,2,5) × (3,4,−1) =

cross and v (−22, 16, − 2)
linear algebra
group of units R× consists of the set of units of the ring R,

the group of units of along with the operation of multiplication.
ring theory This may also be written R* as described
below, or U(R).
· multiplication
times; multiplied by
3 · 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4. 7 · 8 = 56
arithmetic
dot product u · v means the dot product of vectors u and (1,2,5) · (3,4,−1) = 6
dot v
linear algebra
÷ division (Obelus)
divided by; over
6 ÷ 3 or 6 ⁄ 3 means the division of 6 by 3. 2 ÷ 4 = .5
12 ⁄ 4 = 3
⁄ arithmetic
quotient group G / H means the quotient of group G modulo {0, a, 2a, b, b+a, b+2a} / {0, b} = {{0, b}, {a, b+a},
mod its subgroup H. {2a, b+2a}}
group theory
quotient set A/~ means the set of all ~ equivalence If we define ~ by x ~ y ⇔ x − y ∈ ℤ, then
mod classes in A. ℝ/~ = {x + n : n ∈ ℤ : x ∈ (0,1]}
set theory
± plus-minus
plus or minus
6 ± 3 means both 6 + 3 and 6 − 3. The equation x = 5 ± √4, has two solutions, x = 7 and x =
3.
arithmetic
plus-minus 10 ± 2 or equivalently 10 ± 20% means the If a = 100 ± 1 mm, then a ≥ 99 mm and a ≤ 101 mm.
plus or minus range from 10 − 2 to 10 + 2.
measurement
∓ minus-plus
minus or plus
6 ± (3 ∓ 5) means both 6 + (3 − 5) and 6 −
(3 + 5).
cos(x ± y) = cos(x) cos(y) ∓ sin(x) sin(y).
arithmetic
√ square root
the (principal) square root
means the positive number whose
square is .
of
real numbers
complex square root if is represented in polar

the (complex) square root coordinates with , then
of .
complex numbers
|…| absolute value or modulus |x| means the distance along the real line (or
absolute value of; modulus across the complex plane) between x and
|3| = 3
|–5| = |5| = 5
of zero. | i | = 1
| 3 + 4i | = 5
numbers
Euclidean distance |x – y| means the Euclidean distance between For x = (1,1), and y = (4,5),
Euclidean distance x and y.
between; Euclidean norm
of
geometry
determinant |A| means the determinant of the matrix A

determinant of
matrix theory
cardinality |X| means the cardinality of the set X. |{3, 5, 7, 9}| = 4.

cardinality of; size of; order (# may be used instead as described below.)
of
set theory
||…|| norm
norm of; length of
|| x || means the norm of the element x of a
normed vector space.
[3]
|| x + y || ≤ || x || + || y ||
linear algebra
nearest integer function ||x|| means the nearest integer to x. ||1|| = 1, ||1.6|| = 2, ||−2.4|| = −2, ||3.49|| = 3
nearest integer to (This may also be written [x], ⌊x⌉, nint(x) or
Round(x).)
numbers
∣ divisor, divides
divides
a|b means a divides b.
a∤b means a does not divide b.
Since 15 = 3×5, it is true that 3|15 and 5|15.
∤ number theory
(This symbol can be difficult to type, and its
negation is rare, so a regular but slightly
shorter vertical bar | character can be used.)
conditional probability P(A|B) means the probability of the event a if X is a uniformly random day of the year P(X is May
given occurring given that b occurs. 25 | X is in May) = 1/31
probability
restriction f|A means the function f restricted to the set The function f : R → R defined by f(x) = x2 is not
restriction of … to …; A, that is, it is the function with domain injective, but f|R+ is injective.
restricted to A ∩ dom(f) that agrees with f.
set theory
|| parallel
is parallel to
x || y means x is parallel to y. If l || m and m ⊥ n then l ⊥ n.
geometry
incomparability x || y means x is incomparable to y. {1,2} || {2,3} under set containment.

is incomparable to
order theory
exact divisibility pa || n means pa exactly divides n (i.e. pa 23 || 360.

exactly divides divides n but pa+1 does not).
number theory
# cardinality #X means the cardinality of the set X.

cardinality of; size of; order (|…| may be used instead as described
#{4, 6, 8} = 3
of above.)
set theory
connected sum A#B is the connected sum of the manifolds A A#Sm is homeomorphic to A, for any manifold A, and the
connected sum of; knot and B. If A and B are knots, then this denotes sphere Sm.
sum of; knot composition the knot sum, which has a slightly stronger
of condition.
topology, knot theory
ℵ aleph number
aleph
ℵα represents an infinite cardinality
(specifically, the α-th one, where α is an
|ℕ| = ℵ0, which is called aleph-null.
ordinal).
set theory
ℶ beth number
beth
ℶα represents an infinite cardinality (similar
to ℵ, but ℶ does not necessarily index all of
the numbers indexed by ℵ. ).
set theory
ᵒ cardinality of the
continuum
The cardinality of is denoted by
by the symbol (a lowercase Fraktur letter
or
cardinality of the C).

continuum; cardinality of
the real numbers; c;
set theory
: such that
such that; so that
: means “such that”, and is used in proofs and ∃ n ∈ ℕ: n is even.
the set-builder notation (described below).
everywhere
field extension K : F means the field K extends the field F. ℝ:ℚ

extends; over This may also be written as K ≥ F.
field theory
inner product of matrices A : B means the Frobenius inner product of

inner product of the matrices A and B.
The general inner product is denoted by
linear algebra
⟨u, v⟩, ⟨u | v⟩ or (u | v), as described below.
For spatial vectors, the dot product notation,
x·y is common. See also Bra-ket notation.
index of a subgroup The index of a subgroup H in a group G is

index of subgroup the "relative size" of H in G: equivalently,
the number of "copies" (cosets) of H that fill
group theory
up G
! factorial
factorial
n! means the product 1 × 2 × ... × n. 4! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 24
combinatorics
logical negation The statement !A is true if and only if A is !(!A) ⇔ A

not false. x ≠ y ⇔ !(x = y)
A slash placed through another operator is
propositional logic
the same as "!" placed in front.
(The symbol ! is primarily from computer
science. It is avoided in mathematical texts,
where the notation ¬A is preferred.)
~ probability distribution
has distribution
X ~ D, means the random variable X has the
probability distribution D.
X ~ N(0,1), the standard normal distribution
statistics
row equivalence A~B means that B can be generated by using

is row equivalent to a series of elementary row operations on A
matrix theory
same order of magnitude m ~ n means the quantities m and n have the 2 ~ 5
roughly similar; poorly same order of magnitude, or general size. 8 × 9 ~ 100
(Note that ~ is used for an approximation
approximates but π2 ≈ 10
that is poor, otherwise use ≈ .)
approximation theory
asymptotically equivalent x ~ x+1

f ~ g means .
is asymptotically equivalent
to
asymptotic analysis
equivalence relation a ~ b means (and equivalently 1 ~ 5 mod 4

are in the same equivalence ).
class
everywhere
≈ approximately equal
is approximately equal to
x ≈ y means x is approximately equal to y. π ≈ 3.14159
everywhere
isomorphism G ≈ H means that group G is isomorphic Q / {1, −1} ≈ V,

is isomorphic to (structurally identical) to group H. where Q is the quaternion group and V is the Klein
(≅ can also be used for isomorphic, as four-group.
group theory
described below.)
≀ wreath product A ≀ H means the wreath product of the group

wreath product of … by … A by the group H.
is isomorphic to the automorphism group of
the complete bipartite graph on (n,n) vertices.
This may also be written A wr H.
group theory
◅ normal subgroup
is a normal subgroup of
N ◅ G means that N is a normal subgroup of Z(G) ◅ G
group G.
▻ group theory
ideal I ◅ R means that I is an ideal of ring R. (2) ◅ Z

is an ideal of
ring theory
antijoin R ▻ S means the antijoin of the relations R R S=R-R S

the antijoin of and S, the tuples in R for which there is not a
tuple in S that is equal on their common
relational algebra
attribute names.
⋉ semidirect product
the semidirect product of
N ⋊φ H is the semidirect product of N (a
normal subgroup) and H (a subgroup), with
⋊ group theory
respect to φ. Also, if G = N ⋊φ H, then G is
said to split over N.
(⋊ may also be written the other way round,
as ⋉, or as ×.)
semijoin R ⋉ S is the semijoin of the relations R and S, R S= 1,..,an(R S)

a
the semijoin of the set of all tuples in R for which there is a
tuple in S that is equal on their common
relational algebra
attribute names.
⋈ natural join
the natural join of
R ⋈ S is the natural join of the relations R
and S, the set of all combinations of tuples in
R and S that are equal on their common
relational algebra
attribute names.
∴ therefore
therefore; so; hence
Sometimes used in proofs before logical
consequences.
All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. ∴ Socrates
is mortal.
everywhere
∵ because
because; since
Sometimes used in proofs before reasoning. 3331 is prime ∵ it has no positive integer factors other
than itself and one.
everywhere
■ end of proof
QED; tombstone; Halmos
Used to mark the end of a proof.
(May also be written Q.E.D.)
□ symbol
∎ everywhere
▮
‣
⇒ material implication
implies; if … then
A ⇒ B means if A is true then B is also true; x = 2 ⇒ x2 = 4 is true, but x2 = 4 ⇒ x = 2 is in general
if A is false then nothing is said about B. false (since x could be −2).
→ propositional logic, (→ may mean the same as ⇒, or it may have
⊃ Heyting algebra the meaning for functions given below.)

[4]
(⊃ may mean the same as ⇒, or it may
have the meaning for superset given below.)
⇔ material equivalence
if and only if; iff
A ⇔ B means A is true if B is true and A is
false if B is false.
x + 5 = y + 2 ⇔ x + 3 = y
↔ propositional logic
¬ logical negation
not
The statement ¬A is true if and only if A is
false.
¬(¬A) ⇔ A
x ≠ y ⇔ ¬(x = y)
˜ propositional logic
A slash placed through another operator is
the same as "¬" placed in front.
(The symbol ~ has many other uses, so ¬ or
the slash notation is preferred. Computer
scientists will often use ! but this is avoided
in mathematical texts.)
∧ logical conjunction or meet The statement A ∧ B is true if A and B are

in a lattice both true; else it is false.
n < 4 ∧ n >2 ⇔ n = 3 when n is a natural number.
and; min; meet For functions A(x) and B(x), A(x) ∧ B(x) is
used to mean min(A(x), B(x)).
propositional logic, lattice
theory
wedge product u ∧ v means the wedge product of vectors u

wedge product; exterior and v. This generalizes the cross product to
product higher dimensions.
3
linear algebra (For vectors in R , × can also be used.)
exponentiation a ^ b means a raised to the power of b 2^3 = 23 = 8

… (raised) to the power of (a ^ b is more commonly written ab. The
… symbol ^ is generally used in programming
everywhere languages where ease of typing and use of
plain ASCII text is preferred.)
∨ logical disjunction or join

in a lattice
The statement A ∨ B is true if A or B (or
both) are true; if both are false, the statement
n ≥ 4 ∨ n ≤ 2 ⇔ n ≠ 3 when n is a natural number.
or; max; join is false.

For functions A(x) and B(x), A(x) ∨ B(x) is
propositional logic, lattice
used to mean max(A(x), B(x)).
theory
⊕ exclusive or
xor
The statement A ⊕ B is true when either A or (¬A) ⊕ A is always true, A ⊕ A is always false.
B, but not both, are true. A ⊻ B means the
⊻ propositional logic,
same.
Boolean algebra
direct sum The direct sum is a special way of Most commonly, for vector spaces U, V, and W, the
direct sum of combining several objects into one general following consequence is used:
object. U = V ⊕ W ⇔ (U = V + W) ∧ (V ∩ W = {0})
abstract algebra
(The bun symbol ⊕, or the coproduct symbol
∐, is used; ⊻ is only for logic.)
∀ universal quantification
for all; for any; for each
∀ x: P(x) means P(x) is true for all x. ∀ n ∈ ℕ: n2 ≥ n.
predicate logic
∃ existential quantification
there exists; there is; there
∃ x: P(x) means there is at least one x such
that P(x) is true.
∃ n ∈ ℕ: n is even.
are
predicate logic
∃! uniqueness quantification
there exists exactly one
∃! x: P(x) means there is exactly one x such
that P(x) is true.
∃! n ∈ ℕ: n + 5 = 2n.
predicate logic
=: definition x := y, y =: x or x ≡ y means x is defined to

is defined as; is equal by be another name for y, under certain
:= definition to assumptions taken in context.
(Some writers use ≡ to mean congruence).
≡ everywhere
P :⇔ Q means P is defined to be logically
:⇔ equivalent to Q.
≜
≝
≐
≅ congruence
is congruent to
△ABC ≅ △DEF means triangle ABC is
congruent to (has the same measurements as)
triangle DEF.
geometry
isomorphic G ≅ H means that group G is isomorphic .

is isomorphic to (structurally identical) to group H.
(≈ can also be used for isomorphic, as
abstract algebra
described above.)
≡ congruence relation
... is congruent to ...
a ≡ b (mod n) means a − b is divisible by n 5 ≡ 2 (mod 3)
modulo ...
modular arithmetic
{ , } set brackets

the set of …
{a,b,c} means the set consisting of a, b, and
c.
[5]
ℕ = { 1, 2, 3, …}
set theory
{ : } set builder notation

the set of … such that
{x : P(x)} means the set of all x for which
[5]
P(x) is true. {x | P(x)} is the same as {x :
{n ∈ ℕ : n2 < 20} = { 1, 2, 3, 4}
{ | } set theory P(x)}.
[5]
∅ empty set
the empty set
∅ means the set with no elements.
means the same.
{ } {n ∈ ℕ : 1 < n2 < 4} = ∅
{ } set theory
[5]
∈ set membership
is an element of; is not an
a ∈ S means a is an element of the set S;
a ∉ S means a is not an element of S.
[5]
(1/2)−1 ∈ ℕ
2−1 ∉ ℕ
∉ element of
everywhere, set theory
⊆ subset
is a subset of
(subset) A ⊆ B means every element of A is
also an element of B.
[6]
(A ∩ B) ⊆ A
ℕ ⊂ ℚ
⊂ set theory (proper subset) A ⊂ B means A ⊆ B but

ℚ ⊂ ℝ
A ≠ B.
(Some writers use the symbol ⊂ as if it were
the same as ⊆.)
⊇ superset
is a superset of
A ⊇ B means every element of B is also an
element of A.
(A ∪ B) ⊇ B
ℝ ⊃ ℚ
⊃ set theory
A ⊃ B means A ⊇ B but A ≠ B.
(Some writers use the symbol ⊃ as if it were
the same as ⊇.)
∪ set-theoretic union
the union of … or …;
A ∪ B means the set of those elements which A ⊆ B ⇔ (A ∪ B) = B
are either in A, or in B, or in both.
[6]
union
set theory
∩ set-theoretic intersection
intersected with; intersect
A ∩ B means the set that contains all those
elements that A and B have in common.
[6]
{x ∈ ℝ : x2 = 1} ∩ ℕ = {1}
set theory
∆ symmetric difference
symmetric difference
A ∆ B means the set of elements in exactly
one of A or B.
{1,5,6,8} ∆ {2,5,8} = {1,2,6}
(Not to be confused with delta, Δ, described

set theory
below.)
∖ set-theoretic complement
minus; without
A ∖ B means the set that contains all those
elements of A that are not in B.
[6]
{1,2,3,4} ∖ {3,4,5,6} = {1,2}
set theory (− can also be used for set-theoretic

complement as described above.)
→ function arrow
from … to
f: X → Y means the function f maps the set X Let f: ℤ → ℕ∪{0} be defined by f(x) := x2.
into the set Y.
set theory, type theory
↦ function arrow
maps to
f: a ↦ b means the function f maps the
element a to the element b.
Let f: x ↦ x+1 (the successor function).
set theory
∘ function composition
composed with
f∘g is the function, such that (f∘g)(x) =
f(g(x)).
[7]
if f(x) := 2x, and g(x) := x + 3, then (f∘g)(x) = 2(x + 3).
set theory
ℕ natural numbers
N; the (set of) natural
N means either { 0, 1, 2, 3, ...} or { 1, 2, 3,
...}.
ℕ = {|a| : a ∈ ℤ} or ℕ = {|a| > 0: a ∈ ℤ}
N numbers The choice depends on the area of

mathematics being studied; e.g. number
numbers
theorists prefer the latter; analysts, set
theorists and computer scientists prefer the
former. To avoid confusion, always check an
author's definition of N.
Set theorists often use the notation ω (for
least infinite ordinal) to denote the set of
natural numbers (including zero), along with
the standard ordering relation ≤.
ℤ integers
Z; the (set of) integers
ℤ means {..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}. ℤ+ or
ℤ> means {1, 2, 3, ...} . ℤ≥ means {0, 1, 2, 3,
ℤ = {p, −p : p ∈ ℕ ∪ {0} }
Z numbers ...} .
ℤn integers mod n
Zn; the (set of) integers
ℤn means {[0], [1], [2], ...[n−1]} with
addition and multiplication modulo n.
ℤ3 = {[0], [1], [2]}
ℤp modulo n Note that any letter may be used instead of n,

such as p. To avoid confusion with p-adic
Zn numbers
numbers, use ℤ/pℤ or ℤ/(p) instead.
Zp p-adic integers Note that any letter may be used instead of p,

such as n or l.
the (set of) p-adic integers
numbers
ℙ projective space
P; the projective space, the
ℙ means a space with a point at infinity. ,
P projective line, the

projective plane
topology
probability ℙ(X) means the probability of the event X If a fair coin is flipped, ℙ(Heads) = ℙ(Tails) = 0.5.
the probability of occurring.
This may also be written as P(X), Pr(X), P[X]
probability theory
or Pr[X].
ℚ rational numbers
Q; the (set of) rational
ℚ means {p/q : p ∈ ℤ, q ∈ ℕ}. 3.14000... ∈ ℚ
π ∉ ℚ
Q numbers; the rationals

numbers
ℝ real numbers
R; the (set of) real numbers;
ℝ means the set of real numbers. π ∈ ℝ
√(−1) ∉ ℝ
R the reals
numbers
ℂ complex numbers
C; the (set of) complex
ℂ means {a + b i : a,b ∈ ℝ}. i = √(−1) ∈ ℂ
C numbers
numbers
ℍ quaternions or Hamiltonian
quaternions
ℍ means {a + b i + c j + d k : a,b,c,d ∈ ℝ}.
H H; the (set of) quaternions

numbers
O Big O notation
big-oh of
The Big O notation describes the limiting
behavior of a function, when the argument
If f(x) = 6x4 − 2x3 + 5 and g(x) = x4 , then
tends towards a particular value or infinity.

Computational complexity
theory
∞ infinity
infinity
∞ is an element of the extended number line
that is greater than all real numbers; it often
occurs in limits.
numbers
⌊…⌋ floor
floor; greatest integer;
⌊x⌋ means the floor of x, i.e. the largest
integer less than or equal to x.
⌊4⌋ = 4, ⌊2.1⌋ = 2, ⌊2.9⌋ = 2, ⌊−2.6⌋ = −3
entier (This may also be written [x], floor(x) or

int(x).)
numbers
⌈…⌉ ceiling
ceiling
⌈x⌉ means the ceiling of x, i.e. the smallest
integer greater than or equal to x.
⌈4⌉ = 4, ⌈2.1⌉ = 3, ⌈2.9⌉ = 3, ⌈−2.6⌉ = −2
(This may also be written ceil(x) or

numbers
ceiling(x).)
⌊…⌉ nearest integer function

nearest integer to
⌊x⌉ means the nearest integer to x.
(This may also be written [x], ||x||, nint(x) or
⌊2⌉ = 2, ⌊2.6⌉ = 3, ⌊-3.4⌉ = -3, ⌊4.49⌉ = 4
Round(x).)
numbers
[ : ] degree of a field extension

the degree of
[K : F] means the degree of the extension K : [ℚ(√2) : ℚ] = 2
F. [ℂ : ℝ] = 2
[ℝ : ℚ] = ∞
field theory
[ ] equivalence class

the equivalence class of
[a] means the equivalence class of a, i.e. {x : Let a ~ b be true iff a ≡ b (mod 5). Then [2] = {…, −8,
x ~ a}, where ~ is an equivalence relation. −3, 2, 7, …}.
[ , ] abstract algebra

[a]R means the same, but with R as the
equivalence relation.
[ , , ] floor [x] means the floor of x, i.e. the largest [3] = 3, [3.5] = 3, [3.99] = 3, [−3.7] = −4
floor; greatest integer; integer less than or equal to x.
entier (This may also be written ⌊x⌋, floor(x) or
int(x). Not to be confused with the nearest
numbers
integer function, as described below.)
nearest integer function [x] means the nearest integer to x. [2] = 2, [2.6] = 3, [-3.4] = -3, [4.49] = 4
nearest integer to (This may also be written ⌊x⌉, ||x||, nint(x) or
Round(x). Not to be confused with the floor
numbers
function, as described above.)
Iverson bracket [S] maps a true statement S to 1 and a false [0=5]=0, [7>0]=1, [2 ∈ {2,3,4}]=1, [5 ∈ {2,3,4}]=0
1 if true, 0 otherwise statement S to 0.
propositional logic
image f[X] means { f(x) : x ∈ X }, the image of the

image of … under … function f under the set X ⊆ dom(f).
(This may also be written as f(X) if there is
everywhere
no risk of confusing the image of f under X
with the function application f of X. Another
notation is Im f, the image of f under its
domain.)
closed interval . 0 and 1/2 are in the interval [0,1].

closed interval
order theory
commutator [g, h] = g−1h−1gh (or ghg−1h−1), if g, h ∈ G xy = x[x, y] (group theory).

the commutator of (a group). [AB, C] = A[B, C] + [A, C]B (ring theory).
group theory, ring theory [a, b] = ab − ba, if a, b ∈ R (a ring or
commutative algebra).
triple scalar product [a, b, c] = a × b · c, the scalar product of [a, b, c] = [b, c, a] = [c, a, b].
the triple scalar product of a × b with c.
vector calculus
( ) function application

of
f(x) means the value of the function f at the
element x.
If f(x) := x2, then f(3) = 32 = 9.
(,) set theory
image f(X) means { f(x) : x ∈ X }, the image of the

image of … under … function f under the set X ⊆ dom(f).
(This may also be written as f[X] if there is a
everywhere
risk of confusing the image of f under X with
the function application f of X. Another
notation is Im f, the image of f under its
domain.)
precedence grouping Perform the operations inside the (8/4)/2 = 2/2 = 1, but 8/(4/2) = 8/2 = 4.
parentheses parentheses first.
everywhere
tuple An ordered list (or sequence, or horizontal (a, b) is an ordered pair (or 2-tuple). (a, b, c) is an
tuple; n-tuple; ordered vector, or row vector) of values. (Note that ordered triple (or 3-tuple).
pair/triple/etc; row vector; the notation (a,b) is ambiguous: it could be ( ) is the empty tuple (or 0-tuple).
sequence an ordered pair or an open interval. Set
theorists and computer scientists often use
everywhere
angle brackets ⟨ ⟩ instead of parentheses.)
highest common factor (a, b) means the highest common factor of a (3, 7) = 1 (they are coprime); (15, 25) = 5.
highest common factor; and b.
greatest common divisor; (This may also be written hcf(a, b) or gcd(a,
hcf; gcd b).)
number theory
( , ) open interval

open interval
. (Note 4 is not in the interval (4, 18). (0, +∞) equals the set of
that the notation (a,b) is ambiguous: it could positive real numbers.
] , [ order theory be an ordered pair or an open interval. The
notation ]a,b[ can be used instead.)
( , ] left-open interval

half-open interval;
. (−1, 7] and (−∞, −1]
] , ] left-open interval

order theory
[ , ) right-open interval

half-open interval;
. [4, 18) and [1, +∞)
[ , [ right-open interval

order theory
⟨⟩ inner product
inner product of
⟨u,v⟩ means the inner product of u and v,
where u and v are members of an inner
The standard inner product between two vectors
x = (2, 3) and y = (−1, 5) is:
⟨,⟩ linear algebra

product space.
Note that the notation ⟨u, v⟩ may be
⟨x, y⟩ = 2 × −1 + 3 × 5 = 13
ambiguous: it could mean the inner product

or the linear span.
There are many variants of the notation,
such as ⟨u | v⟩ and (u | v), which are
described below. For spatial vectors, the dot
product notation, x·y is common. For
matrices, the colon notation A : B may be
used. As ⟨ and ⟩ can be hard to type, the
more “keyboard friendly” forms < and > are
sometimes seen. These are avoided in
mathematical texts.
average let S be a subset of N for example, for a time series :g(t) (t = 1, 2,...) we can define the
average of represents the average of all the element in structure functions Sq( ):
statistics S.
linear span ⟨S⟩ means the span of S ⊆ V. That is, it is the

.
(linear) span of; intersection of all subspaces of V which
linear hull of contain S.
⟨u1, u2, …⟩is shorthand for ⟨{u1, u2, …}⟩.
linear algebra
Note that the notation ⟨u, v⟩ may be
ambiguous: it could mean the inner product
or the linear span.
The span of S may also be written as Sp(S).
subgroup generated by a set means the smallest subgroup of G In S3, and

the subgroup generated by (where S ⊆ G, a group) containing every .
group theory element of S.
is shorthand for
.
tuple An ordered list (or sequence, or horizontal is an ordered pair (or 2-tuple). is an
tuple; n-tuple; ordered vector, or row vector) of values. (The ordered triple (or 3-tuple).
pair/triple/etc; row vector; notation (a,b) is often used as well.)
is the empty tuple (or 0-tuple).
sequence
everywhere
⟨|⟩ inner product

inner product of
⟨u | v⟩ means the inner product of u and v,
where u and v are members of an inner
(|) [8]
linear algebra product space. (u | v) means the same.
Another variant of the notation is ⟨u, v⟩
which is described above. For spatial
vectors, the dot product notation, x·y is
common. For matrices, the colon notation
A : B may be used. As ⟨ and ⟩ can be hard to
type, the more “keyboard friendly” forms <
and > are sometimes seen. These are
avoided in mathematical texts.
|⟩ ket vector
the ket …; the vector …
|φ⟩ means the vector with label φ, which is
in a Hilbert space.
A qubit's state can be represented as α|0⟩+ β|1⟩, where α
and β are complex numbers s.t. |α|2 + |β|2 = 1.
Dirac notation
⟨| bra vector
the bra …; the dual of …
⟨φ| means the dual of the vector |φ⟩, a linear
functional which maps a ket |ψ⟩ onto the
inner product ⟨φ|ψ⟩.
Dirac notation
∑ summation
sum over … from … to …
means a1 + a2 + … + an.
= 12 + 22 + 32 + 42
of
= 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 = 30
arithmetic
∏ product
product over … from … to
means a1a2···an. = (1+2)(2+2)(3+2)(4+2)
… of = 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 = 360

arithmetic
Cartesian product
means the set of all (n+1)-tuples
the Cartesian product of;
the direct product of (y0, …, yn).
set theory
∐ coproduct
coproduct over … from …
A general construction which subsumes the
disjoint union of sets and of topological
to … of spaces, the free product of groups, and the
direct sum of modules and vector spaces.
category theory
The coproduct of a family of objects is
essentially the "least specific" object to
which each object in the family admits a
morphism.
′ derivative
… prime;
f ′(x) means the derivative of the function f at If f(x) := x2, then f ′(x) = 2x
the point x, i.e., the slope of the tangent to f
derivative of at x.
(The single-quote character ' is sometimes
calculus
used instead, especially in ASCII text.)
derivative means the derivative of x with respect to

If x(t) := t2, then
• … dot; time. That is .
.
time derivative of
calculus
∫ indefinite integral or
antiderivative
∫ f(x) dx means a function whose derivative
is f.
∫x2 dx = x3/3 + C
indefinite integral of
the antiderivative of
calculus
definite integral ∫ab f(x) dx means the signed area between ∫ab x2 dx = b3/3 − a3/3;
integral from … to … of … the x-axis and the graph of the function f
with respect to between x = a and x = b.
calculus
line integral ∫C f ds means the integral of f along the

line/path/curve integral of curve C, , where r is
… along … a parametrization of C.
calculus (If the curve is closed, the symbol ∮ may be
used instead, as described below.)
∮ Contour integral or closed

line integral
Similar to the integral, but used to denote a
single integration over a closed curve or
If C is a Jordan curve about 0, then .
contour integral of loop. It is sometimes used in physics texts

involving equations regarding Gauss's Law,
calculus
and while these formulas involve a closed
surface integral, the representations describe
only the first integration of the volume over
the enclosing surface. Instances where the
latter requires simultaneous double
integration, the symbol ∯ would be more
appropriate. A third related symbol is the
closed volume integral, denoted by the
symbol ∰. The contour integral can also
frequently be found with a subscript capital
letter C, ∮C, denoting that a closed loop
integral is, in fact, around a contour C, or
sometimes dually appropriately, a circle C.
In representations of Gauss's Law, a
subscript capital S, ∮S, is used to denote that
the integration is over a closed surface.
∇ gradient
del, nabla, gradient of
∇f (x1, …, xn) is the vector of partial
derivatives (∂f / ∂x1, …, ∂f / ∂xn).
If f (x,y,z) := 3xy + z², then ∇f = (3y, 3x, 2z)
vector calculus
divergence If , then
del dot, divergence of .
vector calculus
curl If , then
curl of .
vector calculus
∂ partial derivative
partial, d
∂f/∂xi means the partial derivative of f with
respect to xi, where f is a function on (x1, …,
If f(x,y) := x2y, then ∂f/∂x = 2xy
x ).
calculus n
See also: ∂.
boundary ∂M means the boundary of M ∂{x : ||x|| ≤ 2} = {x : ||x|| = 2}

boundary of
topology
degree of a polynomial ∂f means the degree of the polynomial f. ∂(x2 − 1) = 2

degree of (This may also be written deg f.)
algebra
Δ delta
delta; change in
Δx means a (non-infinitesimal) change in x.
(If the change becomes infinitesimal, δ and
is the gradient of a straight line
even d are used instead. Not to be confused

calculus
with the symmetric difference, written ∆,
above.)
Laplacian The Laplace operator is a second order If ƒ is a twice-differentiable real-valued function, then
Laplace operator differential operator in n-dimensional the Laplacian of ƒ is defined by
Euclidean space
vector calculus
δ Dirac delta function

Dirac delta of
δ(x)
hyperfunction
Kronecker delta δij

Kronecker delta of
hyperfunction
π projection
Projection of
restricts
attribute set.
to the
Relational algebra
σ selection
Selection of
The selection
tuples in
selects all those
for which holds between the
Relational algebra and the attribute. The selection
selects all those tuples in for
which holds between the attribute and
the value .
<: cover
is covered by
x <• y means that x is covered by y. {1, 8} <• {1, 3, 8} among the subsets of {1, 2, …, 10}
ordered by containment.
<· order theory
subtype T1 <: T2 means that T1 is a subtype of T2. If S <: T and T <: U then S <: U (transitivity).
is a subtype of
type theory
conjugate transpose A† means the transpose of the complex If A = (aij) then A† = (aji).
† conjugate transpose; conjugate of A.
[9]
Hermitian This may also be written A*T, AT*, A*, AT or

adjoint/conjugate/transpose; AT.
adjoint
matrix operations
transpose AT means A, but with its rows swapped for If A = (aij) then AT = (aji).
T transpose columns.
t tr
matrix operations This may also be written A or A .
⊤ top element
the top element
⊤ means the largest element of a lattice. ∀x : x ∨ ⊤ = ⊤
lattice theory
top type ⊤ means the top or universal type; every ∀ types T, T <: ⊤
the top type; top type in the type system of interest is a
subtype of top.
type theory
⊥ perpendicular
is perpendicular to
x ⊥ y means x is perpendicular to y; or more
generally x is orthogonal to y.
If l ⊥ m and m ⊥ n in the plane then l || n.
geometry
orthogonal complement W⊥ means the orthogonal complement of W Within , .

orthogonal/perpendicular (where W is a subspace of the inner product
complement of; perp space V), the set of all vectors in V
linear algebra orthogonal to every vector in W.
coprime x ⊥ y means x has no factor in common with 34 ⊥ 55.

is coprime to y.
number theory
independent A ⊥ B means A is an event whose propability If A ⊥ B, then P(A|B) = P(A).
is independent of is independent of event B.
probability
bottom element ⊥ means the smallest element of a lattice. ∀x : x ∧ ⊥ = ⊥

the bottom element
lattice theory
bottom type ⊥ means the bottom type (a.k.a. the zero type ∀ types T, ⊥ <: T
the bottom type; bot or empty type); bottom is the subtype of
every type in the type system.
type theory
comparability x ⊥ y means that x is comparable to y. {e, π} ⊥ {1, 2, e, 3, π} under set containment.

is comparable to
order theory
⊧ entailment
entails
A ⊧ B means the sentence A entails the
sentence B, that is in every model in which A
A ⊧ A ∨ ¬A
is true, B is also true.

model theory
⊢ inference
infers; is derived from
x ⊢ y means y is derivable from x. A → B ⊢ ¬B → ¬A.
propositional logic,
predicate logic
⊗ tensor product, tensor

product of modules
U.
[10]
means the tensor product of V and
means the tensor product
{1, 2, 3, 4} ⊗ {1, 1, 2} =
tensor product of of modules V and U over the ring R.

linear algebra
* convolution
convolution, convolved
f * g means the convolution of f and g.
.
with
functional analysis
complex conjugate z* means the complex conjugate of z. .

conjugate ( can also be used for the conjugate of z,
as described below.)
complex numbers
group of units R* consists of the set of units of the ring R,

the group of units of along with the operation of multiplication.
×
ring theory This may also be written R as described
above, or U(R).
hyperreal numbers *R means the set of hyperreal numbers. *N is the hypernatural numbers.
the (set of) hyperreals Other sets can be used in place of R.
non-standard analysis
Hodge dual *v means the Hodge dual of a vector v. If v is If are the standard basis vectors of ,
Hodge dual, Hodge star a k-vector within an n-dimensional oriented
inner product space, then *v is an
linear algebra
(n−k)-vector.
x mean
overbar, … bar
(often read as “x bar”) is the mean
(average value of ).
.
statistics
complex conjugate means the complex conjugate of z. .

conjugate (z* can also be used for the conjugate of z,
as described above.)
complex numbers
algebraic closure is the algebraic closure of the field F. The field of algebraic numbers is sometimes denoted as
algebraic closure of because it is the algebraic closure of the rational
numbers .
field theory
topological closure is the topological closure of the set S. In the space of the real numbers, (the rational
(topological) closure of This may also be denoted as cl(S) or Cl(S). numbers are dense in the real numbers).
topology
See also
• Table of mathematical symbols by introduction date
• Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering
• ISO 31-11
• List of mathematical abbreviations
• Mathematical alphanumeric symbols
• Mathematical notation
• Notation in probability and statistics
• Physical constants
• Roman letters used in mathematics
• Table of logic symbols
• Unicode mathematical operators
Variations
In mathematics written in Arabic, some symbols may be reversed to make right-to-left reading easier. [11]
References
[1] Rónyai, Lajos (1998), Algoritmusok(Algorithms), TYPOTEX, ISBN 963-9132-16-0
[2] Berman, Kenneth A; Paul, Jerome L. (2005), Algorithms: Sequential, Parallel, and Distributed, Boston: Course Technology, p. 822,
ISBN 0-534-42057-5
[3] Nielsen, Michael A; Chuang, Isaac L (2000), Quantum Computation and Quantum Information, New York: Cambridge University Press,
p. 66, ISBN 0-521-63503-9, OCLC 43641333
[4] Copi, Irving M.; Cohen, Carl (1990) [1953], "Chapter 8.3: Conditional Statements and Material Implication", Introduction to Logic (8th ed.),
New York: Macmillan, pp. 268–269, LCCN 89-37742, ISBN 0023250356
[5] Goldrei, Derek (1996), Classic Set Theory, London: Chapman and Hall, p. 3, ISBN 0-412-60610-0
p. 62, ISBN 0-521-63503-9, OCLC 43641333
pp. 69–70, ISBN 0-521-63503-9, OCLC 43641333
pp. 71–72, ISBN 0-521-63503-9, OCLC 43641333
[11] M. Benatia, A. Lazrik, and K. Sami, " Arabic mathematical symbols in Unicode (http:/ / www. ucam. ac. ma/ fssm/ rydarab/ doc/ expose/
unicodeme. pdf)", 27th Internationalization and Unicode Conference, 2005.
External links
• Mathematics characters and HTML entities (http://usefulwebtool.com/en/characters_math.php)
• Jeff Miller: Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols (http://jeff560.tripod.com/mathsym.html)
• Numericana: Scientific Symbols and Icons (http://www.numericana.com/answer/symbol.htm)
• TCAEP - Institute of Physics (http://www.tcaep.co.uk/science/symbols/maths.htm)
• GIF and PNG Images for Math Symbols (http://us.metamath.org/symbols/symbols.html)
• Mathematical Symbols in Unicode (http://tlt.psu.edu/suggestions/international/bylanguage/math.
html#browsers)
• Using Greek and special characters from Symbol font in HTML (http://www.alanwood.net/demos/symbol.
html)
• Unicode Math Symbols (http://www.vex.net/~trebla/symbols/select.html) - a quick form for using unicode
math symbols.
• DeTeXify handwritten symbol recognition (http://detexify.kirelabs.org/classify.html) — doodle a symbol in
the box, and the program will tell you what its name is
Some Unicode charts of mathematical operators:
• Index of Unicode symbols (http://www.unicode.org/charts/#symbols)
• Range 2100 – 214F: Letterlike Symbols (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2100.pdf)
• Range 2190 – 21FF: Arrows (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2190.pdf)
• Range 2200 – 22FF: Unicode Mathematical Operators (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2200.pdf)
Some Unicode cross-references:
• Short list of commonly used LaTeX symbols (http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/Wiki/index.php/
LaTeX:Symbols) and Comprehensive LaTeX Symbol List (http://mirrors.med.harvard.edu/ctan/info/
symbols/comprehensive/)
• MathML Characters (http://www.robinlionheart.com/stds/html4/entities-mathml) - sorts out Unicode, HTML
and MathML/TeX names on one page
• Unicode values and MathML names (http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-MathML/chap6/bycodes.html)
• Unicode values and Postscript names (http://svn.ghostscript.com/ghostscript/branches/gs-db/Resource/

Decoding/Unicode) from the source code for Ghostscript
Article Sources and Contributors 22
Article Sources and Contributors

Table of mathematical symbols Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=390064626 Contributors: 12jbooher, ABCD, AK Auto, Acroterion, Agent Foxtrot, Alan Liefting,
Alex43223, Alison22, Alksentrs, Alpharigel, Ancheta Wis, AndrewHowse, Anomalocaris, Anonymous Dissident, ArnoldReinhold, Ashleycocks, AugPi, Avraham, AxelBoldt, BAxelrod,
Bart133, Belovedfreak, BenFrantzDale, BenKovitz, Berteun, Bkell, Bkkbrad, Blokkendoos, Bonus Onus, Boud, Bryan Derksen, Btipling, Bwholm, CBM, CRGreathouse, Calréfa Wéná,
Camembert, CanisRufus, Capitalist, Charles Matthews, ChrisDHDR, Church of emacs, ColinHelvensteijn, Computer97, Corti, DA3N, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DRLB, Daniel Brockman, David
Shay, David spector, DavidHouse, Deagle AP, Decltype, Dicklyon, Dominus, DonkeyKong64, Dysprosia, EagleFan, Eclecticology, Efnar, Elano, Epbr123, Erik Postma, Estel, Flinx, Fredrik,
Furrykef, G716, Giftlite, Gowdasathish, Gregbard, Gremagor, Greswik, Gurch, H2g2bob, Hbent, Hekerui, Hoot, Hult041956, HumbleGod, IMacWin95, Iceera88, IdLoveOne, Ideyal,
Imaginationac, Itub, Jadony, JanGB, Jaranda, Jbalint, Jbergquist, Jezmck, JohnyDog, Jokes Free4Me, Josh Parris, Joshdick, Jrw@pobox.com, Jshadias, Julian Mendez, Justin W Smith, Karol
Langner, Kevinb, Kgasso, KlaudiuMihaila, Knowandgive, Kraftlos, Kuru, Lagelspeil, LakeHMM, Lambiam, Letdinosaursdie, Lfiguero, Linas, LittleDan, Loren.wilton, LutzL, MFNickster,
MZMcBride, MagicalPhats, Makeemlighter, Makuabob, Markus Kuhn, MathMartin, Mathaxiom, Maurice Carbonaro, Maxcyber10, Mckee, Melchoir, Mets501, Mfhall, MiNombreDeGuerra,
Michael Hardy, Michael miceli, Michiel Helvensteijn, Mikael Häggström, Mikay, Mikez, Mindmatrix, Mmortal03, Momojeng, Monedula, MovGP0, Mygerardromance, Myncknm, Mysdaao,
N3rd4i, NJA, Navigatr85, Nerd42, Nikola Smolenski, Nima Baghaei, Noisy, Nosferatütr, Nutiketaiel, OlEnglish, Oleg Alexandrov, OliverTwist, Orz, Pak21, Paolo.dL, Pasixxxx, Patrick, Paul
August, PaulTanenbaum, Pfoifry, Phil Boswell, Pizza1512, Pooryorick, PrimeHunter, Pschemp, Psiphiorg, Psource, Psy guy, Puellanivis, Qmark42, QoppaGamma, Quief, Qwertyus, R.e.b.,
RNLion, Rade Kutil, Redacteur, Renata3, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, RobHar, Robinh, Ronhjones, Ryulong, SMP, Salix alba, Sam Korn, Sango123, Secretlondon, ShelfSkewed, Simonleyton,
Skal, Sl, Sligocki, Smmurphy, Spoon!, Srleffler, Stevertigo, Strange but untrue, Sunborn, Sverdrup, Tanthanyes, Tauwasser, TedPavlic, Tekhnofiend, Teo64x, Thallinger, Thehotelambush,
Thezulu, Thr4wn, Tim Starling, Timothy Clemans, Tizio, Tkuvho, Toby Bartels, Tom Lougheed, Tom harrison, Tresiden, Triwbe, Trovatore, Truthkeeper88, Tumble, Tyomitch, Ulf Karlsson,
Vanish2, Voyajer, Wavelength, WhisperToMe, Wigie, Wikipelli, Wile E. Heresiarch, WillowW, Writer on wiki, Xantolus, YahoKa, Ybenharim, Yonideworst, Zero0000, Zundark, 367
anonymous edits
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/

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Table of mathematical symbols 1

Table of mathematical symbols

SymbolSymbolName Explanation Examples

< strict inequality

> order theory

proper subgroup H < G means H is a proper subgroup of G. 5Z < Z

≪ (very) strict inequality

asymptotic comparison f ≪ g means the growth of f is x ≪ ex

≤ inequality x ≤ y means x is less than or equal to y.

subgroup H ≤ G means H is a subgroup of G. Z ≤ Z

reduction A ≤ B means the problem A can be reduced If

negative sign −3 means the negative of the number 3. −(−5) = 5

cross product u × v means the cross product of vectors u (1,2,5) × (3,4,−1) =

group of units R× consists of the set of units of the ring R,

complex square root if is represented in polar

determinant |A| means the determinant of the matrix A

cardinality |X| means the cardinality of the set X. |{3, 5, 7, 9}| = 4.

incomparability x || y means x is incomparable to y. {1,2} || {2,3} under set containment.

exact divisibility pa || n means pa exactly divides n (i.e. pa 23 || 360.

# cardinality #X means the cardinality of the set X.

topology, knot theory

cardinality of the C).

field extension K : F means the field K extends the field F. ℝ:ℚ

inner product of matrices A : B means the Frobenius inner product of

index of a subgroup The index of a subgroup H in a group G is

logical negation The statement !A is true if and only if A is !(!A) ⇔ A

row equivalence A~B means that B can be generated by using

asymptotically equivalent x ~ x+1

equivalence relation a ~ b means (and equivalently 1 ~ 5 mod 4

isomorphism G ≈ H means that group G is isomorphic Q / {1, −1} ≈ V,

≀ wreath product A ≀ H means the wreath product of the group

ideal I ◅ R means that I is an ideal of ring R. (2) ◅ Z

antijoin R ▻ S means the antijoin of the relations R R S=R-R S

semijoin R ⋉ S is the semijoin of the relations R and S, R S= 1,..,an(R S)

⊃ Heyting algebra the meaning for functions given below.)

∧ logical conjunction or meet The statement A ∧ B is true if A and B are

wedge product u ∧ v means the wedge product of vectors u

exponentiation a ^ b means a raised to the power of b 2^3 = 23 = 8

∨ logical disjunction or join

or; max; join is false.

=: definition x := y, y =: x or x ≡ y means x is defined to

isomorphic G ≅ H means that group G is isomorphic .

{ , } set brackets

{ : } set builder notation

{ | } set theory P(x)}.

{ } set theory

⊂ set theory (proper subset) A ⊂ B means A ⊆ B but

(Not to be confused with delta, Δ, described

set theory (− can also be used for set-theoretic

set theory, type theory

N numbers The choice depends on the area of

ℤp modulo n Note that any letter may be used instead of n,

Zp p-adic integers Note that any letter may be used instead of p,

P projective line, the

Q numbers; the rationals

H H; the (set of) quaternions

tends towards a particular value or infinity.

entier (This may also be written [x], floor(x) or

(This may also be written ceil(x) or

⌊…⌉ nearest integer function

[ : ] degree of a field extension

[ ] equivalence class

[ , ] abstract algebra

Hermitian This may also be written AT, AT, A*, AT or