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Cliff T. Johnston
cliffjohnston@purdue.edu
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
Overview
• Perspective
• Length scales
• Challenges
• Active sites on oil sands clay minerals
• What is different about oil sands clay minerals?
• Types of materials used in laboratory studies
• A few applications
• Froth solids and middlings
• Methylene blue interactions with oil sands clay minerals
• Use of polymer flocculants
Perspective
• The presence of nano‐sized clay minerals play a defining role both in the
extraction of bitumen and in tailings management.
• Although small in size, the presence of minor to modest amounts of clay
minerals present create significant challenges in all aspects of bitumen
extraction and recovery, processing of oil sand ores, and management of
tailings.
• Although a significant body of knowledge exists on the characterization of
‘oil sands clay minerals’, much of this work has focused on the
identification of the clay minerals present and not on their respective
surface chemistries.
• This presentation will focus on some of the unique structural features of
the clay minerals found in the oil sands and their respective surface
chemistries.
Length scales in oil sands mining span ~16 orders of
magnitude!
Meters
1E-11 1E-9 1E-7 1E-5 1E-3 0.1 10 1000 100000
dSi‐O = 0.16
0.086 0.165
nanometers = 10‐9 meters
Surface chemistry of oil sands clay minerals occurs within this length scale.
However, the impact of these surface interactions is observed at much larger
scales Johnston, C. T. (2010). "Probing the nanoscale architecture
Clay‐swelling of clay minerals." Clay Minerals 45(3): 245-279.
(distance between layers)
Clay‐Organic Interactions
Distance between charge sites in clay interlayers
Thickness of ultrafine
particles
dSi‐O = 0.16 Single layer of
smectite
Bond Lengths
Oil Sands Particle Thickness
Mg2+ Ca2+ Na+ K+
Ion Size Unit cell dimensions
nanometers = 10‐9 meters
Oil Sands
Challenges Clay
Minerals
• Nanometer length scales associated with clay minerals
is both the reason for their importance to oil sands
mining and a challenge to their characterization
Water Organics
• The atomic structures of clay minerals at the sub‐
nanometer scale, including those of found in the oils
sands, are known.
• Interestingly, it is the size domain slightly at the
nanometer scale that continue to present challenges.
• It is at the scale of nanometers which defines the Chemistry &
Rheology
surface chemistry of oil sands clay minerals, where Mineralogy
clay‐water‐organic surface interactions, as well as
particle‐particle interactions, occur.
Active Sites on Oil Sands Clays Minerals
• At a scale of a few nanometers the most common active sites (or
surface functional groups) of oil sands clay minerals can be
illustrated.
• Active sites correspond to the geometric arrangement of surface
atoms which contribute to surface reactivity.
• The four most common active sites found on oil sands clay
minerals are
o Neutral siloxane surface
o Hydroxyl surface
o Broken edge sites
o Isomorphic substitution sites
Kaolinite – three types of active sites are present
Siloxane surface (top view) Siloxane surface (Si‐O) Hydroxyl surface (bottom view)
‐0.78
+1.54
+1.28
‐0.61
+0.20
Hydroxyl surface (Al‐OH)
Site 1. Neutral siloxane surface
5.5 nm
Molecular dynamics simulation of water on the neutral siloxane
surface of kaolinite. It is hydrophobic!
Clay minerals create problems at all 1.5
stages of oil sands mining.
• Different clays interfere at different
1.0
stages of processing.
• More kaolinite ends up in the froth
during extraction. 0.5
• It is likely that kaolinite contributes to
the transport of bitumen and related
0.0
hydrocarbons into the tailing ponds 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75
Kaolinite to Illite (Ore)
Hooshiar A, Uhlik P, Ivey DG, Liu Q, Etsell TH. 2012. Clay minerals in nonaqueous extraction of bitumen from
Alberta oil sands: Part 2. Characterization of clay minerals. Fuel Processing Technology 96(0):183-194
Site 2. Hydroxyl surface of kaolinite
Molecular dynamics simulation of water on the hydroxyl surface of
kaolinite. It is hydrophilic! Solc, R., et al. (2011). "Wettability of kaolinite (001) surfaces
- Molecular dynamic study." Geoderma 169: 47-54.
Take away: The two basal surfaces of kaolinite are
different. One is hydrophobic and the other is
hydrophilic. From a materials standpoint this is
unique. Furthermore, the ‘oil sands kaolinite’ is
smaller and thinner making these effects from
prominent. It is likely that these particles stabilize
oil‐in‐water emulsion.
Site 3. Broken edge sites
• Occurs on all types of clay minerals A
• Tend to be highly reactive
B
• Often define rheology of clay suspensions
C
Kaolinite undergoes weathering
resulting in broken edge sites
illustrated by dashed line
Original kaolinite crystal
Tombacz E, Szekeres M. 2006.
Surface charge heterogeneity of
kaolinite in aqueous suspension
in comparison with
montmorillonite. Applied Clay
Science 34(1-4):105-124
Why are broken edge sites important in oil
sands mining?
• Source of pH dependent charge.
• Dispersion of clay minerals controlled by two different processes. For
kaolinite, dispersion is controlled by pH. At lower pH values (< 8),
particles have edge‐to‐face interactions are not dispersed. At high pH
values, all the surfaces are negatively charged and dispersion occurs.
High pH (> 8.5) leads to dispersion of kaolinite and kaolinite‐
containing materials.
• Site‐specific chemistry can occur (phosphate, pyrophosphate,
surfactants, additives)
• For illite‐smectite, dispersion is controlled by the type of cations
present and ionic strength.
Based on work by Zrobok and Angle, Mikula (2011) concluded that the relationship between G’ (yield
point) and pH. Small changes in pH can have a big impact on yield point.
Particle Aggregation Particle Dispersion
Dynamic Light Scattering Measurements of Kaolinite and Montmorillonite as a function of pH.
Tombacz E, Szekeres M. 2006. Surface charge heterogeneity of kaolinite in aqueous suspension in comparison
with montmorillonite. Applied Clay Science 34(1-4):105-124
Site 4. Isomorphic substitution sites
Oil sands clay minerals contain little ‘free smectite’. However, illite‐smectite kaolinite‐smectite
interstratified phases are common. These are the active sites present on these phases.
Kasperski KL, Mikula RJ. 2011. Waste
Streams of Mined Oil Sands:
Characteristics and Remediation.
Elements 7(6):387-392
Isomorphic substitution sites – structure and properties
Charge is satisfied by
exchangeable cations
This is important!
Water Accessible Surface Area ranges
from 32 to 98 m2/g
(Johnston and Omotoso, 2013).
So what is different about oil sands clay minerals?
• Smaller
• Thinner
• More disordered and interstratified
• Impacted by residual hydrocarbons
Oil sands clay minerals are smaller and thinner than reference clays.
Implications: higher specific surface area and more reactive surfaces.
Particle size of six contrasting middlings.
100 nm
Reference Kaolinite
KGa‐1 ‐ Particle Size – 2 m x 2 m x 0.1 m; Surface Area 9 m2/g
Oil sands kaolinite (100 nm x 100 nm x 10 layers )
OSKaol ‐ ‐ Particle Size – 0.1 m x 0.1 m x 0.007 m; Surface Area 125
m2/g
Particles with thicknesses of 3 layers have been reported ~ 400 m2/g
We ‘normally’ think of kaolinite as an inert, low surface area, low reactivity
clay mineral. This is not the case of the kaolinite particles found in the oil
sands ores.
Same arguments apply to Illite!
Types of materials used in laboratory studies
• Interburden clays
• Oil sands ore Significant focus area, requires pre‐
• Batch Extraction treatment (e.g., Dean Stark) to remove
water and residual organics
• Middlings
• Froth solids Clay
Mineralogy
• Mature fine tailings
Water Organics
Major operational area – role of process
water and additives to improve Active area of research
extraction efficiency, and minimize – typically done in the
volume of tailings, accelerated absence of mineral
dewatering surfaces
What happens during
Dean Stark extraction?
20
Alkyl Arom CO2
4% 7% 1%
H2O 10
8%
Mass
after 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
1000 deg
Total TGA Mass Loss (% of initial mass)
80%
HOW DOES METHYLENE
BLUE INTERACT WITH THE
SURFACE OF OIL SANDS CLAY
MINERALS?
Cenens, J. and R. A.
Schoonheydt (1988).
"Visible spectroscopy of
methylene blue on
0
hectorite, laponite B, and
Barasym in aqueous
500 550 600 650 700 750
suspension." Clays and
Clay Minerals 36: 214‐224. MB-Clay spectra with MB sorbed to a representative middling
1 MB+ Cl−, 12 MB+ Cl−, 14 neutral MB
Equilibrium snapshots (xz plane) from MD simulations of
methylene blue in aqueous kaolinite pores
Demoz A, Mikula RJ.
2012. Role of
Mixing Energy in
the Flocculation of
Mature Fine
Tailings. Journal of
Environmental
Engineering‐Asce
138(1):129‐136
Summary
• The presence of nano‐sized clay minerals play a defining role both in the
extraction of bitumen and in tailings management.
• There is a need to better understand what role they play during extraction,
impact on recovery, and management of tailings.
• Surface chemistry interactions depend on clay type (e.g., kaolinite versus
illite), particle size, presence of residual hydrocarbon, and water chemistry.
• As particle size and thickness decreases, the activity of clay minerals is
greatly increased.
• Oil sands clay minerals are ‘different’ than reference clay minerals. They
are smaller, thinner, more disordered, and their surfaces are impacted by
residual hydrocarbons
• The interaction of methylene blue with the surface of kaolinite is not well
understood.
• Need to better understand the relationship between surface chemistry and
rheology
Acknowledgements
• COSIA (current funding) • Oladipo Omotoso
• Suncor • Heather Kaminsky
• Robert Schoonhedyt
• Shell
• Andrea Sedgwick
• Total
• Randy Mikula
• CONRAD (past funding) • Jonathan Spence
Prof. Cliff Johnston • Doug McCarty
Purdue University, 915 W. State St
West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907
• Randy Cygan and Jeff Greathouse
• My colleagues at Purdue
clays@purdue.edu • Marika Santagata and Antonio Bobet
765 496 1716