Core Data Analysis

Anam Al-Bulushi
Petrophysicist
Date: Dec-2019
 Content
• What is coring?

• Why do we need core data?

• Core types

• Core design and management

• Sidewall coring

• typical sequence of events at wellsite for conventional coring

• Core data acquisition

• Gamma ray scanning

• Wellsite core stabilization and preservation

• Core transportation

• Core photography and imaging

• core sample cleaning & drying

• Dean stark extraction method

• Core porosity

• Grain density

• Core Permeability

• Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

• Formation resistivity factor (FRF)

• Formation Resistivity Index (RI)

• X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

• Capillary pressure (Pc)

• Capillary data correction

• Relative permeability

• References
 What is “coring” ?

• The rock samples are obtained by cutting a piece of rock from the well
bore; the process is called coring
 Why do we need core data?

• To calibrate the Log analysis results, reservoir simulations and stratigraphic

correlations with Core data
 Core types
Routine core Special Core Sidewall
Analysis analysis Coring

Electrical
Grain Density properties (a, Grain density
m & n)

Capillary
Porosity Porosity
pressure

Permeability- Relative Permeability-

Air permeability Air

Dean stark
Compressibility
saturation
 Core design and management
The key steps in designing and then managing a core analysis program are:
• Appoint the company focal point for the program.
• Review the existing or legacy core analysis database. Are the data valid? Are there areas of concern or anomalies
or suspicious core data in the database that need to be resolved? How well does the core, log and test data
agree for the well in question and reservoir in general?
• Design and cost the program with the assistance of the laboratory.
• Prepare a justification to management.
• Meet with drilling and wellsite engineers to review and specify core drilling, core recovery and wellsite handling,
storage and transportation procedures.
• Design and specify the test and reporting procedures to be adopted in the scope of work. Detail any modifications
that may be required to the test program (for example, to resolve any anomalous or inconsistent results, as the
data become available). Specify deliverables, milestones and project reporting requirements.
• Select laboratory contractor. Do not base the selection solely on price unless there is an overriding justification for
this. The focal point should audit the tendering laboratories and assess their capabilities to perform the work to the
required standard.
• Review project at regular intervals. Review contractor performance against initially set goals, objective and
deliverables. Analyze and check the contractor’s data as soon as possible after they are received.
• Prepare a final report on the routine core analysis (RCA) and/or special core analysis (SCAL) studies which will
reconcile the core data with other well and reservoir data, and provide appropriately interpreted and reliable core
analysis data that can be used for petrophysical and reservoir simulation models.
 Sidewall coring
• Sidewall cores are taken to minimize coring costs or to obtain reservoir Percussion sidewall Coring
rock samples in an interval which has either been cored and core
recovery lost, or in an interval which has not been cored conventionally.
• The sidewall coring is used to acquire rock samples for porosity,
permeability and grain density calculations.
• There are two main types of sidewall cores: percussion and rotary.
• Percussion sidewall coring systems are essentially an adaptation of a
wireline-conveyed perforation gun. Instead of firing perforation charges,
the tool is designed to shoot a series of hollow, chisel-edged ‘bullets’
which are loaded with explosive charges. The gun is fired and the
explosive charge shoots the bullets into the formation. The core plugs cut
by the bullets are retained within the bullets which are then brought back
into the tool using a wire chain and the tool returned to surface
• Advantage of Percussion sidewall coring is that it’s cheap, but driving
force required for the bullets to penetrate the formation can cause
Rotary sidewall Coring
stronger rock to fracture and weaker rocks to consolidate, thus the
Porosity and Permeability data measured on such samples will not be
representative.
• The rotary coring tool uses an electrically driven diamond bit to drill a
small core from the formation adjacent to the tool. Several cores can be
taken at different depths before the tool is brought to the surface.
 Typical sequence of events at wellsite for
conventional coring

1. Coring
2. POOH (pulling out of hole)
3. Remove from barrel and lay out liners
4. ‘Way-up’ and depth marking
5. Wellsite screening/gamma-ray logging or sampling
6. Wellsite sampling and sample selection (if required)
7. Core preservation/stabilization (if required)
8. Liner division into suitable lengths (if required)
9. Core transportation to laboratory
 Core data acquisition
• Conventional cores are cut using a specialized subassembly at the
bottom of the drill string. This consists of a coring drill bit(diamond
Conventional Corning bottom hole assembly
bit), a core barrel to hold the recovered core, and fingers in the
core barrel to hold the core in place while the coring assembly is
pulled out of the hole.
• At the surface, the cores retrieved from the core barrel and placed
in transport boxes, which are transported to a laboratory for further
study
• Core bits are selected based on the formation types, the
requirement to minimize drilling mud-filtrate invasion, optimized core
recovery, penetration rates and efficiency.
• The core diameter depends on the hole size, For example, if the
reservoir section is to be drilled in 8 ½’’ hole size, then core
diameters are around 3 ½’’-4’’

Diamond bit
 Gamma ray scanning

• The GR from core is important to correlate it with log

depth.
• Commonly drillers’ depths are based on pipe tallies,
while log depths are based on cable or wire
measurements corrected for stretch. The two depths
differ but not normally by more than a few feet.
• Prior to cutting liner sections, the core can be
gamma ray scanned in the liners. The measurements
are normally performed using portable or handheld
devices with a sodium iodide crystal gamma-ray
detector.
• The cores should be kept well away from casing or
pipe racks as the metal can cause magnetic
interference in the gamma logger.
 Wellsite core stabilization and preservation
• The core integrity and pore fluid content of the
rock can be altered when bringing the core back
to surface. These changes are largely unavoidable
and in some cases are manageable through use
of specialist coring systems and trip rates
Foam injection
• selected core sections or samples may have to be
preserved at wellsite to prevent further fluid loss or
exposure to air and, if the core is particularly weak
or friable, the core liner sections may have to be
stabilized for transport to the lab.
• If required samples can be plugged from the ends
of the liner section and then sealed, the liner
section can be topped up with drilling fluid to
provide temporary preservation, or the entire liner
section can be sealed by dipping in wax. If using
clam shell liners, core sections can be lifted out but
they must be preserved quickly and securely.
• The three main stabilization methods are:
• core freezing
• resin injection,
• gypsum and foam injection,
 Core transportation
• As for core handling on the rig, the liner sections must be
supported during handling and lifting. Cutting liners into
shorter lengths generally makes for easier handling and
avoids flexing damage.
• The core liner sections should be shipped in specialist
core containers which are designed to avoid transfer of
shock loads to the core sections either using spring-
loaded devices or completely cushioning the liner
sections using pre-shaped layers of hard or soft foam
• Shock tabs or accelerometer monitoring systems should
be placed on or within containers before transportation
to indicate whether the container has been subject to
shock load (e.g. dropped) and potentially damaged Core Care liner Transportation Service
during transport. This also sends a warning message to all
people involved in core handling that potential damage
may have occurred before the core begins to be
processed by the laboratory

Shock tag mounted on transport container

 Core photography and imaging

• A recorded photographic or digital image of the core is

essential. This record will provide information that can
be used remotely if viewing of the core is not possible,
and may include visual images of the surface features
of the core and visual representations of the internal
structures of the core such as CT tomography.
• Any record should include information on core depth
along with a scale or legend indicating the intensity
range of the recorded image.
• Core images provide a visual record of the core that
can be used as the basis for routine core analysis
sampling, Facies analysis, reservoir quality studies, net to
gross estimation, core analysis data interpretation,
supplementary core analysis sample selection, and
comparison with downhole log interpretations.
• Core is normally photographed under both natural and
ultraviolet (UV) light
• Natural (or white) light images show lithology and
sedimentary structures and allow specific features
recorded in the core description to be examined such
as styolites and fractures
• UV exposure causes most oils to fluoresce.
 Core sample cleaning & drying

• For most RCA and SCAL tests, the plug samples must be Vacuum Oven
initially prepared by cleaning with solvents followed by
drying to remove oil and water as well as evaporated salts,
mud filtrate and other contaminants
• Solvents like Toluene is used to remove oil and methanol is
used to remove salt from interstitial or filtrate water.
• The core sample is dried to remove connate water from the
pores, or to remove solvents used in cleaning the cores.
When hydratable minerals are present, the drying
procedure is critical since interstitial water must be removed
without mineral alteration
• Drying is commonly performed in a regular oven or a
vacuum oven at temperatures between 500C to 1050C. If
problems with clay are expected, drying the samples at
600C and 40 % relative humidity will not damage the
samples

Humidity Chamber
 Dean stark extraction method

• The Dean-Stark extraction method provides a direct

determination of water content
• The dean stark analysis requires the plugs to be in a “
Fresh State” condition prior to extraction.
• The Dean–Stark method involves vaporization and
distillation of water from the sample using toluene or
xylene extraction.
• The water in the sample is vaporized by boiling
solvent(Toluene). Then the water is condensed and
collected in a calibrated trap and this gives the volume
of water in the sample
• The solvent is also condensed then flows back over the
sample and extracts the oil. The extraction continuous of
a minimum of two days until the extracted solvent is
clear or the sample shows no more fluoresces.
• The weight of the sample is measured before and after
the extraction. Then the oil volume is calculated from
loss in wright of the sample minus weight of the water
removed from it.
 Core Porosity
• Porosity is an intrinsic property of reservoir rocks and indicates the storage capacity of the reservoir. It is used
as a primary indicator of reservoir quality, and along with a few other factors, to calculate hydrocarbon
volume in place, and recoverable reserves. Petrophysicists use core porosity values to help calibrate porosity
derived from well log data.
• Porosity is the volume of the portion of the rock filled with fluids, divided by the total volume of the rock
𝑽𝒃−𝑽𝒈
𝝓= ,
𝑽𝒃
Where 𝑉𝑏 =Bulk Volume
𝑉𝑔 = Grain Volume
• Bulk Volume (𝑉𝑏)can be estimated directly by applying the volume equation of cylinder (𝑉𝑏 = 𝜋 𝑟 2 ℎ), where
“𝑟” is the radius of the cylinder and “ℎ” is length of the plug. Before using this direct equation, make sure the
plug is in regular cylindrical shape.
• Grain Volume (𝑉𝑔) is calculated using Bayle's law

𝑃1𝑉1 + 𝑃2𝑉2 − 𝑃3(𝑉1 − 𝑉2)

𝑉𝑔 =
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
 Grain density

• Grain Density of core plugs is estimated using the following equation:

𝑀
𝜌𝑔 = 𝑉𝑔
Where “𝜌𝑔 ” is the Grain density, “𝑀” is the mass of the plug & “𝑉𝑔” is the grain volume which is
measured by Boyle’s law
• Bulk Volume (𝑉𝑏)can be estimated directly by applying the volume equation of cylinder (𝑉𝑏 =
𝜋 𝑟 2 ℎ), where “𝑟” is the radius of the cylinder and “ℎ” is length of the plug. Before using this
direct equation, make sure the plug is in regular cylindrical shape.
• Grain Volume (𝑉𝑔) is calculated using Bayle's law

𝑃1𝑉1 + 𝑃2𝑉2 − 𝑃3(𝑉1 − 𝑉2)

𝑉𝑔 =
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
 Core Permeability
• Permeability is an intrinsic property of a reservoir rock that
indicates the flow capacity of the reservoir. Reservoir
engineers use permeability, reservoir pressure, and a few other
parameters to estimate oil and gas productivity.
Petrophysicists use core permeability values to help calibrate
permeability derived from well log data.
• The Darcy flow equation defines permeability, and after some
rearrangement, is used to calculate permeability from
laboratory measurements.
• Absolute or Air permeability (Ka)is measured with a single fluid
in the rock. It is often measured using dry air, Nitrogen and
carbon dioxide.
• The Air permeability (Ka)is corrected for gas slippage using
Klinkenberg correction. The corrected permeability is then
termed as ‘Kl’
• At the low gas pressure, there can be very few molecules of
gas occupying some of the smaller pores. In this case there will
be overestimation in the permeability (this effect is known as
Gas slippage)
• Klinkenberg Permeability is lower than the Air Permeability.
 Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
• The ability of clay materials to sorb or attract certain cations
or anions and retain them in an exchangeable state is one
of their most important properties
• The ions are exchangeable for other anions or cations by
treatment with such ions in a water solution
• Two measures of the concentration of cations are
available: the CEC which is measured relative to mass; and
Qv, which is measured relative to pore volume
• CEC is expressed in milli-equivalents of exchangeable ions
per 100 g of dry clay or rock (meq/100 g). Qv is expressed in
milli-equivalent per milliliter of pore volume (meq/ml)
• CEC measurements are carried out according to the
titration method using barium chloride and magnesium
sulphate as the reagents.
• The clean sample is crushed and de
-mineralized water and barium chloride is added. The clay
presented in the sample is converted to a mono-ionic
barium clay. The exceed barium is washed from the
sample. The amount of barium present in the clay is titrated
conduct metrically with the standard magnesium sulphate
solution.
• “Qv” is used in Waxman-Smits Equation for water saturation
calculations. The Waxman–Smits equation provides the link
between CEC and excess conductivity and is based on
experimental work carried out in the 1950s by Waxman,
Smits, Thomas, Hill, Milburn and many others (appropriately
these all worked in the Shell Oil research laboratories
 Formation resistivity factor (FRF)
• Archie’s experiments showed that the resistivity of a clean formation is proportional
to the resistivity of the brine saturating the rocks. The constant of proportionality is
termed the formation resistivity factor or formation factor (F or FF or FRF):
𝑅𝑜
𝐹𝑅𝐹 =
𝑅𝑤
,Where “𝑅o” is the resistivity of a rock 100% saturated in brine with a resistivity, “Rw”
• The results of Archie’s experiments included an empirical relationship between
formation factor and porosity
𝑎
𝐹𝑅𝐹 =
𝜙𝑚
,where “a” is an empirical constant and it is often taken as 1.The cementation
exponent “m”(often referred to as the porosity exponent) is determined by the type
and degree of cementation holding the rock grains together
• The purpose of the FRF test is to determine the formation water resistivity and the
resistivity and porosity of the core sample saturated fully in formation water
• FRF test could be done in ambient conditions and stress conditions
• Brine saturated core plug is placed in a rubber boot with electrodes in contact
with the ends of the sample loaded into hydraulic core holder. Then high pressure
is applied for each sample. The volume of brine produced during stress loading is
used to determine stressed pore volume and stressed porosity.
• If there is a suite of such measurements from core plugs from a particular
formation, a mean cementation exponent can be obtained graphically by
plotting “FRF” against “𝜙” on log-log graph paper, which gives a straight line for a
given litho type, which intersects FRF=1 when 𝜙=1, and with a gradient equal to “–
m”
 Formation Resistivity Index (RI)
• The resistivity index, at each water saturation, is calculated
from:
𝑹𝒕
𝑹𝑰=𝑹𝒐

Where “𝑅o” is the resistivity of a rock 100% saturated in brine and

“𝑹𝒕”is true resistivity
• The saturation exponent, n, is calculated for each plug at
each brine saturation (Sw), using Archie’s law:
𝟏
𝑹𝑰=𝑺𝒘𝒏

• Resistivity index tests are carried out either at ambient

(unconfined conditions) in a batch cell or at stress conditions
in individual overburden cells
• The saturation exponent can realistically only be obtained
from measurements on core plugs. The experiment consists of
saturating a plug with brine, measuring its resistivity and then
draining it in stages and re-measuring resistivity at each
stage. A plot of resistivity against water saturation on a log–
log grid then gives ‘n’ from the gradient of the best straight
line through the data
 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
• Rocks, sediments and precipitates are examples of geological materials that are composed of minerals.
• minerals are chemical compounds composed of various molecules.
• When a focused x-ray beam interacts with atoms, part of the beam is transmitted, absorbed, refracted, scattered or diffracted.
In XRD test scattered intensity is measured
• Diffraction of an x-ray beam by a crystalline solid is analogues to diffraction of light by droplets of water producing familiar
rainbow.
• X-ray are diffracted by each mineral differently depends on the type and how atoms are arranged.
• X-ray are electromagnetic waves similar to light, but with much shorter wavelength
• These X-rays are collimated and directed onto the sample, which has been ground to a fine powder(typically to produce
particle sizes of less than 10 microns). A detector detects the X-ray signal; the signal is then processed either by a microprocessor
or electronically, converting the signal to a count rate. Changing the angle between the X-ray source, the sample, and the
detector at a controlled rate between preset limits creates an X-ray scan, or spectrograph.
• The major uses of XRD data in petrophysical analysis are
• Quantitative Mineral Fraction
• Mineral identification
• Quantitative clay fraction
• Clay volumes from XRD represents the “Dry Clay mineral”
• Samples used in XRD are very tiny compared to the volume measured by a log, so large statistical variations maybe expected.
 Capillary pressure (Pc)
• Capillary pressure is a measurement of the force that draws a liquid up a thin
tube, or capillary. Fluid saturation varies with the capillary pressure, which in
turn varies with the vertical height above the free water level. The “Pc” is
expressed as :

,Where g is the gravitational acceleration, h is column height, σ is Interfacial

tension, “r” is pore throat radius and ρ1 and ρ2 are the densities of the fluids.
• The capillary pressure data are required for three main purposes:
• The prediction of reservoir initial fluid saturations
• Determine recoverable oil for water flooding applications
• Pore Size Distribution
• Capillary pressures are generated where interfaces between two immiscible
fluids exist in the pores of the reservoir rock.
• Drainage: non wetting phase displacing a wetting phase applies to
hydrocarbon migration into a previously brine saturated rock.
• Imbibition: the displacement of a non-wetting phase by a wetting phase.
• There are several methods of estimating Capillary Pressure:
• MICP (Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure)
• Porous Plate
• Centrifuge
 Capillary pressure (Pc)-MICP
• The test must be carried out on clean and dry sample
• When a sample is dried it contains only (Air) which represents “water” in reservoir conditions.
• The experiment is carried out using “Mercury” which represents (oil) in the laboratory
• Why Mercury is used in the Experiment? It is Stable and the IFT and contact angles are known
• The pressure in the system effectively the differential across the mercury/Air interface is raised in stages.
• The volume of mercury which has entered the pores at each pressure is determined from volumetric readings and the
proportion of the pore space filled can be calculated.
• Advantages of MICP test:
• Rapid (3 hours per sample)
• Irregular samples could be used
• A drainage capillary pressure curve can be generated in a matter of hours

• Disadvantages of MICP test:

• It is a destructive test
• It is carried out on “dry samples” which allows no fluid-surface interaction
• It can cause collapse of accumulations of grain surface coating mineral
 Capillary pressure (Pc)-Porous Plat
• This method is generally applied in the drainage mode to Air-Brine systems starting with test plugs which are
initially brine saturated.
• The capillary pressure is applied across the test plug and a brine saturated porous plate
• The high displacement pressure of the porous plate allows brine from the plug to pass through but prevents
flow of the displacing fluid(normally air)
• Plugs are removed at intervals and weighted until weight (and therefore fluid) equilibrium is attained
• The pressure applied is then increased and the process repeated until a full curve of about six points is
obtained.
• In this technique care has to be taken to maintain good capillary contact between the test plug and the
porous plate and this is done by using a paste of “filter-aid and brine” between the plate and the filter
paper.
• The advantages of Porous plate method:
• The test plug has at least one representative fluid in place (this will ensure that brine mineral
interactions like clay swelling which affects pore size and surface states are taken account of)
• The disadvantages of this methods are:
• Time consuming (needing up to twenty days for equilibrium at each pressure)
• Capillary contact with the porous plate may be lost at high pressures (causes high connate water
saturations)
• Imbibition measurements are not generally attempted
 Capillary pressure (Pc)-Centrifuge
• Capillary pressure can be determined iteratively from experiments
performed in a high-speed centrifuge, in either drainage or
imbibition mode.
• By spinning the core plug at known radius and rpm. The average
capillary pressure is then given by:
𝑷𝒄 𝒑𝒔𝒊 = 𝟕. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝝆𝟏 − 𝝆𝟐 𝑹𝟐 (𝒓𝒃𝟐 − 𝒓𝒕𝟐 )
, where ρ1 and 𝜌2 are the densities of the two phases present and 𝑟𝑏
and 𝑟𝑡 are the radii of rotation of the bottom and top of the core
respectively.
• The sample is saturated completely with a wetting fluid (usually
water) and it’s effective porosity is measured. Then the sample is
placed in a centrifuge and rotated at higher speeds. The speed of
rotation generates a centrifuge force that displaces the wetting
fluid from the sample replacing it with (air or oil). The volume of the
evolved fluid is measured by collecting it in a graduated vial
attached to the outside of the spinning arrangement
• At slow rotation speed the force is only sufficient to displace water
from there largest pores. At higher speeds, the force is able to
displace water from smaller pores in the sample.
• Advantages of using the technique:
• Fast
• Disadvantages:
• Commonly only used with Air as the displacing fluid
• Only provide a few data points on the capillary pressure
curves
• As pressure is a function of distance from the spin center, the
fluid saturation across the sample varies and the measured
values are taken as the mean value
 Capillary data correction

• Before capillary pressure data can be applied to the reservoir situation,

several corrections have to be applied to the data. These are:
• Closure correction
• Stress correction
• Clay-bound water correction
 Capillary data correction(Closure Correction)
• The surface of the sample is rough and, if the largest pore
throats are smaller than the voids created by surface
irregularities, the latter will be filled with mercury before it
enters the true pore system
• On the capillary pressure curve, this appears as an entry of
mercury into the sample
• The data are corrected by subtracting the apparent volume
of mercury injected at the defined entry pressure from the
total volumetric injection data.
• Service laboratories rarely provide the “raw” data shown on
Tabular data provided and they have already made the
closure correction prior to submitting the pressure and
saturation data to the end-user
 Capillary data correction(Stress Correction)
• A rock at reservoir conditions will be subjected to a different stress system then a rock at laboratory
conditions.
• Stress relief at atmospheric conditions results in an increase in both porosity and permeability, and affects
capillary curve-derived saturations. The pore entry pressure is effectively reduced. As permeability
decreases, the effects of stress on capillary curves become more pronounced. For very low permeability
samples, it is preferable to use stressed capillary curves
• Ideally, capillary pressure should be determined at representative stress and needs to be investigated for
each reservoir.
• The Juhasz method uses the ratio of stressed to ambient porosity to correct the data:

,where , Pc is ambient capillary pressure, Pc* is stress-corrected capillary pressure, Snw is ambient non-
wetting phase saturation, Snw* is stress-corrected non-wetting phase saturation, “ɸlab” is total porosity as
measured in the laboratory(under ambient conditions) and “ɸres” is stress-corrected porosity
Capillary data correction(Clay-Bound Water Correction)
• The presence of clays will also have an effect on capillary curve
behavior.
• The delicate structure of some clays can be easily damaged by
cleaning and drying which influences the micro-porosity and
therefore the measured capillary curve. These clays can be
damaged (collapsed) on sample preparation for mercury
injection tests
• The presence of clays also reduces the pore throat radius and
hence has the effect of increasing the pore entry pressure
• At reservoir conditions, water that is associated with the clay
minerals as bound water exists in the pore spaces. This Clay-
Bound Water (CBW) is removed during the cleaning and drying
of the sample prior to the mercury MICP measurement.
• on the wetting fluid used to obtain the capillary curve. If the
wetting phase does not interact with the clay, then CBW is not
accounted for, and the capillary curve generates water
saturations that are too low. This is the case for mercury/air
capillary curves.
• The MICP data are corrected for CBW after using closure and
stress corrections by applying the following equations:
 Relative permeability
• The absolute permeability is defined as the permeability of the porous medium to a fluid at 100% pore space saturation of
that fluid
• Effective permeability is a measure of the resistance of the porous medium to one fluid phase when more than one fluid
phase is present. The effective permeability is a function of the saturation and distribution of the fluid phases.
• Relative permeability (kr) is one permeability value normalized to another permeability value, thus scaling relative
permeability from zero (0) to a maximum of one (1).

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑂𝑖𝑙 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐾𝑟 𝑜𝑖𝑙 =
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐾𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
• Irreducible water saturation: the maximum water saturation that a formation with a given permeability and porosity can
retain without producing water. Swirr is held in place by capillary force and will not flow
• Residual Oil Saturation is the oil saturation left in a reservoir after extraction is done by conventional methods. It is the
reduction of oil saturation which mainly occurs in reservoirs which are being depleted in secondary and primary
programs
• Laboratory measurements are made by displacing one phase with another (unsteady state) tests or simultaneous flow of
two phases (steady state) tests
• Unsteady state test procedure: when the plug is 100% saturated by water and at this stage the permeability is defined as
Absolute permeability (single fluid phase). At the beginning of the experiment, the core is saturated with 80% oil, and
there is an irreducible water saturation of 20% due to the water wet nature (Example). this point will be defined as K(oil) @
irreducible water saturation. When water increases more than 20% there will be two permeabilities, effective perm of oil
and effective perm of water (two fluid phase). At the end of the experiment where there is no further production of oil
from the sample (residual oil), the Kr(oil) is zero and the permeability is Kw@ residual oil saturation
• Steady state Procedure: in this test oil and water mixture injected in decreasing oil fraction.
 Relative permeability
Unsteady State steady State
 References
1. Colin McPhee, Jules Reed, Izaskun Zubizarreta. Core analysis: a best practice guide.
Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2015
2. Martin Kennedy. Practical Petrophysics. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2015
3. John H. Doveton. Principles of Mathematical Petrophysics. London: Oxford
University Press, 2014
4. Formation evaluation MSc courses, Dr.Paul Glover,
http://homepages.see.leeds.ac.uk/~earpwjg/PG_EN/CD%20Contents/GGL-
66565%20Petrophysics%20English/

5. Crain’s Petrophysical Handbook, https://www.spec2000.net/00-index.htm