ChE 324 Lab Manual

Experiment D.2
EFFLUX TIME FOR A TANK WITH AN EXIT PIPE

Although there exists a theoretical framework for describing fluid flow behavior
by calculating complete profiles of velocity and pressure (Bird et al., 2002), many
practical problems cannot be solved with such a fundamental approach. One difficulty
that arises is that the geometry and boundary conditions are too complex to allow a
precise mathematical formulation and solution. The other obstacle is that the flow may
become unstable and turbulent, introducing a random component in local fluctuations that
cannot be predicted in any precise way. In such situations the fundamental laws of
physics still apply, but an alternative approach is needed to obtain descriptions with
engineering utility.
For complex geometries or flow situations it is common to adopt a macroscopic
approach rather than trying to solve the differential equations of change. Required
equations include the mass balance, the momentum balance, and the mechanical energy
balance, all applied to a general macroscopic system. A macroscopic system is defined by
the boundaries that contain a phase and, for a flow system, by control planes at the
entrance and exit points. Conservation principles are then applied to the entire volume of
the system rather than to a differential element.
The macroscopic balances are written as algebraic equations for steady-state
systems or as ordinary differential equation when an unsteady-state process is considered.
The terms that appear in the macroscopic balances are of three types: First, the input and
output terms that are evaluated at the entrance and exit planes of the system; second,
terms that express the total-transport rate across the boundaries of the system; and finally,
terms that involve a summation, i.e. an integral, of some quantity over the entire volume
of the system.
Because the purpose of the macroscopic balances is to avoid calculating in detail
the profiles of material properties, such as velocity and pressure, the calculation of the
summation terms must be done approximately. Such terms may be analyzed by
dimensional analysis, and the results combined with experimental data to develop
generalized correlations that can be used for estimates in practical engineering
calculations.
In this experiment one observes the rate of drainage of liquids from a tank through
exit tubes of various sizes. This system is analyzed with a macroscopic mass balance
combined with a macroscopic mechanical energy balance. In the later equation it is
necessary to use dimensionless correlations to estimate the loss of mechanical energy
caused by viscous dissipation within the fluid.

Experiment D.2
Efflux time for a tank with an exit pipe Page D.2-1
ChE 324 Lab Manual

Theory

Consider a vertical, cylindrical tank such as that shown in Figure D.2-1 that
contains a Newtonian liquid up to the level h above the bottom of the tank. The top of
the tank as well as the bottom of the drain pipe are exposed to the atmosphere. Thus, the
liquid drains from the tank under the influence of gravity. A model of the draining
process is sought in order to predict the rate at which the tank empties.

R L

Figure D.2-1. A liquid draining from a cylindrical tank through a pipe

First, one may write a macroscopic mass balance for the liquid in the system,
which is defined as the entire liquid volume from the top surface to the outlet of the pipe.
The total mass of liquid in the system is
mtot = ρ π ( R02 L + R 2 h) (D.2-1)
where ρ is the density of the liquid, R is the radius of the tank, R0 is the pipe, and L is its
length. A mass balance for the liquid contained in the system yields
d
mtot = − ρ π R02 v (D.2-2)
dt
where v is the average velocity out of the bottom of the pipe. There is no velocity term at
the top because there is no flow into the top of the tank.
Taking the density to be constant and substituting Equation D.2-1 into D.2-2, one
obtains
2
dh R 
=− 0  v (D.2-3)
dt  R
This equation may be integrated from the initial liquid level h1 to a subsequent level h2 to
obtain the corresponding efflux time te. That is,
2
te  R h2 dh
te = ∫ dt = −   ∫ (D.2-4)
0  R0  h1 v

Experiment D.2
Efflux time for a tank with an exit pipe Page D.2-2
ChE 324 Lab Manual

In order to perform the desired integration, one must know the velocity v as a function of
liquid level h. That relationship comes from the macroscopic mechanical energy balance.
If one neglects the rate of change of the total mechanical energy in the system, by
the so-called pseudo-steady-state approximation, then one can use the macroscopic
mechanical energy balance, also called the Bernoulli equation (Bird et al., 2002, p.204).
 1 < v3 > p
∆ + g (h + L) +  w = Wm − E c − E v (D.2-5)
2 <v > ρ
. In addition to the pseudo-steady-state approximation, one can assume that there is no
work term, that there is no overall pressure differential, that the fluid is incompressible,
and that the velocity profile in the tube is essentially flat. With those assumptions
Equation D.2-5 becomes
1 2 E 
v − g ( L + h) = −  v  (D.2-6)
2  w
where g is the acceleration of gravity, w is the mass flow rate through the pipe, and Ev is
the rate of viscous dissipation in the liquid.
From the derivation of the Bernoulli equation, one can identify the source of the
viscous dissipation term. For a Newtonian fluid it is possible to apply dimensional
analysis to arrive at the conclusion that
 Ev  1 2
  = v ev (D.2-7)
 w 2
where ev is a dimensionless function of Reynolds number and geometrical ratios and is
called the friction loss factor (Bird et al., 2002, p.206).
The contributions to Ev or ev from various regions of the system are additive. For
regions where most of the viscous dissipation arises from friction and steep velocity
gradients, such as flow through valves or around elbows, one can identify a value of ev
that is relatively constant. Some representative values for obstacles, valves, and fittings
are tabulated in Bird et al. (2002, p 207). A more complete listing is given in Perry's
Handbook (Perry and Green, 1984).
For the geometry considered in this experiment, the only ev value of interest is
that associated with the entrance into the pipe. According to Bird et al.(2002), this value
should be ev = 0.45(1 − β ) , where β is the ratio of the area of the pipe to that of the tank.
There is no exit loss because the liquid leaves the tube in a streamline manner, without
any extra turbulence generated by its contact with air. For the orifice, the value of ev is
( )
2.7(1 − β) 1 − β 2 / β 2 .

For regions of straight pipe, one can replace the friction loss factor with the
Fanning friction factor f:
L
ev = 4 f (D.2-8)
D

Experiment D.2
Efflux time for a tank with an exit pipe Page D.2-3
ChE 324 Lab Manual

where D is the diameter of the pipe, L is its length, and f is a function of Reynolds
number, Re (Bird et al., 2002, p.206)
For the case under consideration, the Bernoulli equation may now be written as
1 2 1  L 
v − g ( L + h) = v 2  2 f + ∑ e v,i  (D.2-9)
2 2  R0 i 
where the summation of friction loss factors includes all obstacles and disturbances that
the fluid encounters. All terms in Equation D.2-9 may be viewed as energy per unit mass
of fluid flowing. The first term on the left-hand side represents the kinetic energy carried
out of the pipe by the fluid. Rearrangement yields an explicit expression for the
instantaneous velocity in the pipe
1
  2

 2g ( L + h) 
v=  (D.2-10)
1 + 2f L + e 
 R0
∑i v,i 

Before Equation D.2-10 is substituted into Equation D.2-4, it is necessary to assess the
relative magnitudes of the terms in the denominator. In particular, if the term containing
the friction factor is significant and f varies with Re, is it necessary to deal with the
velocity dependence of that term.
First, suppose that the liquid is in laminar flow, then
16 µ
f= (D.2-11)
2 R 0 vρ
as given in Equation C.1-16. If one assumes in addition that the kinetic energy and other
friction terms are negligible, then
ρgR 20 ( L + h)
v= (D.2-12)
8µL
which is the result of the Hagen-Poiseuille analysis. If this expression for v is substituted
into Equation D.2-4, one obtains the efflux time to be
8µLR 2  L + h 1 
te = ln   (D.2-13)
ρgR 40  L + h 2 
At the other extreme, if the flow is sufficiently turbulent or the pipe is sufficiently
rough that f is a constant (see Figure 6.2-2 in Bird et al., 2002), then the result of the
integration is
1
 L  2
2  1 + 2f + ∑ e v ,i 
 R R0 ( L + h ) 12 − ( L + h ) 12 
t e = 2   i  (D.2-14)
 R0   2g   1 2

 
 

Experiment D.2
Efflux time for a tank with an exit pipe Page D.2-4
ChE 324 Lab Manual

where any of the three resistance terms might be dominant.

Finally, in the intermediate range of turbulent flow, for 2100<Re<105, in smooth
pipes, the friction factor may be expressed by the Blasius formula (Equation C.1-17),
0.0791
f= 1
(D.2-15)
Re 4

If only the term containing f in Equation D.2-10 is significant, then the velocity is given
by
1
 2( L + h) 4 R 50 g 4 ρ  7

v=  (D.2-16)
 ( 0.0791) L µ 
4 4

In that case, integration of Equation D.2-4 yields

4
 1  7
7 R 2  ( 0.0791) Lµ 4  ( L + h ) 3 7 − ( L + h ) 3 7 
te = 2   (D.2-17)
3R 0  g 2ρR 5 14 
( )
1 2

 0 
It is possible that, as a liquid drains from a tank and the level h drops, the
Reynolds number within the pipe changes from one regime to another. In that case, the
integral of Equation D.2-4 must be evaluated in several parts, using the appropriate
expression for the velocity in each region of h.
Apparatus
The apparatus for this experiment is a cylindrical tank fitted with a level gauge, as
shown in Figure D.2-2. The tank has a 6-inch diameter, and its total depth is 10 inches.
Various interchangeable exit pipes can be screwed into the bottom of the tank. The
available exit pipes are listed in Table D.2-1. Also available are a blank plug and a
simple plug containing an orifice with diameter of 0.188 inches.
Additional equipment includes weighing containers, platform scales, a stopwatch, a
thermometer, and a graduated cylinder. In addition to water, a 60-weight-per cent
aqueous sucrose solution is available to be used as a working fluid. Properties of aqueous
sucrose solutions are given in Appendices 4 and 4a.

Experiment D.2
Efflux time for a tank with an exit pipe Page D.2-5
ChE 324 Lab Manual

Table D.2-1. Dimensions of the available exit pipes for

the efflux time experiment.
Length, inches Inside Diameter, inches
24 0.125
24 0.188
24 0.314
12 0.188
6 0.188
3 0.188

Figure D.2-2. Sketch of the draining-tank apparatus with an exit pipe in place

Procedure

Experiment D.2
Efflux time for a tank with an exit pipe Page D.2-6
ChE 324 Lab Manual

1. Calibrate the depth gauge on the tank as follows:

a. Insert the blank plug in the bottom of the tank.
b. Fill the tank by adding successively known volumes or weights of water and
noting the change in level on the gauge as each portion is added.
2. Determine efflux times for draining the tank and instantaneous flow rates as follows:
a. Attach one of the exit pipes or the orifice to the bottom of the empty tank, and fill
the tank and pipe with water or sucrose solution. During the filling, seal off the
end of the tube with a fingertip or a stopper.
b. Starting with a full tank, allow the liquid to start flowing from the pipe.
c. Record the times at which the liquid level in the depth gauge passes
predetermined locations.
d. Measure the total time that it takes for the liquid level to travel from the top to the
bottom of the depth gauge.
3. Make the above measurements with all pipes and with the simple orifice with water.
Record the temperature of the liquid in each case. For ease of comparison, it is
suggested that one begin each test with the same initial level of liquid in the tank.
4. Repeat the measurements for several pipes with the sucrose solution as time permits.
Start with the shorter tubes, and then test the longer ones if there is time. Again,
begin each test with the same initial liquid level.
5. During the laboratory session perform preliminary analysis of the data. In particular,
estimate initial and final Reynolds numbers for each run. Try to schedule
experiments so that data are taken for both laminar and turbulent flow.
6. When changing tubes, take care not to bend the tubes out of vertical alignment. Also,
the O-ring seals need not be tightened very hard.
7. Return sucrose solution to its storage reservoir after use. It contains preservative to
prevent spoilage. Do not taste.
8. Avoid entraining air bubbles in the sucrose solution by pouring it down the sides of
the tank and of the storage reservoir.
9. Wash all equipment well after use with the sucrose solution, especially the depth
gauge and the drain valve just below the gauge. Wash the tubes well before placing
them in the soaking trays after use.
10. Try to avoid vortex formation in the tank during draining. Swirling flow can be
prevented by placing a circle of polyethylene sheet or another floating material on the
surface of the liquid.
11. Check and record the dimensions of the apparatus.
Data Analysis
Calculate the experimental exit velocity v as a function of h for each run. Use
these values to calculate the Reynolds number at the beginning and end of each run. Use
Experiment D.2
Efflux time for a tank with an exit pipe Page D.2-7
ChE 324 Lab Manual

the appropriate equation from the Theory section to calculate te, and compare these
values with the experimental values.
Plot efflux time te values from all water runs versus (L/R0) on a single graph as
individual data points. Show on the same graph, as lines, the two theoretical
relationships given by Equations D.2-13 and D.2-17.
In a table compare the experimental efflux times for the sucrose solution
compared with the theoretical values calculated with the appropriate model, depending on
the Reynolds number. In the table show also L/R0 and the average value of Re for each
run.
By reference to the theoretical models, investigate the expected accuracy of the te
predictions and compare the uncertainty in those values with the deviation from
experimental values. As part of this exercise calculate the relative magnitudes of the
contributions to the viscous dissipation term for the various experimental conditions
studied.

References
Bird, R.B., W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, Second Edition,
John Wiley and Sons, New York (2002).

Perry, R.H., and D. Green (eds.), Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 6th ed.,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1984.

Experiment D.2
Efflux time for a tank with an exit pipe Page D.2-8