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Tribal Migration-Development nexus in Maharashtra

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Tribal Migration*
INTRODUCTION
India is a home to a large assortment of indig-
enous people. The Scheduled Tribe (ST) pop-
ulation represents one of the most financially
ruined and marginalized groups in India. As
per the 2001 Census, India has the largest
tribal population in the world of over 102 mil-
lion, constituting 8.6 per cent of the total pop-
ulation of the country (Census of India, 2001).
The term tribe here means a group of people
who have lived at a particular place since times
immemorial. There are about 654 ST commu-
nities across the states in India, known by dif-
ferent names such as the Adivasis (the original
inhabitants), Vanya Jati (live in the forest) and
Adim Jati (primitive people). About 92 per
cent of the ST population live in rural areas,
with only 8 per cent living in urban areas.
According to the National Census of 2001, 30
per cent of the population were migrants, with
65.4 million female migrants and 32.8 million
male migrants. Maharashtra has the second
* The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publica-
tion of this chapter. This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial
or non-profit sectors.
22
Bhagyoday Khandare
Himanshu Chaurasia
Sunil Sarode
highest percentage of tribal population of the
total ST population in the country (10.2%)
after Madhya Pradesh (14.5%). As per the
2001 Census, Maharashtra received the larger
number of migrants (7.9 million) by place of
the birth than other states, and the most impor-
tant reason for migration was ‘work/employ-
ment’. Apart from women migrating due to
marriage, employment was the biggest reason
for migration (Planning Commission, 2005).
LITERATURE REVIEW
It is believed that population segregation with
the concentration of the industrial sector offers
more job opportunities to people in big cities.
(Todaro, 1969). According to Kulkarni et al.,
the study of tribal mobility in Gadiguda shows
that women migrate in large proportions in
groups accompanying few men and children.
It is predominantly due to seasonal migration
304 HANDBOOK OF INTERNAL MIGRATION IN INDIA
that women migrate to other places for work.
The primary push factor for migration is lack
of employment opportunities in the locality
(Kulkarni, Das & Pardeshi, 2013). Deshingkar
and Start (2003) show why some groups of
people have succeeded in entering accumu-
lative migration pathways while others have
been excluded. This helps us understand that
migration patterns are determined by people’s
access to resources, the (institutional, market
and policy) environment, intrahousehold rela-
tions, wider social relations and not just the
productivity and demand for labour in an area.
Smita (2008) noted in her study that there still
are many categories of children in India for
whom adequate and appropriate strategies are
not in place for effective education. Drought
and lack of work in villages force entire fam-
ilies to migrate for several months every year
in search of work merely to survive. Children
accompany their parents, and as a result, drop-
out rates go up. Migrants comprise the most
vulnerable sections of society, and especially
those that also belong to the Scheduled Caste
and ST groups (Smita, 2008). According to
Bokil (2002), the denotified and nomadic
tribes continue to remain poor, marginalized
and powerless communities (Bokil, 2002).
Kokate et al. said that tribal development is an
extremely entangled task and needs more care-
ful consideration than has been paid to it until
now. Majority of the tribal workers are cultiva-
tors and agricultural labourers, as reported in
some of the studies (Kokate & Solunke, 2011;
Kulkarni, 1980). The issues of the tribal pop-
ulation in Maharashtra vary across tribes and
regions as they wander in search of livelihood
and lack education, which makes their survival
difficult. So, they are forced to continue the
tradition of moving from one place to another
and thousands of families belonging to these
wandering tribes stay in temporary structures.
Unfortunately, their case has not been suffi-
ciently attended to by democratic polity and
civil society. Their closed, inward-looking
cultures have also been found to be an obsta-
cle to change and development. Migration and
development phenomen are still understudied,
despite its extent and social impact. It is essen-
tial to know what happened to tribal migration
in Maharashtra. Tribes are spread all over in
large areas, mainly in hilly areas and forests of
Maharashtra. For these very reasons, there is a
need to make concerted efforts towards their
development. Given this background, the pri-
mary purpose of this chapter is to understand
migration and development among the tribal
population in Maharashtra.
DATA AND METHODS
In 1881, the Census has collected the informa-
tion on place of birth, place of last residence
(POLR), duration of residence in the place
at the time of enumeration in 1971 and rea-
sons for migration (marriage, education and/
or employment) in 1981 were introduced and
added to the Census questionnaire. Thus, the
migration table provides information on the
spatial aspects of movement of migration
within the country (Census of India, 2011).
The answers to these questions shed light on
the patterns, interdistrict flow and socio-demo-
graphics of Maharashtra. In this study, 2001
Census data has been used (as data was not
available for the year 2011) for computation
using Microsoft Excel and SPSS software.
Migration matrix was constructed based on
the POLR. In this analysis, two rates namely
in-migration rate and out-migration rate were
computed separately for both male and female
migrants. Linear regression method was used
to quantify the relationship between tribal
population and tribal literary rate.
Findings
Maharashtra has a total tribal population of
8.577 million which is 9 per cent of the total
population of India, as per the Census of
2001. About 7.486 million of Maharashtra’s
 Tribal Migration
tribal population lives in the rural areas while
only 1.090 million lives in urban areas. There
were 9.10 per cent females and 8.63 per cent
males, respectively. The urban area has only
2.66 per cent ST population with 2.74 per cent
females and only 2.57 per cent males, but rural
Maharashtra has 13.42 per cent ST population
with 13.56 per cent female and 13.29 per cent
males, as shown in Table 22.1.
District-wise Tribal Population of
Maharashtra
Maharashtra has 35 districts and 353 talukas.
According to the 2001 Census, the percentage
of total population to the tribal population was
found to be highest in the district of Nandurbar
(65.53%), followed by the Gadchiroli
(38.31%), Dhule (25.97%), Nashik (23.91%),
Yavatmal (19.26%), Chandrapur (18.12%) and
Thane (14.75%), respectively. About 58 per
cent of the total of Maharashtra’s tribal popula-
tion lives in these seven districts (Figure 22.1).
Division-wise Tribal Population of
Maharashtra
According to the 2001 Census, more than
half of the ST population is concentrated in
the Khandesh division (37.73%) followed
by Nagpur division (19.12%), Konkan divi-
sion (18.47%), Vidarbha division (13.01%),
Marathwada division (7.09%) and Pune divi-
sion (4.57%), respectively (Figure 22.2).
Table 22.1  Maharashtra Scheduled Tribe Population in 2001
Total
Persons 8,577,276 (8.85)
Males 4,347,754 (8.63)
Females 4,229,522 (9.10)
Source: Census of India (2001).
Note: The figures in brackets show the percent.
305
Total Scheduled Tribes’ Migrant
Within the State
Based on the distance covered by the tribal
migrants, Maharashtra has experienced
both in-migration as well as out-migration.
Table 22.2 shows the volume and percentage
of in-migrants. As much as 0.23 per cent of the
total ST population are migrants. The rural area
receives 0.20 per cent of total ST migrants and
the urban area receives 0.34 per cent of total
ST migrants from other states of the country.
In Maharashtra, male STs have a higher rate of
migration compared with female STs.
Duration of Migration
Table 22.3 shows duration of last residence for
total tribal migrants within the state. In 2001,
most of the tribal migrants are enumerated as
20 years and above (38%) with a higher per-
centage (7.9%) of male migrants than female
migrants. The percentage of female migrants
is 2.35 whereas that of male migrants is 2.13,
for those whose duration of last residence is
less than 1 year.
Reason for Migration
Table 22.4 shows the reasons for migration
based on the last residence. The reasons for
migration in case of male and female migrants
vary significantly. Employment was the most
important reason for migration among male
Rural Urban
7,486,537 (13.42) 1,090,739 (2.66)
3,782,848 (13.29) 564,906 (2.57)
3,703,689 (13.56) 525,833 (2.74)
306 HANDBOOK OF INTERNAL MIGRATION IN INDIA

70 66
60
50
T r i b a l P op u l a t i on i n %

40 38
30 26 24
20 14 16 1819 15
12 1211 9 12
9 9 8
10 5 6 7 3 4
2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1
0

Nanded

Sangli
Osmanabad
Wardha

Aurangabad

Sindhudurg
Nandurbar
Dhule

Buldana
Akola

Amravati

Nagpur

Gondiya

Chandrapur
Yavatmal

Hingoli
Parbhani
Jalna

Nashik
Thane
Mumbai (Sub)
Mumbai
Raigarh
Pune
Ahmadnagar
Bid
Latur

Solapur

Ratnagiri

Kolhapur
Satara
Washim

Bhandara

Gadchiroli
Jalgaon

Districts of Maharashtra

Figure 22.1  District-wise Percentage of Tribal Population of Maharashtra

40 38
Population in %

30
20 18 19
Tribal

13
10 5 7
0
KONKAN KHANDESH PUNE MARATHWADA VIDARBHA NAGPUR

Division of Maharashtra

Figure 22.2  Division-wise Tribal Population of Maharashtra

Table 22.2  Scheduled Tribe Migrants within
the State
Last
Residence
Total
Rural
Urban
Source: Census of India (2001).
migrants (58.81%) in a rural area and 48.65
per cent in an urban area, marriage was the
most important reason among female migrants
(50.75%) in a rural area and 46.62 per cent in
an urban area. The other important reasons for
migration are moved after birth and moved with
the household. Migration primarily occurs due
to disparities in regional development.
Literacy and Educational Level
Currently, the state lags behind in terms of
Persons Males Females
literacy and educational attainment which are
No. % No. % No. % powerful indicators of socio-economic devel-
19,888 0.23 10,275 0.24 9,613 0.23 opment among the backward groups in India.
15,325 0.20 8,023 0.21 7,302 0.20 According to the 2001 Census, the percentage
3,683 0.34 1,817 0.32 1,866 0.35 of literate persons among the ST population of
Maharashtra is 55.2 per cent, which is lower
than 76.9 per cent reported for the state popu-
lation as a whole. Though the literacy rate has
improved substantially among ST population,
it is still much below the literacy rate of the
state population. The percentage of the tribal
literate is found to be highest in the district
of Mumbai (80.81%). The female literacy rate
of 43.8 per cent among the ST population is
lower compared with 67.02 per cent among
the total male literate population of the state.
 Tribal Migration 307

Table 22.3  Percentage Distribution of Duration-wise Tribal Migration by Duration in

Maharashtra
Duration Persons Males Females

Duration of residence less than one year 02.24 02.13 02.35

Duration of residence 1–4 years 14.43 13.00 15.95
Duration of residence 5–9 years 13.80 13.22 14.42
Duration of residence 10–19 years 25.37 23.66 27.19
Duration of residence 20 years and above 38.55 42.36 34.47
Unclassified 05.62 05.63 05.62

Source: Census of India (2001).

Table 22.4  Percentage Distribution of Reasons for Scheduled Tribes’ Migration by the Last
Residence
Rural Urban
Reason for Migration Persons Males Females Persons Males Females

Work or employment 33.15 58.81 04.97 26.42 48.65 04.77

Business 00.19 00.19 00.19 00.19 00.33 00.05
Education 02.23 03.42 00.92 03.39 05.01 01.82
Marriage 24.40 00.42 50.75 23.78 00.33 46.62
Move after birth 12.86 14.23 11.35 15.29 17.23 13.40
Move with household 14.81 11.17 18.82 18.22 14.53 21.81
Other 12.35 11.77 13.00 12.71 13.92 11.52

Source: Census of India (2001).

The highest and lowest female literacy rates of
73.62 per cent and 32.17 per cent are recorded
among Buldhana and Mumbai, respectively
(Figure 22.3).
The result of linear regression between
tribal literacy rate and tribal population shows
a negative relationship between them in
Maharashtra. A unit increase in the percentage
of tribal population decreases the tribal liter-
acy rate by 0.41 units (Figure 22.4).
Sex Ratio in Districts of Maharashtra
among Tribal Population
Figure 22.5 shows the district-wise sex ratio
among the ST population as per the 2001
Census. Gondiya and Nandurbar districts’ ST
sex ratios are 1,020 and 1,009 females per
1,000 males, respectively, followed by Thane
(996), Bhandara (992), Gadchiroli (987),
with the sex ratio of Maharashtra being 973
females per 1,000 males.
Table 22.5 provides necessary information
on the socio-economic background of districts
of Maharashtra. The contribution of the tribal
population to the total urban population, dis-
trict-wise, has been presented here. Within
Maharashtra, there is great variation across
districts in the percentage of urban population,
that is, Nandurbar and Gadchiroli districts
have the highest urban population of about
15 per cent and 11 per cent, respectively, and
Kolhapur and Sindhudurg districts have the
lowest with about less than 1 per cent each.
Among the personal characteristics which
are likely to influence a person to migrate,
education plays a perfect indicator to show
socio-economic development. Findings indi-
cate that about 55 per cent male migrants and
35 per cent female migrants belong to the liter-
ate tribal population in Maharashtra. Here, we
308 HANDBOOK OF INTERNAL MIGRATION IN INDIA

100
90 Males Females Persons
80
Percentage

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Parbhani
Kolhapur

Wardha
Ahmadnagar
Akola
Aurangabad

Buldana
Dhule
Gadchiroli
Gondiya
Jalgaon
Jalna

Latur
Mumbai (suburban)
Nanded
Nandurbar
Nashik

Ratnagiri
Sangli
Washim
Yavatmal
Amravati
Bid

Hingoli
Maharashtra

Nagpur

Raigarh
Satara
Sindhudurg

Thane
Solapur
Bhandara

Chandrapur

Pune
Osmanabad

Mumbai
Districts

Figure 22.3  Literacy and Educational Level

90 PERCENTAGE OF TRIBAL LITERACY RATE

80
Tribal literacy (%)

70
y = 65.47 − 0.41x
60 R2  .25
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00
Tribal population (%)

Figure 22.4  Regression Analysis of Tribal Literacy Rate of Maharashtra

also see that Nandurbar (26%) indicates very
low levels of female literacy, while Mumbai
(65%) indicates higher female literacy. It has
been found that Sindhudurg district received
highest in-migrants (about 29%). On the other
hand, there was higher rate of out-migration
from Mumbai district at about 50 per cent. The
volume of in-migrants is highest for Jalgaon
district compared with other districts of
Maharashtra. Overall, the proportion of tribal
out-migration is 5.49 per cent and net migra-
tion is 24 per cent. Furthermore, out-migra-
tion rate in Maharashtra is high in Sindhudurg
district (29%) followed by Mumbai (24.03%),
Ratnagiri (21.46%), Mumbai suburban
(20.93%), Satara (18.72%) and Bid (18.60%).
On the other hand, in-migration is high in
Mumbai (50.30%), Sindhudurg (32.77%), Bid
(22.49%), Jalna (20.04%), Bhandara (19.41%)
and Parbhani (18.83%), respectively.
Sex ratio (number of females per 1,000
males) has been a matter of concern for the
population, the same has been seen in the
case of tribal population. According to the
2001 Census, the sex ratio of in-migration
is highly male-dominated in the Ratnagiri
 Tribal Migration 309

1200
Sex ratio
1000
800
Number

600
400
200
0

Sangli
Kolhapur

Wardha
Aurangabad

Buldana
Dhule
Gadchiroli
Hingoli
Jalgaon

Latur
Mumbai
Nandurbar

Raigarh

Solapur

Washim

Akola
Amravati
Bid

Gondiya
Jalna

Nagpur
Nanded
Nashik
Osmanabad

Ratnagiri

Thane
Yavatmal
Ahmadnagar
Bhandara

Satara

Pune
Chandrapur
Parbhani

Mahrashtra
Sindhudurg

Mumbai (suburban)
Districts

Figure 22.5  District-wise Sex Ratio among the ST Population in Maharashtra

and Sindhdurg districts, on the other hand,
out-migration is highly female-dominated.
Table 22.5 shows sex ratio of the migrants for
the districts of Maharashtra, India.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Maharashtra is also one of the significant con-
tributing states of tribal population and migra-
tion is the major component of population
studies in India. From the above discussion,
it has been found that the tribal population in
Maharashtra is 8,577,276 and they contrib-
ute 8.85 per cent of the total state population
and around 87.28 per cent of the total tribal
population lives in rural areas. It can also be
concluded that a high proportion of the tribal
population is concentrated in the northeastern
and northwestern parts of the state. The cen-
tral part shows a scant tribal population but a
high growth rate is recorded in districts, such
as Kolhapur, Sangli and Solapur, where their
proportion is deficient. According to the above
results, the tribal population now most of the
time migrate for a long duration. However,
from the gender perspective, the tribal males
migrate to search for work/employment and
the tribal females migrate for marriage. These
are the main two reasons found. Decidedly,
less number of tribal population migrate for
business and education and due to this, liter-
acy is low and they are unable to get proper
employment. As a result, there are serious
implications on the economic conditions of
the tribal population. As the cultural reason,
we found that the tribal female goes to her
mother’s house to deliver children and after
childbirth she comes back to her husband’s
house, which means that after birth, more
tribal people move from one place to another.
In a tribal family, the old male takes all the
responsibility of the family, so if the head of
the household moves in search of work, then
the whole family moves with him. This is also
one of the reasons behind substantial tribal
migration.
In tribal regions of Maharashtra, displace-
ment and deforestation also have played a
significant role in tribal migration and reha-
bilitation. To sum up, forest and land have
been the two major assets of the tribal pop-
ulation. The deterioration of both has had a
direct impact on tribal migration. One of the
characteristics of the tribal population is the
Table 22.5  Socio-economic and Migration Variables for Districts of Maharashtra, India
Literacy Rate Volume of In- and Out- Sex Ratio of In- and Out-
Population (%) (%) Migration Rate (%) migration (%) migration (%)
District Total Urban Male Female In-migration Out-migration Net Migration In-migration Out-migration In-migration Out-migration

Nandurbar 65.53 15.30 42.25 25.94 1.95 1.53 0.42 13,161 16,765 96.62 158.84
Dhule 25.97 5.25 45.49 28.27 4.88 8.14 −3.26 36,098 21,636 92.42 169.31
Jalgaon 11.84 4.20 52.96 31.47 3.46 7.54 −4.07 32,855 15,093 91.55 181.27
Buldana 5.16 1.95 57.47 34.31 11.28 9.09 2.19 10,468 12,986 84.59 209.04
Akola 6.14 2.32 68.39 49.17 15.52 17.09 −1.57 17,104 15,534 80.77 220.02
Washim 6.96 1.79 61.09 36.70 12.95 12.97 −0.01 9,204 9,195 81.14 297.19
Amravati 13.68 3.77 60.88 42.34 4.60 5.60 −1.00 19,951 16,389 88.24 218.23
Wardha 12.49 6.66 67.76 51.08 15.45 14.47 0.98 22,346 23,864 83.42 178.30
Nagpur 10.93 8.67 73.11 57.61 7.89 5.26 2.63 23,388 35,075 91.02 142.13
Bhandara 8.60 7.39 74.36 52.58 9.03 19.41 −10.38 18,968 8,821 89.49 234.38
Gondiya 16.36 4.25 70.47 47.55 4.62 5.65 −1.03 11,090 9,068 93.60 274.09
Gadchiroli 38.31 10.63 49.74 30.49 3.90 2.28 1.62 8,487 14,495 94.90 181.95
Chandrapur 18.12 8.46 65.11 44.97 6.35 6.49 −0.14 24,358 23,842 93.40 165.32
Yavatmal 19.26 6.99 62.04 41.43 4.69 7.27 −2.57 34,396 22,221 92.23 219.96
Nanded 8.82 4.46 60.97 37.59 3.70 4.65 −0.95 11,799 9,383 89.20 267.67
Hingoli 8.80 3.15 58.95 32.74 6.92 6.29 0.62 5,467 6,010 87.05 298.54
Parbhani 2.30 1.70 60.03 35.16 14.76 18.83 −4.07 6,629 5,196 83.84 224.55
Jalna 1.99 1.79 56.29 33.76 14.64 20.04 −5.40 6,435 4,700 84.72 201.86
Aurangabad 3.47 1.31 54.38 32.52 13.75 14.60 −0.86 14,664 13,803 86.40 183.60
Nashik 23.92 5.58 50.33 31.20 3.46 2.57 0.89 30,712 41,312 95.69 143.60
Thane 14.75 2.57 47.69 27.84 3.88 1.12 2.76 13,490 46,579 99.66 102.76
Mumbai 0.82 0.82 74.94 57.73 20.93 0.39 20.54 278 14,748 94.59 94.18
(Suburban)
Mumbai 0.62 0.62 78.09 65.11 24.03 50.33 −26.30 10,401 4,966 92.50 91.29
Raigarh 12.19 4.65 45.76 28.49 3.37 4.56 −1.20 12,281 9,057 97.36 131.28
Pune 3.62 1.38 61.95 40.84 12.03 5.66 6.36 14,823 31,473 94.77 105.53
Ahmadnagar 7.51 1.82 53.77 32.29 7.81 9.40 −1.60 28,513 23,671 93.93 151.34
Bid 1.12 1.32 58.22 37.74 18.60 22.49 −3.89 5,442 4,500 81.80 157.88
Latur 2.30 1.46 64.73 42.69 6.50 9.97 −3.47 4,769 3,107 85.07 189.56
Osmanabad 1.87 1.89 57.79 36.11 11.93 12.32 −0.38 3,431 3,324 80.74 220.54
Solapur 1.79 2.12 63.84 41.42 4.87 11.62 −6.74 8,014 3,363 88.91 132.73
Satara 0.78 0.81 61.26 45.63 18.72 12.19 6.53 2,670 4,100 91.68 112.33
Ratnagiri 1.18 0.66 51.16 31.88 21.46 16.77 4.69 3,371 4,314 100.00 79.90
Sindhudurg 0.57 0.43 67.63 54.08 29.00 32.77 −3.78 1,623 1,436 101.50 83.63
Kolhapur 0.61 0.48 72.49 55.00 14.71 7.50 7.21 1,605 3,147 83.09 114.37
Sangli 0.69 0.63 71.65 54.02 13.48 15.84 −2.36 2,828 2,406 84.10 141.81
Maharashtra 8.85 2.66 54.93 35.37 29.00 5.49 23.51 471,119 485,579 100.14 156.48
 312 HANDBOOK OF INTERNAL MIGRATION IN INDIA
absence of script of their dialects. Their tradi-
tional knowledge is transmitted from one gen-
eration to another by word of mouth. There is
an urgent need to document this vanishing tra-
dition not only in Maharashtra but throughout
the country.
Human migration is as old as human his-
tory, and the pattern of human development is
integrally linked to the pattern of migration.
Migration encompasses different streams and
has very different causes and consequences
for different groups of people and different
regions. Most migration is internal to coun-
tries. In India, the 2001 Census estimated that
there were 314.5 million migrants. However,
a large percentage of these were women who
had moved after marriage. According to esti-
mates, seasonally, migrant labour could very
well constitute 10–15 per cent of India’s
present estimated workforce of 480 million.
They belong to the most impoverished and
deprived sections of the society. Living in dis-
crete settlements on the outskirts of the main
village, STs occupy the lowest rung in the
hierarchy of the caste system and are treated
as social outcasts and untouchables. Even in
post-independence India, atrocities like sexual
abuse, murder and arson against STs continue
unabated
POLICY IMPLICATIONS
The issue of tribal development is a perplex-
ing one. Plans for advancement of farming
ought to be embraced, essentially in the zones
where cultivators with innate abilities are in a
higher part. Care must be taken not to embrace
schemes that for the most part benefit the
non-tribal populace in these regions. Lawful
arrangements to prevent alienation of lands
held by the tribal population are satisfactory.
View publication stats
Laws to re-establish lands alienated in negoti-
ation of legal provisions need to be executed.
However, laws to re-establish lands distanced
under legitimate arrangements have not been
actualized. The government should also
publish socio-economic surveys that it has
financed.
REFERENCES
Bokil, M. (2002). De-notified and nomadic tribes: A per-
spective. Economic and Political Weekly, 37, 148–154.
Census of India. (2001). Office of the registrar general,
India, Maharashtra data highlights: The scheduled
tribes.
Deshingkar, P. & Start, D. (2003). Seasonal migration
for livelihoods in India: Coping, accumulation and
exclusion (Vol. 111). London: Overseas Development
Institute.
Kokate, C. & Solunke, R. (2011). The tribal development
in Maharashtra—A case study. Research, Analysis
and Evaluation, 1(17), 9–71.
Kulkarni, P., Das, K., & Pardeshi, V. (2013). Understand-
ing mobility among tribal population: A study in
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