Product Brochure

Generator Circuit-Breakers
Application Guide
Edited by

ABB Switzerland Ltd

High Voltage Products
Department: High Current Systems
Brown Boveri Strasse 5
CH-8050 Zurich / Switzerland

Text: Dieter Braun, Giosafat Cavaliere,

Kurt Dahinden, Mirko Palazzo
Table of contents

1 Introduction 6

2 History of the development of generator circuit-breakers 7

3 Design of generator circuit-breakers 9

3.1 Interrupting chamber 9
3.2 Hydraulic spring operating mechanism 11
3.3 SF 6-gas density monitoring system 11
3.4 Disconnector 12
3.5 Earthing switch 12
3.6 Starting switch (for gas turbine power plants) 12
3.7 Short-circuiting connection 13
3.8 Current transformer 13
3.9 Voltage transformer 13
3.10 Ferroresonance damping device 13
3.11 Surge capacitor 14
3.12 Surge arrester 14
3.13 Connecting zone 15
3.14 Phase enclosure 16
3.15 Control and supervision 16

4 Standard for generator circuit-breakers 17

5 Selection of generator circuit-breakers 18

5.1 Duties of generator circuit-breakers 18
5.2 Requirements for generator circuit-breakers 18
5.3 Selection of generator circuit-breakers 18
5.3.1 Rated maximum voltage 19
5.3.2 Power frequency 19
5.3.3 Rated continuous current 19
5.3.4 Rated dielectric strength 20
5.3.5 Rated short-circuit duty cycle 20
5.3.6 Rated interrupting time 20
5.3.7 Rated closing time 20
5.3.8 Short-circuit current rating 20
5.3.8.1 System-source short-circuit current 20
5.3.8.2 Generator-source short-circuit current 23
5.3.8.3 Required closing, latching, and carrying capabilities 27
5.3.8.4 Required short-time current-carrying capability 27
5.3.9 Transient recovery voltage rating 27
5.3.9.1 First-pole-to-clear factor 28
5.3.9.2 Amplitude factor 28
5.3.9.3 Power frequency recovery voltage 28
5.3.9.4 Rated inherent transient recovery voltage 29
5.3.9.5 System-source faults 30
5.3.9.6 Generator-source faults 30
5.3.9.7 Calculation of TRV in case of terminal faults 30
5.3.10 Rated load current switching capability 32
5.3.11 Capacitance current switching capability 32
5.3.12 Out-of-phase current switching capability 32
5.3.13 Excitation current switching capability 34
5.3.14 Rated control voltage 34
5.3.15 Rated mechanism fluid operating pressure 34

4 | ABB
Table of contents

6 Application of generator circuit-breakers 35

6.1 Power plant layouts 35
6.1.1 Thermal power plants 35
6.1.2 Gas turbine power plants 35
6.1.3 Hydro power plants 35
6.1.4 Pumped storage power plants 36
6.2 Advantages of generator circuit-breakers 38
6.2.1 Simplified operational procedures 38
6.2.2 Improved protection of the generator and the main and unit transformers 38
6.2.3 Increased security and higher power plant availability 38
6.2.3.1 Transformer failures 39
6.2.3.2 Short-time unbalanced load condition 41
6.2.3.3 Generator motoring 42
6.2.3.4 Synchronizing under out-of-phase conditions 42
6.2.4 Economic benefit 43

7 Maintenance of generator circuit-breakers 44

8 Case study 1: Impact of the method of connecting a generator to the high-voltage grid on the availability of a power plant 45
8.1 Power plant layout 45
8.1.1 Layout of extra high-voltage substation 47
8.1.2 Layout of high-voltage substation 48
8.1.3 Generator circuit-breaker 48
8.1.4 Station transformer 48
8.2 Data for availability calculations 48
8.3 Simulations 48
8.4 Simulation results 49
8.5 Economic evaluation 50

9 Case study 2: Interrupting capability of generator circuit-breakers in case of delayed current zeros 52
9.1 Generator circuit-breaker model adopted for the simulations 52
9.2 Generator terminal faults 53
9.3 Out-of-phase synchronising 55
9.4 Conclusions 56

References 57

ABB | 5
1 Introduction

A major objective of all power plant operating companies is
the achievement of the highest possible plant availability at
the lowest possible cost. Obviously, how a generator is con-
nected to the high-voltage grid and how the power supply to
the unit auxiliaries is secured has a decisive influence on the
availability of a power plant.
Two basically different ways of connecting a generator to the
high-voltage transmission network are in use today, namely
the connection without a circuit-breaker between the genera-
tor and the low-voltage terminals of the main transformer (i.e.
the "unit connection") and the connection with a generator
circuit-breaker (Figure 1). The layout with a generator circuit-
breaker has several advantages over the unit connection, e.g.:
–– simplified operational procedures
–– improved protection of the generator and the main and unit
transformers
–– increased security and higher power plant availability
–– economic benefit
ABB generator circuit-breakers are suitable for application in
all kinds of new power plants such as fossil-fired, nuclear, gas
turbine, combined cycle, hydro and pumped storage power
plants as well as for replacement or retrofit in existing power
stations when they are modernized and/or extended.

a) b)

EHV HV EHV HV

MT MT

UT ST UT ST
G GCB

AUX G AUX

Figure 1: Layout of a thermal power plant without generator circuit-breaker a) and with generator circuit-breaker b)

Legend
MT Main transformer
UT Unit transformer
ST Station transformer
GCB Generator circuit-breaker
EHV Transmission system
HV Sub-transmission system
AUX Unit auxiliaries

6 | ABB
2 History of the development of generator circuit-breakers

Originally conventional distribution

circuit-breakers were used to connect
the generator to the step-up transformer.
With the increasing output of the genera-
tors, the required ratings exceeded the
load currents and short-circuit levels of
the switchgear available. Therefore the
unit connection became the accepted
standard power plant layout.

During the sixties, when there was a trend towards higher unit
ratings and, consequently, increased use of phase-
segregated generator busducts, ABB developed a circuit-
breaker which could meet these new requirements. This was
the first circuit-breaker designed to be installed in the run of
generator busducts (Figure 2).
Since the delivery of the first specific purpose generator
circuit-breaker in 1970, there has been a continuous develop-
ment of this piece of power plant equipment. At the beginning
the circuit-breakers consisted of three metal-enclosed, phase
segregated units using compressed air as operating and arc-
extinguishing medium.
In the 1980’s SF6 generator circuit-breakers were successfully
introduced into the market. The design of these circuit-break-
ers was a three-phase system in single-phase enclosures,
supplied fully assembled on a common frame with operating
mechanism and control equipment. Mainly the economical
aspect and reasons of reliability and maintainability convinced
customers of this modern arc-extinguishing medium.

Figure 2: Air blast generator circuit-breaker type DR mounted in the run of an isolated phase bus

ABB | 7
In the 1990’s SF6 generator circuit-breakers were specifically
developed for open installation, i.e. without enclosure. This
solution was introduced to allow quick and easy installation
even for projects with very small space requirements (Figure 3).
Today SF 6 generator circuit-breakers with rated currents up
to 24’000 A with natural cooling and up to 57’000 A with
forced air cooling, respectively, and with short-circuit breaking
Figure 3: SF6 generator circuit-breaker type HECS-130R for open
installation
Another development has been the integration of all the
associated items of switchgear into the generator circuit-
breaker housing. Series disconnectors, earthing switches,
short-circuiting connection, current transformers, single-
bushing voltage transformers, protective capacitors and surge
arresters can be mounted in the enclosure of the generator
circuit-breaker (Figure 5). Depending on the type of power
plant additional items like starting switches (for gas turbine
Current transformer
Voltage transformer
Interrupting chamber
Disconnector
Surge arrester
Figure 5: View into one pole of a generator circuit-breaker system
8 | ABB
currents up to 210 kA are available. This breaking capacity
corresponds to the highest short-circuit breaking current ever
achieved with a single SF 6 interrupting unit. The development
was made possible by using the most advanced SF 6 self-
blast principle. With this achievement modern SF 6 generator
circuit-breakers can now be delivered for generating units with
ratings up to 2’000 MVA (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Generator circuit-breaker type HEC 7 based on SF6
technology and self-blast principle
and hydro power plants) can also be fitted in the generator
circuit-breaker housing. This greatly improved functionality
allows simpler and more economic power plant layouts.
Beside a substantial reduction of the first costs this new
solution - being fully factory assembled and tested - also
makes possible considerable savings in time and expenditures
for erection and commissioning.
 3 Design of generator circuit-breakers
ABB generator circuit-breaker systems are three-phase sys-
tems with a SF6 circuit-breaker and a disconnector in single-
phase enclosures, supplied fully assembled on a common
frame, with operating mechanisms and control equipment.
In addition to the circuit-breaker and disconnector, the
generator circuit-breaker systems are available with earthing
switch, starting switch, short-circuiting connection, current
and voltage transformers, surge capacitor and surge arrester.
The single line diagram of a generator circuit-breaker system
is depicted in Figure 6.
4 5
8 8
7 1
G
3 3
6 6
10
Figure 6: Typical single line diagram of a generator circuit-breaker system
1 Generator circuit-breaker
2 Line disconnect switch
3 Earthing switch
4 Starting switch for SFC connection
5 Manual short-circuiting connection
(by removal of cover)
3.1 Interrupting chamber
Within the interrupting chamber SF 6 gas is used for both arc
extinguishing and internal insulation. The external insulation
is air. For current interruption the self-blast principle is used
which represents an optimised design to achieve a signifi-
cant reduction in operating energy. The main advantages of
employing SF 6 gas as interrupting medium with self-blast
principle can be summarised as follows:
– – the arc-voltage of the circuit-breaker is high enough to
ensure current zeros in case of fault currents with delayed
current zeros without the need of delaying the tripping
All the components are integrated and mounted in the phase
enclosures (Figure 5). The generator circuit-breaker system is
designed for welded connections to the isolated phase bus
enclosures. Each enclosure is made of aluminium and capable
of carrying the induced return current.
The phase distance can be selected to suit the busbar
spacing in the power plant.
2 7
9
6 Surge capacitor
7 Current transformers
8 Voltage transformers
9 Surge arrester
10 Motor-operated short circuiting link
(only with generator side earthing switch)
–– the pressure of SF 6 which is needed for interruption de-
pends on the magnitude of the current
–– an efficient operation can be achieved with a smaller oper-
ating mechanism due to lower energy consumption during
contact movement
–– a gentle interruption of small inductive currents can be
obtained thus reducing the risk of chopping the arc and
generating subsequent overvoltages
–– SF6 gas can be monitored
ABB | 9
 The interrupting chamber of a generator circuit-breaker is depicted in
Figure 7. On the left side the terminal is visible. The contacts are oper-
ated by a shaft passing through the vertical support insulator.

The design of SF6 generator circuit-breakers consists of two separate

contact systems, one for current carrying and one for arc interruption
(Figure 8).

During the interruption process the current has to commutate from the
nominal contact system to the arcing contact system. This avoids wear
and erosion of the current carrying contacts and ensures trouble-free Figure 7: Interrupting chamber of a
current carrying even after a large number of operations. generator circuit-breaker

7 6 8 3 1
Arc Extinguishing Technology: a
Mode of operation of the interrupting chamber of the type HECS circuit-
breaker systems

a Circuit-breaker “CLOSED”

b Initiation of opening movement (transfer of current from the main contacts

to the arcing contacts)
5 4 2
c Separation of arcing contacts with interruption of small currents supported b
by puffer action

Separation of arcing contacts with interruption of large currents supported

by the thermal effect of the current arc itself to build up the pressure in the
heating volume

d Circuit-breaker “OPEN”

1 Terminals 5 Fixed main contacts

2 Cylindrical coil 6 Moving main contact
3 Fixed arcing contact 7 Puffer
4 Moving arcing contact 8 Heating volume

Figure 8: Contact systems of an

SF6 generator circuit-breaker and
description of a current interruption
procedure

10 | ABB
3.2 Hydraulic spring operating mechanism
The hydraulic spring operating mechanism combines the
advantages of a hydraulic operating mechanism with those of
a spring energy storage system (Figure 9).
Energy storage is accomplished with the aid of a disk spring
assembly, with the advantages of high long-term stability, reli-
ability and non-influence of temperature changes.
Tripping of the operating mechanism and energy output are
based on proven design elements of the hydraulic operating
technique, such as control valves and hydraulic cylinders.
The operating mechanism is based on the so-called differen-
tial piston principle.
For the closing operation the piston head side is isolated from
the low pressure and simultaneously connected to the high
pressure oil volume.
As long as the pressure is maintained, the piston remains in
the “closed” position. A pressure controlled mechanical
a)
Figure 9: Hydro-mechanical spring operating mechanism a) and its schematic diagram b)
3.3 SF6-gas density monitoring system
The breaking capacity of an SF6 circuit-breaker and the
dielectric withstand level across its open contacts is depen-
dent upon the density of the SF 6-gas. Under the condition of
constant volume the gas density is independent of the gas
temperature, while the pressure varies with the temperature.
It is therefore more practical to measure and use the gas
density rather than the pressure for circuit-breaker supervision
purposes.
The density monitor operates according to the reference-
interlock prevents movement of the piston to the “open” posi-
tion in case of a pressure drop.
For the opening operation, the piston head side is isolated
from the high pressure and simultaneously connected to the
low pressure oil volume.
The charging state of the spring disk assembly is controlled
by switching elements, actuating the pump motor to immedi-
ately maintain the oil pressure.
A non-return valve between pump and high-pressure oil
volume prevents pressure loss in the event of a pump outage.
The hydraulic system is hermetically sealed against atmo-
sphere. The mechanically operated position indicator provides
reliable indication of the circuit-breaker position.
The drive operates all three circuit-breaker poles simultane-
ously by mechanical linkages, thus keeping the switching time
difference between the poles to a minimum.
b)
High pressure 1 Breaker operating rod
Low pressure 2 Energy storage device
volume-density principle. The density of the gas in the circuit-
breaker chamber is compared with the density of the gas in
a sealed reference gas volume. When the gas density drops
below the specified value, the density monitor signals the loss
of SF6-gas in several steps.
Since the gas volumes of the three circuit-breaker poles are
connected via the refilling pipe only one SF 6-gas density
monitor per circuit-breaker is required to supervise the gas
density.
ABB | 11
3.4 Disconnector
The switchgear concept provides a disconnector fitted in
series with the circuit-breaker. It is placed on the transformer-
side of the circuit-breaker and within the same enclosure. The
disconnector is a tubular telescopic unit and it is equipped
with a drive which operates through a mechanical linkage all
three poles. This layout provides easy access and simplifies
maintenance. In the open position of the disconnector the iso-
Figure 10: View of a disconnector in the open position
3.5 Earthing switch
The earthing switch can be provided on either one or both
sides of the system. The switch and its connections are
designed for protective earthing purposes, i.e. it is rated for
the full fault current but has no current making or continuous
carrying capacity.
The design of blade type (for generator circuit-breaker
a)
Figure 11: Blade type a) and tubular telescopic type b) earthing switches
3.6 Starting switch (for gas turbine power plants)
A starting switch can be provided on the generator-side of
the system. It is designed for being employed for the start-up
12 | ABB
lating air distance can be clearly seen through an inspection
window. The moving contact is motor driven. A locking
feature prevents motor operation while the disconnector is
being manually operated. A mechanically driven position
indicator is provided in a visible position and a crank handle
is provided for manual operation. The view of a disconnector
being in the open position is depicted in Figure 10.
systems type HECS and HEC 7/8 up to 160 kA) or of tubular
telescopic type (for generator circuit-breaker systems type
HEC 7/8 up to 210 kA) is depicted in Figure 11.
The earthing connection is made via the system enclosure.
The moving contact is motor driven.
b)
of the machine from a static frequency converter (SFC). The
moving contact is motor driven.
3.7 Short-circuiting connection
The short-circuiting connection helps to expedite the test-
ing and adjustment of the power plant protection system. It
can be provided manually mounted for the use between the
circuit-breaker and the disconnector of the system or motor
operated. In the former case the cover of each phase
3.8 Current transformer
A ring core current transformer can be provided on either
one or both sides of the circuit-breaker system (Figure 12).
Depending on the class up to three cores per current trans-
former can be accommodated. The secondary windings are
permanently wired back to terminal blocks in the control
cubicle.
Figure 12: Ring core current transformer
3.10 Ferroresonance damping device
In order to prevent the occurrence of ferroresonance ABB
generator circuit-breaker systems are equipped with a
damping device installed in the open delta formed by the
tertiary windings of the three voltage transformers on the
transformer-side of the generator circuit-breaker (see Figure
14 and Figure 15).
Ferroresonance is characterised by a periodic displacement
of the potential of the system neutral in a three-phase system
with an isolated neutral. These so-called relaxation oscillations
are caused by discharging and recharging the capacitances
to ground via magnetising inductances of e.g. single-pole
insulated voltage transformers and the periodic repetition of
this process. The magnetic core is temporarily subjected to
saturation during these phenomena. As a consequence of
saturation high currents are flowing through the primary
windings of the voltage transformers that heat up these
windings and often lead to the destruction of the voltage
transformer. In practice the ferroresonant oscillations may be
enclosure has to be removed to allow the fitting of the short-
circuiting bar. In the latter case the short-circuiting link is used
in conjunction with the earthing switch installed on the
generator-side of the circuit-breaker (for generator circuit-
breaker systems type HECS).
3.9 Voltage transformer
Single-phase voltage transformers can be provided on either
one or both sides of the circuit-breaker system. Up to three
voltage transformers can be fitted at each side and each volt-
age transformer can be supplied with one or two secondary
windings, depending on the class and output power required
(Figure 13). The secondary windings are permanently wired
back to terminal blocks in the control cubicle.
Figure 13: Single-phase voltage transformers
initiated by momentary saturation the core of the inductive
element resulting from e.g. switching operations or other type
of events leading to an unbalance in the system.
The insertion of a ferroresonance damping device in the open
delta of the residual voltage windings (tertiary windings) of a
set of voltage transformers is a very efficient solution for the
damping of second subharmonic relaxation oscillations. This
device basically consists of a saturable coil (damping coil)
paralleled by a group of resistors with a relatively high resis-
tance. For power frequency voltages, i.e. in case of persistent
single-phase-to-ground faults, the saturable inductance works
in the linear range of the magnetising characteristic and car-
ries only a small current thus avoiding any thermal overloading
of the voltage transformer as well as of the inductance itself.
For second subharmonic voltages however the inductance
saturates and absorbs active power sufficient to damp out the
relaxation oscillations. This power is dissipated in the resis-
tance associated with the damping coil.
ABB | 13
 R S T R
Y-connection of the primary windings
open delta connection of the tertiary
windings
DE 6
Earth Fault
Protection Relay
Figure 14: Insertion of a ferroresonance damping device (DE6) in the
open delta of the residual voltage windings (tertiary windings) of a
set of voltage transformers (voltage transformer with one secondary
winding)
3.11 Surge capacitor
Surge capacitors are fitted on both sides of the generator
circuit-breaker system to provide additional protection against
overvoltages and to support arc extinction in the circuit-
breaker by transient recovery voltage limitation (Figure 16).
The surge capacitors are used to reduce the rate-of-rise of
the transient recovery voltage from the very high prospec-
tive values (and at the same time to increase the time delay
from the very low prospective values) to values the generator
circuit-breaker can cope with. The capacitors are therefore
to be considered as an integral part of the generator circuit-
breaker.
Figure 16: Surge capacitor
14 | ABB
S T
Y-connection of the primary windings
Y-connection of the secondary
windings
open delta connection of the tertiary
windings
DE 6
Earth Fault
Protection Relay
Figure 15: Insertion of a ferroresonance damping device (DE6) in the
open delta of the residual voltage windings (tertiary windings) of a
set of voltage transformers (voltage transformer with two secondary
windings)
3.12 Surge arrester
Surge arresters can be fitted on the transformer-side of the
generator circuit-breaker system, to provide protection for
the equipment connected to the generator busbar against
overvoltages. Metal-oxide surge arresters with silicon housing
are installed in ABB generator circuit-breaker systems (Figure
17). Metal-oxide surge arresters have a highly non-linear
resistance characteristic. At service voltage a predominantly
capacitive low current flows. Any voltage increase leads to a
rapid increase of the current, thereby limiting any further rise
in the voltage. When the voltage decreases, the condition
reverts to its essential non-conducting state.
Figure 17: Metal-oxide surge arrester
 3.13 Connecting zone
The connecting zone is designed to provide a detachable
(bolted) connection between the generator circuit-breaker
life parts and the conductors of the adjacent isolated phase
bus (IPB) or busduct. The main components of the connect-
ing zone are depicted in Figure 18 and Figure 19. The flexible
connections shall be designed for:
1) carrying the rated continuous current and the rated short-
time withstand current without exceeding the maximum
permissible temperatures
ABB recommended type and arrangement of flexible copper
straps responds to these requirements as follows:
1), 2) & 5) Fully type tested together with the generator circuit-
breaker to prove that the stringent requirements imposed by
the relevant IEC and IEEE standards with regard to dielectric
strength, hottest spot temperature and mechanical stress are
fully met. The special shape easily adapts to different distances
between terminals ensuring that dielectric strength require-
ments are always met.

2) ensuring that the dielectric strength requirements are met
3) compensating expansion and contraction of the conductor
due to temperature changes
4) compensating vibrations and withstanding the stress
caused during switching operations
3), 4) & 5) Flexible type employing laminates with pressure-
welded contact ends designed and tested for high mechanical
stress.
6) Silver plated contact ends with high requirements on
contact surface evenness and material properties.

5) withstanding the mechanical stress resulting from electro-

dynamic forces in case of short-circuit currents

6) providing a low resistance, safe and stable electrical

connection a)

a) Flexible copper straps b)

b) Fastening and securing bolts & nuts
c) Terminal with silvered contact surfaces
for welded connection to the conductor c)
of the IPB or busduct
d) Support ring for withstanding the
d)
mechanical stress and to reduce the
contraction of the connectors resulting
from electro-dynamic forces in case of
short-circuit currents

Figure 18: Main components of the connecting zone

Figure 19: Connection between one pole of a generator circuit-

breaker and the associated phase bus

ABB | 15
3.14 Phase enclosure
The magnetic field in the neighborhood of the connection be-
tween generator and transformer may have adverse effects on
equipment and building steel if the current exceeds a certain
value. The values of magnetic fields outside of the generator
circuit-breaker housing could induce voltages and currents
which in turn might produce undesired heating effects.
For this reason, and to avoid electromagnetic forces between
the current-carrying busbars the generator circuit-breaker
system is designed for welded connections to the isolated
phase bus enclosures.
Each single phase enclosure is made of aluminium and
capable of carrying the induced return current thus minimising
the impact of the magnetic field. In order to avoid pollution
due to ingress of dust and moisture, the generator switchgear
enclosure is designed to allow air tightness and to withstand a
slight internal overpressure.
Inspection windows are provided in the phase enclosures near
to the disconnector, earthing switch and starting switch, to
allow visually checking of the position of each of them.
Occasionally, the busbars in power plants are not enclosed
and in general, effects of magnetic fields for small generator
continuous current is usually of no concern.

3.15 Control and supervision

All control and supervisory apparatuses are mounted in the
control cubicle. An active mimic diagram is provided with
position indications and the integrated local control of the
circuit-breaker and all other switching apparatuses. In the
control cubicle there is also installed equipment for local/
remote changeover facilities and counters for CO operations
of the circuit-breaker and pump starts of the circuit-breaker
drive.

16 | ABB
4 Standard for generator circuit-breakers

IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008) “IEEE Standard for AC High-Voltage

Generator Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis” covers
the requirements applicable for generator circuit-breakers [1]. It is the
only standard worldwide specifically relating to generator circuit-breakers.
Therefore generator circuit-breakers have to be designed and tested in
accordance with [1] and its amendment IEEE Std C37.013a-2007 “IEEE
Standard for AC High Voltage Generator Circuit Breakers Rated on a
Symmetrical Current Basis - Amendment 1: Supplement for Use with
Generators Rated 10–100 MVA” [2]. Since no other national or inter-
national standard on generator circuit-breakers exists, this standard is
used worldwide. Specifically, IEC publication 62271-100 “High-voltage
switchgear and controlgear – Part 100: Alternating-current circuit-break-
ers” does not apply to generator circuit-breakers as it explicitly excludes
generator circuit-breakers from its scope [3]. Circuit-breakers that have
been designed and tested in accordance with IEC 62271-100 do not
meet the stringent requirements imposed on generator circuit-breakers
and therefore are not suitable for the use as generator circuit-breakers. The stresses imposed on generator circuit-
Contrary to general purpose circuit-breakers covered by IEC 62271-100 breakers differ from the stresses imposed on gen-
generator circuit-breakers have two fault ratings, i.e. the system-source eral purpose circuit-breakers mainly in the following
short-circuit current interrupting capability (in case of a fault between the respects:
circuit-breaker and the generator) and the generator-source short-circuit
current interrupting capability (in case of a fault between the circuit- 1. The degree of asymmetry of the system-source
breaker and the transformer). short-circuit current is in the order of 60% to 80%.

2. The degree of asymmetry of the generator-

source short-circuit current is in the order of 90%
to 150%, i.e. the generator-source short-circuit
current may exhibit delayed current zeros (degree
of asymmetry > 100%).

3. The rate-of-rise of the transient recovery voltage

Description of Test Standard Clause after the interruption of a system-source short-
Rated continuous current carrying tests IEEE Std C37.013 Cl. 6.2.1 circuit current may be as high as 6.0 kV/µs.
Rated dielectric strength IEEE Std C37.013 Cl. 6.2.2
Short-time current-carrying capability IEEE Std C37.013 Cl. 6.2.3 4. The rate-of-rise of the transient recovery voltage
Short-circuit current rating IEEE Std C37.013 Cl. 6.2.3 after the interruption of a generator-source short-
Rated transient recovery voltage IEEE Std C37.013 Cl. 6.2.4 circuit current may be as high as 2.2 kV/µs and the
Rated standard operating duty IEEE Std C37.013 Cl. 6.2.5 corresponding time delay may be extremely short
Rated interrupting time IEEE Std C37.013 Cl. 6.2.6 (< 0.5 µs).
Short-circuit current with delayed current zeros IEEE Std C37.013 Cl. 6.2.7
Load current switching tests IEEE Std C37.013 Cl. 6.2.8 The test quantities given in IEC 62271-100 for the
Out-of-phase current switching tests IEEE Std C37.013 Cl. 6.2.9 short-circuit tests do not adequately cover the
Mechanical endurance life IEEE Std C37.013 Cl. 6.2.10 above requirements. The only standard which cov-
Excitation current switching tests IEEE Std C37.013 Cl. 6.2.11 ers the requirements for generator circuit-breakers
Sound level tests IEEE Std C37.013 Cl. 6.2.12 is IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008). This standard
EMC tests IEEE Std C37.013 Cl. 6.2.13 in particular covers the requirements imposed
TABLE I: LIST OF TYPE TESTS FOR GENERATOR CIRCUIT-BREAKERS ACCORDING TO on generator circuit-breakers regarding the d.c.
IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008) component and the degree of asymmetry of the
fault currents (including the case of fault currents
with delayed current zeros) and the characteristics
of the transient recovery voltages (rate-of-rise, time
delay and peak value).
In order to cover the stringent requirements which
are imposed on generator circuit-breakers the type
tests listed in Table I have to be performed on
generator circuit-breakers in accordance with IEEE
Std C37.013-1997 (R2008).

ABB | 17
5 Selection of generator circuit-breakers

5.1 Duties of generator circuit-breakers

The main duties of a generator circuit-breaker are as follows:
–– synchronise the generator with the main system
–– separate the generator from the main system (switching off
the unloaded/lightly loaded generator)
–– carry and interrupt load currents (up to the full load current
of the generator)
–– interrupt system-source short-circuit currents
–– interrupt generator-source short-circuit currents
–– interrupt fault currents due to out-of-phase conditions up to
out-of-phase angles of 180°

5.2 Requirements for generator circuit-breakers

The requirements imposed on generator circuit-breakers
greatly differentiate from the requirements imposed on general
purpose transmission and distribution circuit-breakers.
Due to the location of installation of a generator circuit-
breaker high technical requirements are imposed on the
circuit-breaker with respect to:
–– rated current
–– short-circuit currents (system-source and generator-source)
–– fault currents due to out-of-phase conditions
–– degree of asymmetry of fault currents, fault currents with
delayed current zeros
–– rate-of-rise of the recovery voltages
Circuit-breakers are only capable of providing satisfactory
service when they are capable of fully meeting these require-
ments.
Specifications must therefore fully reflect the technical and
reliability requirements and equipment, confirming to such
specifications, must be designed and tested in full accor-
dance with recognized and relevant standards.

5.3 Selection of generator circuit-breakers

According to IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008) the ratings and
required capabilities of a generator circuit-breaker are the fol-
lowing ones:
–– rated maximum voltage
–– power frequency
–– rated continuous current
–– rated dielectric strength
–– rated short-circuit duty cycle
–– rated interrupting time
–– rated closing time
–– short-circuit current rating
–– transient recovery voltage rating
–– rated load current switching capability
–– capacitance current switching capability
–– out-of-phase current switching capability
–– excitation current switching capability
–– rated control voltage
–– rated mechanism fluid operating pressure

18 | ABB
 5.3.1 Rated maximum voltage
The rated maximum voltage is the generator circuit-breaker’s
upper limit for operation and it is selected so that it is higher
than or equal to the maximum operating voltage of the
generator.
5.3.2 Power frequency
The rated frequency for generator circuit-breakers is 50 Hz or
60 Hz, depending on the system power frequency in which
the generator circuit-breaker is installed.

5.3.3 Rated continuous current

The rated continuous current of a generator circuit-breaker
is the designated upper limit of current in r.m.s. amperes at
power frequency, which it shall be required to carry continu-
ously without exceeding any of the limitations designated
in IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008). Due to their installation
location generator circuit-breakers have to be able to carry
continuously load currents of very high magnitude. These
currents place a severe stress on the conductors, connec-
tions and contacts. In order to guarantee that the switches
have a high degree of reliability and a long service life, they
must be so designed that limits for temperature increase are
not exceeded. In order to make optimal use of the conductor
material employed in the circuit-breaker, the power losses
have to be minimized and the transfer of heat from the
conductor path to the environment must be intensified.
The maximum value of load current which the circuit-breaker
shall be able to carry continuously can be calculated by using
the following formula:
The current carrying capability of a generator circuit-breaker
depends on the operating condition at the specific location.
When assessing the current carrying capability of a generator
circuit-breaker special attention shall be paid to the following
items:
–– power frequency
–– design temperature of the isolated phase bus to which the
terminals of the generator circuit-breaker are connected
(normally these temperatures are 105 °C (or 90 °C) for main
conductor and 80 °C (or 70 °C) for enclosure)
– – ambient temperature
– – installation location (indoor or outdoor)
– – colour of the enclosure of the generator circuit-breaker
In special cases the isolated phase bus is equipped with its
own forced cooling system. In such a case also the technical
parameters of this cooling system shall be taken into account
in the assessment of the current carrying capability of the
generator circuit-breaker.
In Figure 20 the current carrying capability of the generator
circuit-breaker type HECS-100L is displayed.

Sn
I max =
3 Vmin

I max is the maximum r.m.s. value of the current which the Sn is the rated power of the generator
generator circuit-breaker shall be able to carry V min is the minimum operating voltage of the generator
continuously

20000

19000

18000
indoor outdoor (RAL 9010)
17000
Current (Arms)

16000

15000

14000

13000

12000

11000
-25.0 -20.0 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0
Ambient Temperature (°C)

Figure 20: Current carrying capability curves for generator circuit-breaker type HECS-100L operating at a power frequency of 50 Hz and
isolated phase bus temperatures of 90 °C / 70 °C (conductor / enclosure respectively)

ABB | 19
5.3.4 Rated dielectric strength 5.3.5 Rated short-circuit duty cycle
The rated dielectric strength of a generator circuit-breaker The rated short-circuit duty cycle of a generator circuit-
is selected in accordance with the Table II depending on its breaker is two unit operations with a 30 min interval between
rated maximum voltage. operations (CO–30 min–CO) [1].

Rated maximum Power frequency Lightning impulse

voltage withstand voltage withstand voltage
[kVrms] [kVrms] [kV peak]
5 20 60
8.25 28 75
8.25 / 15 38 95
15.5 50 110
27 60 125
38 80 150
TABLE II: RATED DIELECTRIC STRENGTH OF GENERATOR CIRCUIT-BREAKERS IN
ACCORDANCE WITH IEEE Std C37.013a-2007

5.3.6 Rated interrupting time 5.3.7 Rated closing time

According to IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008) the rated inter- According to IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008) the rated
rupting time of the generator circuit-breaker is the maximum closing time of the generator circuit-breaker is the interval
permissible interval between the energizing of the trip circuit between energizing of the close circuit at rated control voltage
at rated control voltage and rated fluid pressure of the operat- and rated fluid pressure of the operating mechanism and the
ing mechanism and the interruption of the main circuit in all closing of the main circuit.
poles on an opening operation.
A typical interrupting time for ABB generator circuit-breakers
is about 3 cycles.
The interrupting time is the sum of the opening time (i.e. the
time interval between the energizing of the opening circuit and
the mechanical separation of the arcing contacts) and the arcing
time (i.e. the time interval between the contact separation in
the first pole and the final arc extinction in all poles).

5.3.8 Short-circuit current rating

5.3.8.1 System-source short-circuit current

According to IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008) the system-
source short-circuit current of a generator circuit-breaker
is the highest r.m.s. value of the symmetrical component of
the three-phase short-circuit current. It is measured from the
envelope of the current wave at the instant of primary
arcing contact separation and is the current that the generator
circuit-breaker is required to interrupt at the rated maximum
voltage and rated duty cycle when the source of the short-
circuit current is from the power system through at least one
transformation.
The a.c. component of the system-source short-circuit current
can be calculated by using the following formula:

Vmax
I ac =
3 X eq

I ac is the a.c. component of the fault current Vmax is the maximum r.m.s. value of the applied voltage
X eq is the equivalent reactance of the circuit referred to prior to fault (it can generally be considered equal to
the LV-side of the step-up transformer the maximum service voltage of the HV-system re-
ferred to the LV-side of the step-up transformer)

20 | ABB
The required asymmetrical system-source interrupting capa-
bility of a generator circuit-breaker is composed of the r.m.s.
symmetrical current and the percentage d.c. component. The
values of the d.c. component are expressed in percent of the
peak value of the symmetrical short-circuit current and are
measured at the primary arcing contact parting time. The pri-
mary arcing contact parting time can be generally considered
equal to the sum of 1/2 cycle (protection system tripping
delay) plus the minimum opening time of the particular
generator circuit-breaker.
The standard value for the time constant of the decay of the
d.c. component is 133 ms. For time constants different than
133 ms, the following formula can be used:

−t cp
τ
Idc = 2 Iac e

I dc is the d.c. component of the fault current tcp is the primary arcing contact parting time
Iac is the a.c. component of the fault current τ is the time constant of the decay of the d.c.
component and it can be calculated by using the fol
lowing formula:

X eq
τ=
ω Req

Xeq is the equivalent reactance of the circuit referred to Req is the is the equivalent resistance of the circuit
the LV-side of the step-up transformer referred to the LV-side of the step-up transformer
ω is equal to 2 π f with f being the power frequency

When the fault current is asymmetrical it is characterized by a

degree of asymmetry which is defined as follows:

I dc
a=
2 I ac

a is the degree of asymmetry.

The typical course of the system-source short-circuit current
and of its degree of asymmetry are shown in Figure 21 and
Figure 22, respectively. It is understood that the degree of
asymmetry of the system-source short-circuit current is gen-
erally monotonically decreasing with time as the a.c. compo-
nent of the fault current is usually constant. Its value depends
on the opening time of the circuit-breaker and on the relay
time of the protection system and it assumes a typical value
of 75% at the primary arcing contact parting time.

100.0
2
90.0

1.5 80.0
2 Iac 70.0
Degree of asymmetry (%)

1
60.0
Current (pu)

0.5 50.0
Idc
40.0
0
t cp 30.0

20.0
-0.5
10.0

-1 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (ms) Time (ms)

Figure 21: Prospective system-source short-circuit current Figure 22: Degree of asymmetry of the system-source short-circuit
current

ABB | 21
The system-source short-circuit current is generally fed by the
HV-system and by the motors connected to the LV-side of the HV-System

unit auxiliary transformer (see Figure 23). The a.c. component

of the system-source short-circuit current for the power plant
layout depicted in Figure 23 can be calculated by using the
Step-Up
following formula: Transformer

Generator
Unit Auxiliary Circuit-Breaker
Transformer

Figure 23: (right side) Typical power plant layout with a step-up
Motors M G Generator
transformer and a unit auxiliary transformer

Vmax 1 1
I ac =  + 
3 (X sys + X GSUT ) I rM VrM2 V AUXT _ HV
2

+ X AUXT
I LR SrM V AUXT _ LV

Vmax is the maximum r.m.s. value of the applied voltage SrM is the rated apparent power of the motors connected
prior to fault (it can be considered equal to the to the LV-side of the unit auxiliary transformer
maximum service voltage of the HV-system referred I LR / IrM is the ratio of the locked-rotor current to the rated
to the LV-side of the step-up transformer) current of the motor
X sys is the equivalent reactance of the HV-system referred XAUXT is the short-circuit reactance of the unit auxiliary
to the LV-side of the step-up transformer transformer referred to the HV-side of the unit
X GSUT is the short-circuit reactance of the step-up auxiliary transformer
transformer referred to the LV-side of the step-up VAUXT_HV
transformer is the transformation ratio of the unit auxiliary
VAUXT_LV
VrM is the rated voltage of the motors connected to the transformer
LV-side of the unit auxiliary transformer

The d.c. component of the system-source short-circuit current for the power plant layout depicted in Figure 23 can be
calculated by using the following formula:

− t cp − t cp

( )
I dc tcp = 2
Vmax

1 τ sys + GSUT
e +
1 τ M + AUXT
e 
3 (X sys + X GSUT ) I rM VrM 2 VAUXT _ HV
2

+ X AUXT
I LR SrM VAUXT _ LV

2
I rM VrM 2 V AUXT _ HV
+ X AUXT

τ sys + GSUT =
(X sys + X GSUT ) τ M + AUXT =
I LR SrM V AUXT _ LV

ω (R sys + RGSUT)
2
R M I rM VrM 2 V AUXT _ HV
ω + RAUXT
X M I LR SrM V AUXT _ LV

Rsys the equivalent resistance of the HV-system referred RAUXT the resistive component of the short-circuit
to the LV-side of the step-up transformer impedance of the unit auxiliary transformer referred
R GSUT the resistive component of the short-circuit to the HV-side of the unit auxiliary transformer
impedance of the step-up transformer referred to the ω is equal to 2 π f with f being the power frequency
LV-side of the step-up transformer
XM / RM the X/R ratio of the motors connected to the LV-side
of the unit auxiliary transformer

22 | ABB
The degree of asymmetry of the fault current measured at the
contact parting time is:

( )
a tcp =
( )
Idc tcp
2 Iac

In some cases a three-winding transformer is used to connect

two generators to the HV-system (see Figure 24). In this case HV-System

the system-source short-circuit current has three contribu-

tions, i.e. it is fed by the HV-system, by the motors connected
to the LV-side of the unit auxiliary transformer and by the Step-Up
other generator through the step-up transformer. Special Transformer

attention shall be paid to this scheme because the degree of

asymmetry of the system-source short-circuit current can be Generator
Circuit-Breakers Unit Auxiliary
very high depending on the reactances and time constants of Transformer

the generator. In some cases the current wave-shape might

G G M
show delayed current zeros (i.e. degree of asymmetry higher
Generator Generator Motors
than 100%).
Figure 24: Power plant layout with a three-winding step-up
transformer and a two-winding unit auxiliary transformer

5.3.8.2 Generator-source short-circuit current

According to IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008) the generator-
source short-circuit current of a generator circuit-breaker
is the highest r.m.s. value of the symmetrical component of
the three-phase short-circuit current. It is measured from
the envelope of the current wave at the instant of primary
arcing contact separation that the generator circuit-breaker
shall be required to interrupt, at rated maximum voltage and
rated duty cycle when the source of the short-circuit current
is entirely from a generator through no transformations. The
generator-source symmetrical short-circuit current is usually
lower than the system-source symmetrical short-circuit
current.
The generator-source symmetrical short-circuit current can be
calculated using the following simplified formula for no-load
conditions:

VmG SrG 1 1 1 1 1
I gen sym = 2
− e−t τ ''d + − e−t τ 'd +
3 VrG x''d x'd x'd x d xd

Igen sym is the a.c. component of the generator-source short-
circuit current
V mG is the maximum generator line-to-line voltage
S rG is the rated power of the generator
V rG is the rated voltage of the generator
xd is the pu value of the direct-axis synchronous
reactance
x'd is the pu value of the direct-axis transient reactance
x" d is the pu value of the direct-axis subtransient
reactance
τ ' d is the direct-axis transient short-circuit time constant
τ " d is the direct-axis subtransient short-circuit time
constant

If the fault initiation takes place when the voltage in one phase constants of the generator; the d.c. component decays with
passes through zero the resulting fault current in that phase the armature time constant τ a. The armature time constant
exhibits the maximum degree of asymmetry. The a.c. compo- can be calculated with the following formula:
nent decays with the subtransient and transient time

X2
τa =
2π f R a

τ a is the armature time constant f is the power frequency

X2 is the negative-sequence reactance of the generator Ra is the d.c. armature resistance

ABB | 23
 The value of X2 can be approximated by:

X ''d + X ''q
X2 =
2

X"d is the direct-axis subtransient reactance of the X”q is the quadrature-axis subtransient reactance of the
generator generator

The generator-source asymmetrical short-circuit current for the phase with the highest asymmetry, the generator being in the
no-load mode, can be calculated by the following simplified formula:

2 VmG SrG  1 1 1 1 − t τ 'd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

I gen asym =  − e− t τ ''d + − e + cos (ω t ) − + e− t τ a + − e− t τ a cos (2ω t) 
3 VrG2  x''d x'd x'd xd xd 2 x''d x''q 2 x''d x''q 

ω is equal to 2 π f with f being the power frequency x”q is the quadrature-axis subtransient reactance in pu

Since x" d is approximately equal to x"q for turbo generators, the equation can be written as follows:

2 VmG SrG  1 1 1 1 − t τ 'd 1 1 

I gen asym =  − e− t τ ''d + − e + cos (ω t ) − e− t τ a 
3 VrG2  x''d x'd x'd xd xd x''d 

If the a.c. component of the fault current decays faster than
the d.c. component, it can happen that for a certain period of
time following the initiation of the fault the magnitude of the
d.c. component of the fault current is bigger than the peak
value of its a.c. component. In such a case the degree of
asymmetry of the fault current is higher than 100% thus lead-
ing to delayed current zeros. The typical course of the degree
of asymmetry of the generator-source short-circuit current is
shown in Figure 25.

150
Degree of Asymmetrie [%]

100

50

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
time [s]

Figure 25: Typical course of the degree of asymmetry of the

generator-source short-circuit current

24 | ABB
In addition the a.c. component of the generator-source short-
circuit current and its degree of asymmetry can vary if the
generator is unloaded or delivering power with lagging power
factor (i.e. working in the over-excited mode) or leading power
factor (i.e. working in the under-excited mode) prior to fault.
Typical fault current wave-shapes are depicted in
Figures 26, 27 and 28.
The magnitude of the a.c. component of the fault current
which is fed by the generator is typically about 80% of the
magnitude of the a.c. component of the system-source short-
circuit current and typically shows a degree of asymmetry
measured at the primary arcing contact parting times are in
the order of 130% (see Figure 25). Special attention should
be paid if the generator is loaded with leading power factor
before fault initiation. In such a case the degree of asymmetry
of the fault current can reach very high values and exceed
130%.
In order to accurately simulate the behaviour of the genera-
tor in case it is loaded prior to fault computer simulations are
necessary.

250.0 250.0
[kA ] [kA ]
187.5 187.5

125.0 125.0

62.5 62.5

0.0 0.0

-62.5 -62.5

-125.0 -125.0

-187.5 -187.5

-250.0 -250.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s] 0.30 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s] 0.30

Figure 26: Prospective generator-source short-circuit current Figure 27: Prospective generator-source short-circuit current
(generator unloaded prior to fault initiation) - fault initiation at UA = 0 (generator delivering power with lagging power factor prior to fault
initiation) - fault initiation at UA = 0

250.0
[kA ]
187.5

125.0

62.5

0.0

-62.5

-125.0

-187.5

-250.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s] 0.30

Figure 28: Prospective generator-source short-circuit current

(generator delivering power with leading power factor prior to fault
initiation) - fault initiation at UA = 0

Additional resistance in series with the armature resistance
forces the d.c. component of the short-circuit current to
decay faster. Such additional resistance may be the connec-
tion from the generator to the fault location, but especially
the circuit-breaker arc resistance after contact separation. If
there is an arc at the fault location, this arc resistance further
reduces the time constant of the d.c. component from the
initiation of the fault. The values of these additional series
resistances are normally high enough to force a fast decay of
the d.c. component of the short-circuit current so that current
zeros are produced.
In case of a short-circuit current with delayed current zeros
the capability of a circuit-breaker to interrupt a given short-
circuit current can be considered as being demonstrated if
the generator circuit-breaker is capable of forcing the current
to zero within the time interval in which it is able to interrupt a
current (i.e. within the maximum permissible arcing time).
According to IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008) demonstrating
the capability of a generator circuit-breaker to interrupt short-
circuit currents with delayed current zeros may be difficult and
limited in high power testing stations. Since various designs

ABB | 25
of generators behave differently, it may not be possible to
simulate the required current shape in the testing station.
Therefore the capability of a circuit-breaker to interrupt a
short-circuit current with delayed current zeros can be ascer-
tained by calculations that take into account the effect of the
arc-voltage of the circuit-breaker on the prospective short-
circuit current. The arc-voltage model used for this purpose has
to be derived from tests (IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008),
Clause 6.2.7). The technical data of the actual generator shall
be used for these computations.
According to IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008), Clause
7.3.5.3.5.3 the following two cases shall be investigated:
1) Generator at no-load with the generator circuit-breaker
closing into a three-phase fault. In the computation the arc-
voltage of the generator circuit-breaker starting at contact
separation shall be taken into account.
2) Generator in service with leading power factor. An arcing
fault is assumed in at least two phases. In the computation
the arc-voltage at the fault location starting at the initiation of
the fault and the arc-voltage of the generator circuit-breaker
starting at contact separation shall be taken into account.
Further the following two situations shall be considered for a
particular generator-source short-circuit current in case of a
three-phase fault (IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008), Clause
6.2.7.2):
1) Fault initiation at voltage zero in one phase which implies
that the current in the corresponding phase exhibits the
maximum degree of asymmetry.
2) Fault initiation at voltage maximum in one phase which
implies that the current in the corresponding phase is
symmetrical.
250.0
[kA ]
187.5
125.0
62.5
0.0
-62.5
-125.0
-187.5
t cp
-250.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s] 0.30
Figure 29: Interruption of generator-source short-circuit current with a
SF 6 generator circuit-breaker
– – generator unloaded prior to fault initiation
– – fault initiation at UA = 0
–– contact parting time tcp = 39 ms
–– arcing time = 20.9 ms
26 | ABB
The arc-voltage of a circuit-breaker depends on the instanta-
neous value of the current and on the type of the extinguish-
ing medium, its pressure, the intensity of its flow and the
length of the arc. The uarc-i characteristic of one break of the
circuit-breaker has to be derived from short-circuit current
interrupting tests. To be able to investigate the behaviour
of the circuit-breaker during the interruption of short-circuit
currents with delayed current zeros the arc-voltage versus
current characteristic has to be transferred into a mathematical
model. From the arc-voltage u arc(i,t) and the current i(t) the
arc resistance Rarc(i,t) can be obtained. In order to model the
behaviour of the SF6 circuit-breaker a non-linear time-varying
resistance of the value R arc(i,t) has to be inserted into the
simulation at the time of the separation of the contacts of the
circuit-breaker.
Figures 29 to 32 show examples of the corresponding cal-
culation results. Figures 29 and 30 represent the case of the
generator being under no-load condition with the generator
circuit-breaker closing into a three-phase fault. In the compu-
tation the arc-voltage of the generator circuit-breaker starting
at contact separation is taken into account. Figure 29 repre-
sents the case with fault initiation at voltage zero and Figure
30 represents the case with fault initiation at voltage maxi-
mum in one phase. Figures 31 and 32 represent the case of
the generator being in service with a leading power factor. In
the computation the arc-voltage at the fault location starting
at the initiation of the fault and the arc-voltage of the genera-
tor circuit-breaker starting at contact separation is taken into
account. Figure 31 represents the case with fault initiation
at voltage zero and Figure 32 represents the case with fault
initiation at voltage maximum in one phase.
As the maximum calculated arcing time (i.e. 20.9 ms, see
Figure 29) is shorter than the maximum arcing time of the
generator circuit-breaker of concern it can be concluded that
the circuit-breaker is capable of interrupting these fault
currents showing delayed current zeros.
250.0
[kA ]
187.5
125.0
62.5
0.0
-62.5
-125.0
-187.5
t cp
-250.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s] 0.30
Figure 30: Interruption of generator-source short-circuit current with a
SF6 generator circuit-breaker
–– generator unloaded prior to fault initiation
–– fault initiation at UA = max
–– contact parting time tcp = 39 ms
– – arcing time = 20.7 ms
250.0 250.0
[kA ] [kA ]
187.5 187.5

125.0 125.0

62.5 62.5

0.0 0.0

-62.5 -62.5

-125.0 -125.0

-187.5 -187.5

t cp t cp
-250.0 -250.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s] 0.30 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s] 0.30

Figure 31: Interruption of generator-source short-circuit current with a Figure 32: Interruption of generator-source short-circuit current with a
SF 6 generator circuit-breaker SF6 generator circuit-breaker
– – generator delivering power with leading power factor prior to fault –– generator delivering power with leading power factor prior to fault
initiation initiation
– – fault initiation at UA = 0 –– fault initiation at UA = max
–– contact parting time tcp = 39 ms –– contact parting time tcp = 39 ms
–– arcing time = 18.2 ms – – arcing time = 18.6 ms

In some cases the arc-voltage of the generator circuit-breaker
is not high enough to force current zeros within the maximum
permissible arcing time of the circuit-breaker (this can hap-
pen for example if a vacuum interrupter is employed as a
generator circuit-breaker). In such a case a solution which
is sometimes adopted is to delay the tripping signal to the
generator circuit-breaker. It has to be noted that this solution
is not recommendable because the longer fault arcing time
might lead to severe damages to power plant equipment with
consequent long downtime for repair. A better approach con-
sists in choosing a generator circuit-breaker which is proven
to be able to interrupt the fault current without the aid of any
intentional tripping delay.

5.3.8.3 Required closing, latching, and carrying

capabilities
The short-circuit current into which the generator circuit-
breaker must close is determined by the higher value of either
the system-source short-circuit current or the generator-
source short-circuit current. In the majority of applications the
system-source short-circuit current is higher than the
generator-source short-circuit current.
According to IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008) the generator
circuit-breaker shall be capable of the following:
a) Closing and latching any power frequency-making current
(50 Hz or 60 Hz) whose maximum crest (peak making current)
does not exceed 2.74 times the rated symmetrical short-
circuit current or the maximum crest (peak making current) of
the generator-source short-circuit current, whichever is higher.
b) Carrying the short-circuit current for a time of 0.25 s.

5.3.8.4 Required short-time current-carrying capability

According to IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008) the generator mined from the envelope of the current wave, at the time of
circuit-breaker shall be capable of carrying for a time equal to the maximum peak, and whose r.m.s. value determined over
1 s, any short-circuit current, whose peak value does not the complete 1s period, does not exceed the rated short-
exceed 2.74 times the rated short-circuit current, as deter- circuit current considered above.

5.3.9 Transient recovery voltage rating

The transient recovery voltage is the voltage appearing across of the generator and of the associated step-up transformer
the open contacts of the generator circuit-breaker dictate the wave-shape of the inherent TRV for various duties.
immediately after current interruption. The characteristics

ABB | 27
A three-phase fault is the most severe case and gives the
maximum short-circuit current and the maximum TRV rate.
The neutral of the generator is not solidly grounded, thus the
phase-to-ground fault current is not significant.
The typical power plant layout is shown in Figure 23, where
the generator and the step-up transformer have essentially
the same rating. For TRV calculations the contribution of
auxiliary transformer to the fault current can be neglected as it
is a minor source of short-circuit current.
5.3.9.1 First-pole-to-clear factor
When interrupting any symmetrical three-phase current the
first-pole-to-clear factor kpp is the ratio of the power frequency
voltage across the first interrupting pole before current inter-
ruption in the other poles, to the power frequency voltage
k pp =
2 Z 0 + Z1
kpp is the first-pole-to-clear factor
Z0 is the equivalent zero-sequence impedance of the
three-phase circuit
In practical applications the step-up transformer is Ynd
connected and the star point of the stator winding of the
generator is usually grounded via a high resistance.
3Z0
k pp =
2 Z 0 + Z1
5.3.9.2 Amplitude factor
The amplitude factor kaf is ratio between the maximum
excursion of the transient recovery voltage to the peak value
of the power frequency recovery voltage [3].
5.3.9.3 Power frequency recovery voltage
The power frequency recovery voltage is the recovery voltage
after the transient voltage phenomena have subsided [3].
The magnitude of the power frequency recovery voltage which
is imposed on the first pole which clears the current is 1.5
28 | ABB
The TRV shall be calculated after the interruption of a sym-
metrical current as any asymmetry in the current wave-shape
would lead to a less severe TRV. At the interruption of the
short-circuit current with maximum asymmetry, the transient
oscillation of the recovery voltage will be very small or even
non-existent since at the moment of short-circuit current
interruption, the normal frequency voltage value may be very
small or zero.
occurring across the pole or the poles after interruption in all
three poles [3]. Standard value for generator circuit-breakers
is 1.5. The first-pole-to-clear factor can be calculated by
using the following formula:
3 Z0
Z1 is the equivalent positive-sequence impedance of the
three-phase circuit
The zero-sequence impedance of such a system is much
higher than Z1 thus leading to
3Z0
≈ = 1.5
2 Z0
Standard value for generator circuit-breakers is 1.5 without
considering any capacitance connected at the terminals of the
generator circuit-breaker.
higher then the power frequency voltage. The second and
third poles clear the current at the same time and the power
frequency recovery voltage which is imposed on each of them
is √3/2 times the power frequency voltage.
5.3.9.4 Rated inherent transient recovery voltage
The rated inherent transient recovery voltage is the reference voltage that
constitutes the limit of the inherent transient recovery voltage of circuits
that the generator circuit-breaker shall be capable of withstanding under
fault conditions and shall be defined by an oscillatory wave-shape having
a TRV rate-of-rise, time delay (td) and peak voltage (E2) [1].
The waveform of transient recovery voltages approximates to a damped
oscillation.
The TRV curve is bounded by three lines:
a) one line starts at the origin of time axis and is
tangent to the TRV curve with a slope equal to the
TRV rate-of-rise
b) one line is horizontal and is tangent to the TRV
curve at the time of TRV peak T2.
c) one line starts on the time axis at the rated time
delay (t d) and runs parallel to the first reference line

An example of a transient recovery voltage wave-shape is depicted in

Figure 33

E2 T2 is the time to reach the peak voltage E 2

E2 is the peak value of the TRV
TRV rate-of-rise TRV t3 is the intersection point of the tangent to
the transient recovery voltage which starts
at the origin of the time axis and to the
horizontal tangent to the TRV curve at the
time of TRV peak T 2

td t3 T2

Figure 33: Inherent TRV curve for first-pole-to-clear for required symmetrical
interrupting capability for three-phase faults

The standard value of E2 can be calculated with following

formula:

2
E2 = V k af k pp = 1.84 V
3

V is the rated maximum voltage of the generator

circuit-breaker.

The rated TRV is the inherent value assuming an ideal generator circuit-
breaker. These values may be modified by the generator circuit-breaker
characteristics or by the asymmetry of the current.
A system with a TRV that exceeds the rated values of the generator
circuit-breaker must be modified in such a way as to lower the TRV. This
is generally achieved by connecting capacitors phase-to-ground on both
sides of the generator circuit-breaker.
The additional capacitance has three effects:
– – it decreases the oscillation frequency and the
RRRV of the TRV
– – it increases the time delay of the TRV
– – it increases the peak value of the TRV
If the circuit-breaker requires that the inherent TRV
be modified by the addition of capacitors, then the
amount of equivalent capacitance required has to
be given in the test report and on the nameplate [1].

ABB | 29
5.3.9.5 System-source faults
For system-source faults the maximum value of short-circuit current is
obtained for a given transformer when Xsys is minimum or assumed to
be zero. It is assumed that the contribution of the auxiliary system to
the fault current is negligible. The natural frequency of the transformer is
much higher than the natural frequency of the HV-system. The TRV first
oscillates at the prospective value of 1.5 √2 XGSUT Iac, where Iac is the
5.3.9.6 Generator-source faults
For generator-source faults the short-circuit current is generally lower
than for system-source faults because of the higher reactance of the
generator windings. Although the short-circuit current is lower for
generator-source faults than for system-source faults, generator-source
faults cannot be ignored because of the short time delay specified in
IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008).
For a generator-source fed fault occurring at the HV-side of the step-up
transformer the short-circuit current is lower when compared to a fault
5.3.9.7 Calculation of TRV in case of terminal faults
TRV calculations need to be performed with computer simulations which
allow to model power plant equipment with distributed parameters.
Anyway a simplified single-phase circuit for calculating the TRV in case
of interruption of terminal fault currents is depicted in Figure 34 where
V eq is the r.m.s. value of the voltage source and Req, Leq and Ceq are
R eq L eq
Veq Ceq
Figure 34: Single-phase circuit for TRV calculation in case of terminal
faults
Veq can be calculated by using the following expression:
3 Z0
Veq = Vmax
2 Z 0 + Z1
Vmax is the maximum r.m.s. value of the applied
voltage prior to fault (it can generally be considered
equal to the maximum phase-to-ground service
voltage of the HV-system referred to the LV-side
of the step-up transformer and to the maximum
phase-to-ground operating voltage of the generator
30 | ABB
r.m.s. value of the symmetrical short-circuit current
until the second and third poles open. The voltage
drop in the transformer is equal to the total power
frequency recovery voltage for
X sys = 0. Therefore, the TRV rate is maximum when
the short-circuit current is maximum [1].
at the LV-side of the step-up transformer. The TRV
results from transformer and generator voltage
oscillations. The magnitude of each oscillation is
approximately proportional to the transformer and
generator reactances, respectively. This fault loca-
tion can usually be ignored because the resulting
stresses on the generator circuit-breaker are much
lower than for faults occurring at the LV-side of the
step-up transformer [1].
respectively the values of equivalent resistance, in-
ductance and capacitance to ground of the circuit
for assessing the TRV across the first pole to clear
(lumped parameters).
GCB
≈ 1.5 Vmax
in case of system-source short-circuit currents and
generator-source short-circuit currents, respectively)
Z0 is the equivalent zero-sequence impedance of the
three-phase circuit
Z1 is the equivalent positive-sequence impedance of the
three-phase circuit
Leq can be considered equal to 1.5 L1 where L1 is the equiva- is the positive-sequence resistance of the three-phase circuit.
lent positive-sequence inductance of the three-phase circuit.
Following the same procedure Req is equal to 1.5 R1 where R1 Ceq can be calculated by using the following expression:

C0 + 2 C1
Ceq = If C0 = C1 then Ceq = C1 = C0
3

C0 is the zero-sequence capacitance of the three-phase C1 is the positive-sequence capacitance of the three-
circuit phase circuit

In all practical applications the following expression is valid:

1 Req2
>
L eq Ceq 4 L eq2

thus leading to an underdamped wave-shape of the TRV. frequency and one oscillating at the frequency imposed by the
The TRV will appear as the superposition of sinusoidal curves circuit parameters:
oscillating at different frequencies, i.e. one oscillating at power

R eq
− t
u TRV (t) = 2 Veq cos (ω t ) − e
2 L eq
cos ν t )
)

where ν can be calculated with following formula:

1 Req2 1 1 Req2
ν= − ≈ assuming >>
L eq Ceq 4 L eq2 L eq Ceq L eq Ceq 4 L eq2

Assuming that cos(ω t) ~ 1 at the time of TRV peak represented by the following expression:
(being ν >> ω ) the transient recovery voltage can be finally

R eq
− t
u TRV (t) = 2 Veq 1 − e
2 L eq
cos ν t )
)
The TRV peak value occurs at time T2 = π L eq Ceq

The corresponding peak value of the TRV is

R eq R eq Ceq
− T2 − π
2 L eq 2 Leq
E2 = 2 Veq 1 − e cos ν T2 ) =
) 2 Veq 1 + e

ABB | 31
5.3.10 Rated load current switching capability
During normal service of the generator, the load current is
reduced to zero before an opening operation of the genera-
tor circuit-breaker is initiated. However, the interruption of
full load current may be required occasionally for emergency
circumstances or when the synchronous machine is working
in the motor mode in pumped storage power plants. The gen-
erator circuit-breaker shall be capable of interrupting those
currents and withstanding the TRV appearing across the open
contacts immediately after the interruption of the current.

5.3.11 Capacitance current switching capability

IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008) considers this as a special The generator circuit-breaker normally is not called on to
case where the line or bus capacitance is separated from the switch purely capacitive currents.
generator circuit-breaker through transformation.

5.3.12 Out-of-phase current switching capability

This capability applies to a generator circuit-breaker used for The most important parameters which influence the wave-
switching the connection between two parts of a three-phase shape of the fault current resulting from out-of-phase
system during out-of-phase conditions. The assigned out-of- synchronizing and the occurrence of delayed current zeros are
phase current switching rating is the maximum out-of-phase power plant equipment parameters, out-of-phase angle δ0,
current that the generator circuit-breaker shall be capable of power frequency of the system and instant when the synchro-
switching at an out-of-phase recovery voltage. nization is initiated.
Out-of-phase synchronising occasionally occurs in power The wave-shape of the out-of-phase current is depicted in
plants [4]. The main reasons for out-of-phase synchronis- Figures 35 to 40 for different values of δ 0. It is evident that at
ing are wiring errors made during commissioning or during the time when δ = 0 the fault current is dominated by a d.c.
maintenance when connecting voltage transformers and component. In modern power systems the protection sys-
synchronising equipment. These wiring errors lead to particu- tems sends the tripping signal to the generator circuit-breaker
lar out-of-phase angles, i.e. multiples of 60°el.. E.g. polarity before the δ = 0 condition is reached, thus leading to a less
errors at a voltage transformer cause synchronising at 180°el. severe tripping operation. If the tripping is delayed this might
out-of-phase angle; phase connection errors lead to 60°el. lead to extremely severe interrupting conditions and even
and 120°el. out-of-phase angles. Besides these particular unsuccessful interruption. It is shown in published literature
out-of phase angles any value may be caused by inadequate that circuit-breakers installed at the HV-side of the step-up
settings of the synchronising equipment, e.g. due to an incor- transformer may not be suitable for interrupting fault currents
rect value of the closing time of the circuit-breaker. resulting from out-of-phase synchronizing [5]. Although the
The TRV appearing immediately after the interruption of fault arc-voltage of the HV circuit-breaker is of the same order of
currents resulting from out-of-phase synchronising is very magnitude of the arc-voltage of the generator circuit-breaker,
severe with respect to both peak value and rate-of-rise and its value referred to the LV-side of the step-up transformer is
time delay. Even though it is recognized that synchronising reduced by the transformation ratio and has practically no
with out-of-phase angle up to 180° might occur, IEEE Std effect on the time constant of the decay of the d.c.
C37.013-1997 (R2008) covers only requirements for a component of the fault current.
maximum out-of-phase angle of 90°.
The current resulting from out-of-phase synchronizing might
show delayed current zeros whose causes are totally different
compared to generator terminal faults. The rapid movement of
the rotor from initial out-of-phase angle δ0 to δ = 0 results in
a very small a.c. component of the fault current and a domi-
nant d.c. component when the condition of δ = 0 is reached.
The current resulting from out-of-phase synchronizing has to
be assessed by the aid of computer simulations which allow
to model with high level of accuracy power plants equipment
and especially the synchronous machine. As the instant when
the δ = 0 condition is reached is determined by the movement
of the rotor, the inertia constants of turbine, rotor and excita-
tion equipment of the generator are of special importance. As
the fault current to be interrupted by the generator circuit-
breaker is characterized by delayed current zeros it extremely
important to prove that the circuit-breaker by means of its
arc-voltage is capable of forcing current to zero within its
maximum arcing time.

32 | ABB
400 400
[kA ] [kA ]
300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0

-100 -100

-200 -200

-300 -300

-400 -400
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 [s] 0.40 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 [s] 0.40

Figure 35: Prospective out-of-phase fault current – out-of-phase Figure 36: Prospective out-of-phase fault current – out-of-phase
angle δ 0 = 30° angle δ 0 = 60°

400 400
[kA ] [kA ]
300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0

-100 -100

-200 -200

-300 -300

-400 -400
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 [s] 0.40 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 [s] 0.40

Figure 37: Prospective out-of-phase fault current – out-of-phase Figure 38: Prospective out-of-phase fault current – out-of-phase angle
angle δ 0 = 90° δ0 = 120°

400 400
[kA ] [kA ]
300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0

-100 -100

-200 -200

-300 -300

-400 -400
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 [s] 0.40 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 [s] 0.40

Figure 39: Prospective out-of-phase fault current – out-of-phase angle Figure 40: Prospective out-of-phase fault current – out-of-phase angle
δ0 = 150° δ0 = 180°

ABB | 33
5.3.13 Excitation current switching capability
IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008) defines the excitation cur-
rent switching capability as the highest magnetizing current
that a generator circuit-breaker shall be required to switch at
any voltage up to rated maximum voltage at power frequency
without causing an overvoltage exceeding the levels agreed
upon between the user and the manufacturer.
During normal operation, a generator step-up transformer is
rarely switched in an unloaded condition. Anyway, consider-
ation should be given to switching of transformer excitation
current. Excitation current switching is not so much a matter
of the generator circuit-breaker capability, but a question of
whether overvoltages are produced due to current chopping.
Due to instabilities of the arc between the circuit-breaker
contacts premature current zeros at high frequencies occur
frequently when switching small inductive currents, leading to
current chopping. The chopped current flowing in the no-
load inductance charges the capacitances of the transformer
windings and the capacitances of the connection between the
step-up transformer and the generator circuit-breaker (e.g.
1 1
L mag i 2 = Ceq v 2
2 2
v is the voltage generated by current chopping
i is the chopped current
L mag is the magnetizing inductance of the step-up
transformer
The value of chopped current, and consequently the overvol-
tages produced, are mainly dependent on the type of gen-
erator circuit-breaker. Experience indicates that the current
chopping level of SF 6 self-blast generator circuit-breakers is
low and no overvoltages of concern are expected. Further-
more, the transformer LV-side is usually protected by surge
arresters which reduce these overvoltages. The energy to
be absorbed by the arresters is usually extremely small. In
5.3.14 Rated control voltage
According to IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008) the rated con-
trol voltage of a generator circuit-breaker is the designated
voltage that is to be applied to the closing or tripping devices
to close or open the generator circuit-breaker. Rated voltages
and their permissible ranges for the control power supply of
5.3.15 Rated mechanism fluid operating pressure
According to IEEE Std C37.013-1997 (R2008) the rated
mechanism fluid operating pressure of a generator circuit-
breaker is the pressure at which a gas- or liquid-operated
34 | ABB
buses or cables). This might results in voltage oscillations of
high amplitudes. Modern transformers have a low no-load
current value compared to older designs, and their magnetic
characteristics are such that a relatively low amount of energy
is released when current chopping occurs during switching,
leading to moderate chopping overvoltages [1]. Chopping
overvoltages are produced only on the transformer side of the
generator circuit-breaker. No overvoltages occur on the
generator side because the inductance of the generator is
much lower than the magnetizing impedance of the trans-
former, and the energy content is low and not of sufficient
magnitude to produce overvoltages [1].
The overvoltage generated by current chopping can be esti-
mated with the following formula where it has been assumed
that the energy stored in the magnetizing inductance of the
step-up transformer is transferred to the equivalent capaci-
tance without losses. In addition the magnetizing character-
istics and the hysteresis loop of the step-up transformer have
been neglected.
L mag
⇒ v=i
Ceq
Ceq is the equivalent capacitance to ground of the step-
up transformer windings and the connection of the
step-up transformer to the generator circuit-breaker
terminals
addition the generator circuit-breaker systems are generally
equipped with capacitors which help to mitigate the transient
recovery voltage appearing after current interruptions. Those
capacitors are also very effective in reducing the overvoltages
produced by current chopping. It has to be mentioned that
the capacitors installed at the generator circuit-breaker termi-
nals increase the chopping current level but on the other hand
they help reducing the generated overvoltage.
generator circuit-breakers are shown in Table 10 of IEEE Std
C37.013-1997 (R2008). Other control voltages may be speci-
fied according to other national or international standards
depending on the point of original installation.
mechanism is designed to operate. The pressure is allowed to
vary above and below its rated value within a specified range.
6 Application of generator circuit-breakers
The major demands on the electrical layout of power plants
can be summarised as follows:
– – transfer the generated electric energy from the generator to
the HV-transmission system considering operation require-
ments as well as availability, reliability, and economical
aspects
– – supply of electric power for auxiliary and station service
systems to ensure a safe and reliable power plant operation
6.1 Power plant layouts
Examples of power station layouts which employ a generator
circuit-breaker to connect the generator to the main trans-
former are shown in Figure 41.
6.1.1 Thermal power plants
The typical layout of a thermal power plant is depicted in
Figure 41a. During normal operation the generator supplies
power to the auxiliary system. The main net is the backup
source for the auxiliaries; i.e. whenever a unit is shutdown
the power is drawn from the main net through the main
transformer. The station transformer is generally rated as an
emergency shut-down transformer.
6.1.2 Gas turbine power plants
The typical layout of a gas turbine power plant is depicted in
Figure 41c. When a gas-turbine generator is started-up, its
rotor must be accelerated by external means to about 60%
of the rated speed before the start-up process becomes
self-sustaining, i.e. before the turbine can generate suffi-
cient power to continue process independently. The energy
required for this purpose can be provided for instance by a
pony motor or a static frequency converter (SFC). Starting-up
with the help of a pony motor is suitable for smaller machines
but has several disadvantages when applied to larger ma-
chines and especially to single shaft units in combined-cycle
6.1.3 Hydro power plants
The typical layout of a hydro power plant is depicted in Figure
41d. Due to the low power consumption of unit auxiliaries the
electrical layout of hydro power plants generally employs one
unit transformer to supply power to station auxiliaries.
Three-winding transformers are sometimes used in hydro
power plants (Figure 41e). Making a justifiable decision for
applying three-winding transformers requires detailed
technical and economical evaluations.
Some of the items which should be considered for selecting
transformer arrangement in a power plant are the following
ones:
The criteria which are used to evaluate and assess the
generator circuit-breaker’s application exert considerable
influence on the electrical layout of the power plant.
An interesting alternative is represented by the layout of Figure
41b. In this case no station transformer is available and the
backup source for the auxiliaries are the auxiliary busbars of
another unit. This solution is very attractive because it allows
to reduce the investment costs as well as the operation and
maintenance expenses by omitting the station transformer
and the associated MV and HV equipment.
power plants.
For this reason the use of SFC starting equipment is becoming
more and more widespread. ABB generator circuit-breakers
also contain the switching functions required for SFC starting
within its enclosure. The output of the SFC (voltage of variable
amplitude and frequency) is fed to the generator terminals via
the starting switch that is designed for the voltage, current
and current duration occurring during the SFC start-up period
of the gas turbine. Its rated voltage is chosen according to
the rated voltage of the SFC which in general is considerably
lower than the generator rated voltage.
Installation: The accommodation of a three-winding
transformer is generally preferred in power plants where the
available space is at a premium.
Power delivery to the high-voltage substation: The loss
of a three-winding transformer would result in the loss of two
paths for electrical energy. For instance a failure in one three-
winding step-up transformer in Figure 41e would cause the
outage of the power output of two units. Besides the cases
in which economic or space issues are important, connect-
ing two units to a three-winding transformer is not generally
adopted in power plants.
ABB | 35
Protection: The differential protection is used as the main
protection for a step-up transformer. The block differential
protection is applied as a back-up protection. Due to a higher
number of windings involved, the protection of a three-
winding transformer is relatively more complicated compared
to the case when two-winding transformers are employed.
Except for the number of windings, no additional noticeable
differences can be found between protection functions of two-
and three-winding transformers.
Operation and maintenance: Preventive and especially
corrective maintenance of a three-winding transformer might
be an issue as this occurrence would lead to the outage of
two units. A solution which can be adopted to reduce the
downtime is to buy a spare transformer. In order to reduce the
cost of the spare equipment sometimes three single-phase
three-winding transformers are employed and only one spare
single-phase machine is considered.
In addition to the above mentioned items, availability and
commercial feasibility have to be considered too in order to
make a more thorough comparison between two- and three-
winding transformers.

6.1.4 Pumped storage power plants

Pumped storage power plants are of great importance for the Electrical braking by short-circuiting the stator and re-excitation
economical operation of a power system as they make use of of the rotor is attractive because it assists hydraulic braking
electrical energy during off-peak hours to pump water from a at lower speed and allows to substantially reduce the wear
lower reservoir to a higher reservoir for the use in the genera- of the mechanical braking system and hence to increase the
tion of electrical energy during system peak periods. Due maintenance intervals and to decrease the associated costs
to space limitations, especially in the case of power plants [7]. Hydraulic braking is most effective only down to about 50
located in caverns, compact and therefore simple layouts are to 60% of the rated speed of the machine, because its
highly desirable in the case of pumped storage power plants. effectiveness decreases approximately with the 3 rd power of
Simple layouts also bring about operational advantages the speed. Mechanical braking is then applied only at 10% or
and lead to an increased power plant reliability. Due to high less of the rated speed until to full stop. The current used for
number of transitions from one operating mode to another the electrical braking typically is in the range of 1.0...1.3-times
possible in a pumped storage power plant the requirements the rated current of the machine. The current will remain at
on the mechanical and electrical endurance of the switchgear this value nearly to full standstill of the unit, because both
used are very high. A circuit-breaker for instance may have to the voltage and the reactance decrease proportional with the
carry out up to 10 operations per day. speed of the unit.
When a machine is started-up in the motor mode, it has to be
accelerated to its rated speed before it can be connected to
the system (unless asynchronous starting is used). The two
most common methods used for starting-up machines in the
motor mode are the static frequency converter (SFC) and the
“back-to-back” starting arrangements. Both are synchronous
starting modes. In the SFC starting arrangement the machine
is connected to a converter (line side constant voltage and
frequency, machine side variable voltage and frequency), and
by increasing the frequency and voltage of the converter the
machine is accelerated [6]. At about 95% of the synchronous
speed, the synchronizing equipment will take over control of
the SFC and after reaching the conditions necessary for syn-
chronization it will give a closing command to the generator
circuit-breaker and block the SFC impulses. Therefore there
is no current flow caused by the SFC after synchronization.
When the generator circuit-breaker has been closed, the SFC
will be disconnected. In the “back-to-back” starting arrange-
ment another machine in the station, acting as a generator, is
employed. The generator and the motor to be started-up are
connected together electrically. The wicket gate of the gen-
erator turbine is opened and both machines are accelerated
to synchronous speed. In asynchronous starting the unexcited
machine is connected to full or reduced voltage at system
frequency and is acting as an asynchronous motor during the
starting period.
Another important issue in all hydro power plants and there-
fore also in pumped storage power plants is the braking of
the machine after it has been disconnected from the system.

36 | ABB
Generator circuit-breakers are widely used in pumped storage Because of their ability to interrupt fault current also at
power plants because the use of such circuit-breakers allows frequencies below 50/60 Hz ABB generator circuit-breakers
the electrical scheme (Figure 41f) to be greatly simplified. ensure an adequate protection of power plant equipment.

EHV HV EHV EHV

MT MT MT

UT ST UT
GCB GCB GCB
SS UT
SFC

G AUX G AUX G
AUX

a) b) c)

EHV EHV EHV

MT MT
MT MT MT

PRD PRD

UT UT SS SS
GCB GCB GCB GCB GCB GCB

BS BS BS BS BS SS SS BS
G G AUX G G AUX G G
SFC

UT

d) e) f) AUX

Figure 41: Different power plant layouts which employ generator circuit-breakers

Legend
MT Main transformer AUX Unit auxiliaries
UT Unit transformer SS Starting switch
ST Station transformer BS Braking switch
GCB Generator circuit-breaker SFC Static frequency converter
EHV Transmission system PRD Phase-reversal disconnector
HV Sub-transmission system

ABB | 37
6.2 Advantages of generator circuit-breakers
The use of generator circuit-breakers for the switching of gen-
erators at their terminal voltage offers many advantages when
compared to the unit connection, e.g.:
–– simplified operational procedures
–– improved protection of the generator and the main and unit
transformers
–– increased security and higher power plant availability
–– economic benefit
6.2.1 Simplified operational procedures
–– The installation of the generator circuit-breaker directly in
the connection between the generator and the main trans-
former provides a clear and logical plant arrangement.
–– During the starting-up or shutting-down of the generator
only one circuit-breaker must be operated thus reducing the
number of switching operations necessary. A comparison of
operation procedures between layouts which employ a gen-
erator circuit-breaker and power plant electrical schemes
without generator circuit-breaker is displayed in Figure 42.
6.2.2 Improved protection of the generator and the main
and unit transformers
–– The differential protection zones of the generator, the main
and unit transformers can be arranged to achieve maximum
selectivity.
6.2.3 Increased security and higher power plant
availability
– – Simplified operational procedures and clearly defined
responsibilities reduce the likelihood of operational errors.
– – The synchronisation of a generator with the high-voltage
grid can be carried more reliably with a generator circuit-
breaker than with a high-voltage circuit-breaker. During
synchronization the voltage across the open contacts of
the circuit-breaker varies from zero (i.e. in phase) to twice
the normal voltage (i.e. 180° out-of-phase condition). In
the latter case high stresses will be imposed on the exter-
nal insulation of the circuit-breaker which might result in a
flashover of the circuit-breaker insulator. This is especially
true when the circuit-breaker operates in heavily polluted
atmosphere. A generator circuit-breaker even in case it is
installed outdoor is protected by its enclosure and operates
under indoor conditions. Therefore these stresses will not
be imposed on it.
– – The use of a generator circuit-breaker allows the unit aux-
iliaries supplies to be drawn directly from the high-voltage
transmission network at all times. Supply from this source
is considerably more reliable than that from a local sub-
transmission network.
38 | ABB
As a disadvantage of this solution in comparison with the unit
connection especially in the case of large generating units
the high costs of the generator circuit-breaker are sometimes
mentioned. This argument however refers to air-blast genera-
tor circuit-breakers and with the appearance of modern SF6
generator circuit-breakers for units with ratings of up to 2’000
MVA is no longer valid.
–– The automatic rapid changeover switching equipment
required to transfer the supply of the unit auxiliaries from
the station to the unit transformer (and vice versa) can be
avoided, thus eliminating stresses with possible subsequent
damages to the drive motors of pumps, fans, etc.
–– The division of responsibility for the operation of the power
plant and the switching of the high-voltage transmission
network is clearly defined.
–– Generator-fed short-circuit currents are interrupted within
a maximum of 4 cycles whereas the reduction of the fault
current by the de-excitation equipment requires a number of
seconds.
–– The avoidance of changeover switching operations required
to transfer the supply of the unit auxiliaries from the station
to the unit transformer (and vice versa) eliminates stresses
with possible subsequent damages to the drive motors of
pumps, fans, etc.
–– The rapid and selective clearance of all types of faults helps
to avoid expensive secondary damage and the conse-
quently long down times for repair. Examples of serious
secondary damage being caused by the delayed clearance
of a fault are:
– – bursting of the transformer tank following an internal
fault in the main or unit transformer
– – thermal destruction of the generator damper winding
due to short-time unbalanced load conditions
– – mechanical destruction of a turbine-generator set due
to generator motoring
– – thermal/dynamic stress caused to the generator by
synchronising under “out-of-phase” conditions
Such incidents have a detrimental effect on the availability of
a power plant. It should be noted that the generator rapid de-
excitation equipment is in most cases too slow to avoid this
kind of damage.
In many cases equipment damage can be reduced or even
prevented by using a generator circuit-breaker in conjunction
with an adequate generator protection.
Layout without generator circuit-breaker
Unit start-up:
1) Run-up unit on station transformer (start-up supply) and
synchronise generator with high-voltage grid by means
of high-voltage circuit-breaker
2) Parallel unit auxiliaries supplies
3) Separate unit auxiliaries from station transformer (start-
up supply)
Unit routine shut-down:
1) Parallel unit auxiliaries supplies
2) Separate unit auxiliaries from unit transformer
3) Trip high-voltage circuit-breaker and shut-down unit on
station transformer
Unit emergency shut-down:
1) Trip high-voltage circuit-breaker, unit auxiliaries are
isolated
2) Automatic transfer of unit auxiliaries from unit trans-
former to station transformer (approx. 4...5 cycles)
3) Shut-down unit on station transformer
Figure 42: Description of operation procedures for layouts with and without generator circuit-breaker
6.2.3.1 Transformer failures
Power transformers normally show high reliability. However
in some cases internal dielectric flashovers occur resulting
into a fault arc inside the transformer causing significant
internal pressure rise by production of large quantities of gas
(mainly hydrogen) due to the dissociation of the oil. Common
causes of transformer internal failures are the flashover of a
bushing, winding interturn faults, failures of the tap-changer
and carbonisation and/or excessive moisture content of the
transformer oil. Depending of the fault arc energy (which is a
function of arc current, arc duration and arc-voltage) the pres-
sure rise can be so high to crack the transformer tank or to
blow out one or more of the bushings. Especially arc-current
and arc-voltage strongly depend on the fault location inside
the transformer. In most cases severe damages occur inside
the transformer but also other equipment of the power plant is
jeopardized by the burning oil or hydrogen outside the trans-
former. Unacceptable outage of the power plant or at least
parts of it is generally the consequence.
Steep pressure rise inside the transformer tank can be gener-
ated by faults occurring in different locations, e.g.:
– – flashover across the winding (portion of full winding)
– – flashover across the bushings
– – flashover between winding and tank
– – flashover across two positions of the tap changer
Compared to high-voltage circuit-breakers modern SF6 gen-
erator circuit-breakers exhibit higher maintenance intervals as
they are especially designed for a high mechanical and electri-
cal endurance. Depending on the application the down-time
of a unit due to circuit-breaker maintenance can therefore be
significantly reduced when a generator circuit-breaker is used.
Layout with generator circuit-breaker
Unit start-up:
1) Run-up unit on unit transformer and synchronise
generator with high-voltage grid by means of generator
circuit-breaker
Unit routine shut-down:
1) Trip generator circuit-breaker and shut-down unit on
unit transformer
Unit emergency shut-down:
1) Trip generator circuit-breaker and shut-down unit on
unit transformer
Initially the fault arc current is delivered both by the HV system
and by the generator. Even if the system-fed component of
the fault current is interrupted by the high-voltage circuit-
breaker within approximately 3 to 4 cycles, in a layout without
generator circuit-breaker the generator continues to supply a
fault current throughout the de-excitation time interval which
can take up to several seconds (see Figure 43a). The energy
dissipated in the fault arc leads to a vaporisation of the trans-
former oil and hence to a pressure rise inside the transformer.
This pressure stresses the transformer tank, and, if it rises
above a certain value, will cause the tank to rupture, with a
resulting oil spillage and possibly an oil fire. Typical times to
tank rupture are 4.5 to 5 cycles [8]. Nowadays it is common
practice to install a generator circuit-breaker between the
generator and the step-up transformer (Figure 43b) which
allows a rapid clearance also of the generator-fed component
of the fault current and can therefore make up the difference
between a repairable damage and a catastrophic event with
severe environmental pollution and possible personnel
jeopardy [9], [10].
The full lines in Figure 44 show the course of pressure rise
inside the transformer tank for different fault locations. After
the system-fed component of the fault current is interrupted
by the high-voltage circuit-breaker the pressure rise is less
ABB | 39
steep because the fault current is only fed by the generator. Investigations have shown that a generator circuit-breaker
Anyway the pressure can quickly reach the tank withstand can prevent tank rupture in about 80% of all cases of main
pressure thus leading to the explosion of the transformer. The transformer internal failures [11]. The use of a generator
dotted lines represent the course of the pressure rise if no circuit-breaker can greatly reduce the probability of a trans-
generator circuit-breaker is available. former tank rupture during internal fault. This will reduce the
When the generator-fed component of the fault current is related downtime of the power plant thus leading to a higher
interrupted by the generator circuit-breaker the pressure rise availability.
is generally stopped quickly enough to prevent the transformer In Figure 45 the sequence of events which have led to a
tank explosion. Anyway depending on the fault arc energy transformer explosion is shown. It is interesting to see how
and on the transformer tank withstand pressure the pressure fast a ground fault developed into a three-phase fault and
rise inside the transformer tank can be so steep that the tank consequently into an explosion after approx 150 ms. In such
withstand pressure of the transformer is reached even before a case the presence of a generator circuit-breaker would have
the high-voltage circuit-breaker can be operated for contri- allowed the interruption of the generator-fed fault current in
buting to transformer protection. less than 4 cycles thus preventing such a damage.

a) Case without generator circuit-breaker (unit connection) b) Case with generator circuit-breaker

Ig Is Ig Is

G Grid
G Grid

Fault Fault
Interruption of HV

Interruption of HV
Circuit-Breaker

Circuit-Breaker

Current Current
Interruption of Generator
Circuit-Breaker

I s +I g I s +I g

Ig Ig

tens of ms seconds tens of ms seconds

Time Time

Figure 43: Interruption of generator-fed fault currents with and without generator circuit-breaker

Pressure

flashover across full winding

Generator Circuit - Breaker
HV Circuit - Breaker

tank withstand pressure

flashover across bushing

flashover between winding and tank

flashover across two positions of tap changer

flashover across a portion of winding

Time
Figure 44: Pressure rise inside transformer tank for different fault locations

40 | ABB
Sequence of events

t = 0 ms: earth fault at HV-side of transformer

t = 45 ms: 2-phase short-circuit
t = 95 ms: 3-phase short-circuit
t ≈ 150 ms: explosion of transformer

Figure 45: Consequence of a transformer failure

6.2.3.2 Short-time unbalanced load condition

According to theory of symmetrical components an unbal-
anced load can be split into 3 systems, i.e. a positive-
sequence system rotating with the same speed and direction
as the rotor, a negative-sequence system rotating with the
same speed but with opposite direction to the rotor and a
zero-sequence system consisting of a set of phasors of equal
magnitude and always in phase. It is the negative-sequence
system which causes harm to the generator. The rotor rotates
in opposite direction to the negative-sequence system which
results in a double frequency current flowing in the field wind-
ing, in the damper windings and in the rotor. Single- and two-
phase faults represent a short-time unbalanced load condition
with critical mechanical and thermal stresses for a generator
[12]. Such conditions can arise due to single- or two-phase
faults within the main transformer or on its connections to the
high-voltage circuit-breaker (Figure 46).

HV circuit-breaker: 1 phase does not close Transformer LV terminals: two phase fault

HV circuit-breaker: 1 phase does not open Transformer HV windings: various types of faults

Transformer HV bushings: single phase earth fault HV circuit-breaker: two phase flashover

Transformer HV bushings: two phase fault

Figure 46: Examples of failures which can lead to unbalanced load conditions

ABB | 41
The thermal stresses result from the negative sequence com-
ponent of the fault current that interacts with the generator
damper windings. Unbalanced load conditions can give rise,
within a very short time, to dangerously high temperatures
in the damper windings. These temperatures are particularly
critical for turbo generators and in the worst case may cause
the rotor to jam in the stator. If a generator circuit-breaker is
present it will separate the generator from the fault within 4
cycles and thus effectively prevent damage to the generator.
If no generator circuit-breaker is fitted, the generator will con-
tinue to supply a negative sequence current until de-excitation
is completed. The de-excitation may take several seconds,
during which time the generator may suffer severe damage.
Unbalanced load cases might lead to severe damage as
depicted in Figure 47. In this case the rotor’s touching of the
Figure 47: Damage resulting from unbalanced load conditions
stator destroyed the generator completely. (source: Allianz Insurance Company)

6.2.3.3 Generator motoring

Generator motoring can occur when the supply of energy (e.g.
steam, gas or water) to the turbine is removed and the field is
still excited. If such a condition occurs the generator will act
as a synchronous motor absorbing electric active energy from
the network and converting it into mechanical energy to drive
into rotation its rotor and turbine. Generator motoring can
lead to severe damages especially to steam turbines because
of overheating and damage to steam turbine blades. The
layout of a power plant in which a case of generator motoring
occurred is depicted in Figure 48. In that case after the high-
voltage circuit-breaker was tripped the turbine-generator set
was running down normally. As a consequence of an internal
breakdown which occurred in one pole of the high-voltage
circuit-breaker the generator absorbed power from the grid
and started working as a motor. Due to the increased speed
of rotation the turbine rotated for too long time in the range of
its critical speed, i.e. the natural frequency of the turbine shaft
material. When the forcing frequency is close to its natural
frequency, machine causes noise and high vibrations because
of resonance due to matching of frequency. As a conse-
quence of generator motoring the generator was lifted out of
foundations and the shaft was destroyed.

Generator Main Transformer HV Circuit-Breaker Overhead Line

Pn = 500 MW (Transmission)

Overhead Line
GS
3~

Coupling

Figure 48: Layout of a power plant in which a case of generator motoring occurred

6.2.3.4 Synchronizing under out-of-phase conditions

The out-of-phase conditions are abnormal circuit conditions
due to loss or lack of synchronism between generator and
power system at the instant of the synchronizing operation
of the circuit-breaker. The phase angle difference between
phasors representing the generated voltages on each side
of the circuit-breaker may exceed the normal value and may
be as much as 180°. The out-of-phase current resulting from
this condition is dependent on this phase angle and attains
its maximum value at 180° (phase opposition). The resulting
thermal and electro-dynamic overstress might lead to severe
consequences for the generator windings.

42 | ABB
6.2.4 Economic benefit
Several economic advantages are brought about by the
employment of a power plant layout with generator circuit-
breaker compared to the unit connection:
– – The possible integration of all the associated items of
switchgear into the enclosure of the generator circuit-breaker
allows simpler and more economic power plant layouts.
This solution hence allows savings in time and expenditures
for erection and commissioning.
–– When a layout with a generator circuit-breaker is used it is
possible to omit the station transformer and the associated
high-voltage and medium-voltage switchgear. If the station
transformer cannot be dispensed with, the use of a trans-
former with reduced rating (rated as a “shut-down trans-
former“) is usually sufficient.
–– Should the high-voltage substation be erected at some
distance from the power plant the generator circuit-breaker
can be used to protect the overhead line linking the power
plant to the substation. No separate high-voltage circuit-
breaker at the power plant is required for this purpose.
–– The through-fault capability required of the unit transformers
is substantially reduced.
–– The higher availability of the power plant leads to an in-
creased number of the operating hours and therefore to a
higher profit for the operator of the power plant. Substantial
surplus of receipts can be achieved in this way and the pay-
back time for the expenditures of a generator circuit-breaker
is generally very low.
ABB | 43
7 Maintenance of generator circuit-breakers
Overhaul of generator circuit-breakers is scheduled based on
the criteria of service time, number of mechanical CO opera-
tions and number of current interruptions whichever occurs
first.
Specifically the electrical endurance of the generator circuit-
breaker depends on the magnitude of the current which is
switched. To each opening operation, an ablation coefficient
k is assigned. The ablation coefficient depends on the r.m.s.
value of the switched current. Within a range up to 150% of
the rated continuous current the ablation coefficient is
proportional to the ablation of the arcing contacts. With the
44 | ABB
interruption of currents far above the rated continuous current
longer arcing times are expected. Therefore, the ablation of
contact material increases disproportionately. In addition, high
electro-dynamical forces arise which reduce the mechanical
lifetime of the circuit-breaker.
For typical applications generator circuit-breakers do not have
to switch load currents and therefore overhaul is generally
scheduled based on service time. Depending on the type of
generator circuit-breaker typical overhaul intervals are 15 to
20 years.
8 Case study 1: Impact of the method of connecting a generator
to the high-voltage grid on the availability of a power plant
In order to quantify the impact of how a generator is con- network were considered, namely:
nected to the high-voltage grid on the availability of a power – – a layout without a circuit-breaker between the generator
plant, the contribution of the connection of the generator to and the low-voltage terminals of the main transformer (“unit
the high-voltage transmission network and of the supply to connection”), refer to Figure 49)
the unit auxiliaries to the unavailability of one generating unit
– – a layout with a generator circuit-breaker and a station trans-
has been determined with the help of computer program
former (rated as “shut-down transformer”), refer to Figure 50)
based on the Monte Carlo method [13]. Three different ways
– – a layout with a generator circuit-breaker, refer to Figure 51)
of connecting the generator to the high-voltage transmission

8.1 Power plant layout

The layout of a typical power plant is shown in Figure 49. It
consists of two 360 MW steam turbines. Each unit is directly
connected to two sets of three winding unit transformers (UT).
The generator is directly connected to the generator step-up
transformer (GSUT) as well. The extra high-voltage substation
(rated voltage 345 kV) consists of an air insulated one and
a half circuit-breaker arrangement. The number of outgoing
lines is two. The three winding station transformers (ST) are
connected to the 138 kV substation by an air insulated double
busbar with single circuit-breaker arrangement. The reserve
net is the backup source for the station auxiliaries; i. e.
whenever a unit is shutdown, the reserve net supplies power
to the auxiliary busbars through the station transformer.

345 kV

138 kV

GSUT GSUT

UT UT UT UT ST ST
G G

GEN 22 kV GEN 22 kV

Figure 49: Layout of a 2 x 360 MW thermal power plant with two station transformers and no generator circuit-breaker

ABB | 45
 345 kV

138 kV

GSUT GSUT

UT UT UT UT ST
G G

GEN 22 kV GEN 22 kV

Figure 50: Layout of a 2 x 360 MW thermal power plant with one station transformer and generator circuit-breakers

345 kV

GSUT GSUT

UT UT UT UT
G G

GEN 22 kV GEN 22 kV

Figure 51: Layout of a 2 x 360 MW thermal power plant with generator circuit-breakers and no station transformer

46 | ABB
8.1.1 Layout of extra high-voltage substation
The secure operation of extra high-voltage substations is
greatly influenced by their layout. In order to assure the conti-
nuity of the supply, the links between incoming and outgoing
feeders of a substation have to remain intact, even in spite of
a number of connecting elements not being available. Obvi-
ously every effort is made to attain this goal with a minimum
capital outlay.
The following substation schemes have been investigated:
– – double busbar with single circuit-breaker (Figure 52a)
– – one and a half circuit-breaker (Figure 52b)
– – double busbar with double circuit-breaker (Figure 52c)
– – ring (Figure 52d)
– – crossed-ring (Figure 52e)
For large installations the double busbar with single circuit-
breaker arrangement (Figure 52a) is preferred. The presence
of two busbars makes maintenance possible without inter-
rupting the supply. On the other hand a circuit-breaker failure
leads to the loss of all feeders connected to that busbar and
the busbar protection may cause the loss of the substation if
all feeders are connected to the same busbar.
A scheme representing a mixture of equipment and structural
redundancy is the “one and a half” circuit-breaker arrange-
ment (Figure 52b). It is often used for very important substa-
tions because of its high availability and good operational
flexibility. In this case three circuit-breakers are employed for
two outgoing feeders. All circuit-breakers are normally closed.
Uninterrupted supply is thus maintained even if one busbar
fails.
a)
d)
Figure 52: Schemes of extra high-voltage substations
A feature of the double busbar with double circuit-breaker
arrangement (Figure 52c) is that each outgoing feeder is con-
nected to the rest of the installation by two parallel circuit-
breakers, i.e. this scheme uses circuit-breaker redundancy to
secure operation under disturbed conditions.
Since each line has two circuit-breakers, one circuit-breaker
can be taken out of service at any time without interrupting
the operation.
A more economic kind of redundancy is achieved with the
ring arrangement (Figure 52d) which is considered as an
appropriate solution for substations with only a few feed-
ers. Each feeder requires only one circuit-breaker and each
circuit-breaker can be isolated without interrupting the supply.
Starting from this scheme, new concepts were developed to
increase structural redundancy.
In the normal state of the crossed-ring substation arrange-
ment (Figure 52e) the circuit-breakers of the basic ring (BR)
are closed while those of the cross-links (CL) are open. If
one circuit-breaker in the basic ring fails, another ring can
be formed so that the original availability is maintained. It
can be seen that even in the case of non-availability of two
adjacent circuit-breakers, the respective node can be fed via
the remaining circuit-breaker. With any of the other topologies
introduced above, this situation would automatically lead to
the loss of the node. The impact of the use of gas insulated
switchgear (GIS) instead of air insulated switchgear (AIS) has
also been investigated. The GIS solution leads to a lower
failure rate and to a higher MTTR and, even though it is more
expensive, it is to be preferred when problems of space or
pollution are present.
b) c)
e)
BR BR BR CL
BR CL CL BR
BR BR BR CL
ABB | 47
8.1.2 Layout of high-voltage substation
The layout of the high-voltage substation used for the investi-
gation is a double busbar with single circuit-breaker arrange-
ment (Figure 52a) and uses air insulated switchgear.
8.1.3 Generator circuit-breaker
For each layout the possible use of a generator circuit-breaker
has been investigated (see Figure 50 and Figure 51).
The presence of a generator circuit-breaker located between
the generator and the main transformer allows the plant aux-
iliaries to be fed directly from the extra high-voltage transmis-
sion system (main net). In addition the rapid interruption of
8.1.4 Station transformer
The power plant layout used for the investigation has two
station transformers. In the cases with a generator circuit-
breaker, only one station transformer (one station transformer
per two units) rated as an emergency shut-down transformer
has been considered. The influence of using no station
8.2 Data for availability calculations
For each component of the power plant the following data is
needed:
–– number of failures
–– downtime
–– maintenance frequency
–– maintenance duration
8.3 Simulations
The simulations have been carried out with the help of a
computer program based on the Monte Carlo method [20].
This is a very powerful technique to quantitatively estimate the
reliability of complex systems like power plants; furthermore it
allows to quantify the impact of the connection scheme of a
generator to the extra high-voltage network on the availability
of the plant.
Monte Carlo methods estimate the reliability of a system by
simulating the process and its random behaviour. The simula-
tion consists in a repeated process of generating deterministic
solutions to a given problem with each solution correspond-
ing to a set of deterministic values of the underlying random
variables. The main element of Monte Carlo simulation is
therefore the generation of random numbers from probability
distributions describing the random variables of interest, e.g.
the failure and repair rates of different items of power plant
equipment.
48 | ABB
generator-fed short-circuit currents reduces the extent of fault
damage and the related down-time, contributing to increased
power plant availability. The presence of a generator circuit-
breaker can thus lead to a reduction of the MTTR of power
plant equipment.
transformer has also been investigated for the cases with a
generator circuit-breaker installed. When no station trans-
former is available, the backup source for the auxiliaries are
the auxiliary busbars of another unit (see Figure 51).
Reliability parameters have been taken from published
literature [14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19]. The circuit-breaker
fail-to-close and fail-to-open probabilities have also been
taken into account [16].
Moreover, information about switching times, maintenance
frequency and maintenance duration was obtained from
published literature [14].
During a simulation run, when a failure occurs it is treated by
tripping the circuit-breakers forming the protection group of
the failed component immediately after the occurrence of the
failure. After the time necessary to isolate the failed compo-
nent (i. e. the switching time) the circuit-breakers are closed
again. When the repair of the component is completed (or
a spare part has become available), the above procedure is
repeated. Also the transfer of the auxiliaries between different
sources during the starting-up and the shutting-down of the
unit (or when a failure occurs) is modelled. The operational
state of a unit further depends on the state of its auxiliaries,
as the number of auxiliaries available influences the level of
possible power production.
One of the results obtained from the simulations is the power
throughput of the power plant.
8.4 Simulation results
The simulations have been carried out assuming that the
power plant supplies base load. The availability of the unit
(turbine and generator) has been set to 86.67%. This value
takes into account forced and scheduled outages of the unit.
The results of the simulations are summarized in Table III and
Table IV.
The difference in the throughput power directly reflects the
contribution of the different schemes used to connect the
generators to the extra high-voltage transmission network
on the availability of the power plant. The results show that
the use of a layout with a generator circuit-breaker positively
affects the availability. Figure 53 depicts the possible avail-
ability improvements when a layout with a generator circuit-
breaker is used. This improvement is in the order of 0.4%.
The ring scheme seems to be very interesting: in this case the
availability improvement is in the order of 0.44%. The results
clearly indicate that, from a point of view of power plant
availability, a layout with a generator circuit-breaker offers a
distinct advantage over the unit connection.
With respect to the design of the extra high-voltage substa-
tion, it can be seen that in case of a layout with generator
circuit-breaker, the number of station transformers has a
negligible influence on the power plant availability.
On the other side, the difference in the throughput power be-
tween a gas insulated substation and an air insulated substa-
tion is generally very small (see Table IV).

EHV substation HV substation Generator Station Power

(refer to Figure 52) (refer to Figure 52) circuit-breaker transformer throughput

SCHEME AIS GIS SCHEME AIS GIS YES/NO No. MW

a) x a) x no 2 619.38
b) x a) x no 2 619.50
c) x a) x no 2 619.62
d) x a) x no 2 619.35
e) x a) x no 2 619.45
a) x a) x yes 1 621.93
b) x a) x yes 1 622.08
c) x a) x yes 1 622.09
d) x a) x yes 1 622.06
e) x a) x yes 1 622.04
a) x - - - yes 0 621.97
b) x - - - yes 0 622.07
c) x - - - yes 0 622.09
d) x - - - yes 0 622.07
e) x - - - yes 0 622.00

TABLE III: RESULTS OF SIMULATIONS: INFLUENCE OF THE PRESENCE OF A GENERATOR CIRCUIT-BREAKER

0.44%

0.42%
0.42% 0.42%

0.40%

a) b) c) d) e)

Layout of EHV substations (refer to Figure 52)

Figure 53: Relative availability improvement for a layout with generator circuit-breaker (related to the basic scheme without a generator circuit-
breaker)

ABB | 49
 EHV substation HV substation Generator Station Power
(refer to Figure 52) (refer to Figure 52) circuit-breaker transformer throughput

SCHEME AIS GIS SCHEME AIS GIS YES/NO No. MW

b) x a) x no 2 619.50
b) x a) x yes 1 622.08
b) x - - - yes 0 622.07
b) x a) x no 2 619.47
b) x a) x yes 1 622.10
b) x - - - yes 0 622.07
TABLE IV: RESULTS OF SIMULATIONS: COMPARISON BETWEEN AIS AND GIS

8.5 Economic evaluation

In order to make a more thorough comparison between the
different options, an economic analysis has also been carried
out. For the economic evaluation the following issues have
been considered:
–– life cycle costs for selectable equipment (extra high-voltage
and high-voltage switchgear, station transformers,
generator circuit-breakers, medium voltage switchgear)
– – power delivered to the grid
– – energy selling price
The life cycle cost of a piece of equipment comprises besides
the initial capital outlay also all those expenses arising from
its installation, operation, maintenance and, at the end of its
service life, its disposal.
The power delivered to the grid is given by the power
throughput minus the power consumed by the auxiliaries.
Monetary values are time dependent, and can only be
summed or subtracted when they are referred to the same
point in time. For this reason a cash value corresponding to
each cost term must be calculated to allow for interest and
inflation rates:

i
1
Cpv = Ci
1+ r

Ci is the expense payable in i years in “zero-year” r is the effective discount rate (interest rate - inflation
currency value rate)
C pv is the present value of cost C i i is the number of years at the end of which the
expense Ci is paid.

i
N 1
PV _ FM = ∑ (Ii − OCi − MCi ) − AC − CWC − IC
i=1 1+ r

PV_FM is the present value of the figure of merit MCi are the maintenance costs of selectable equipment in
N is the number of years of service (service life) year i
r is the effective discount rate AC are the acquisition costs of selectable equipment
li is the income in year i CWC are the civil works costs of selectable equipment
OC i are the operation costs in year i IC are the installation costs of selectable equipment

50 | ABB
The differences in the figure of merit of different power plant outs with a generator circuit-breaker generally have a higher
layouts are depicted in Figure 54. It can be noticed that lay- figure of merit than layouts without a generator circuit-breaker.

Additional calculations have shown that layouts with a
generator circuit-breaker and without a station transformer
may even have somewhat higher figures of merit, especially in
cases with low downtimes (e. g. power stations which supply
base load) where the losses during the time when the unit is
shut down do not matter very much.
Moreover, the use of a generator circuit-breaker makes the
ring scheme (Figure 52d) without station transformer one of
the best options; such a conclusion is due to the fact that
this scheme is very cheap (low number of components) and
shows a similar reliability as the other schemes when a
generator circuit-breaker is installed.

100.50%

100.40%

100.30%
With no GCB
100.20% With GCB and one
station transformer
100.10%

100.00%

99.90%

99.80%

99.90%
a) b) c) d) e)
Layout of EHV substations (refer to Figure 52)

Figure 54: Differences in figure of merit of different power station

layouts (related to the layout depicted in Figure 49)

ABB | 51
9 Case study 2: Interrupting capability of generator circuit-
breakers in case of delayed current zeros
The requirements imposed on generator circuit-breakers
greatly differ from the requirements imposed on general
purpose transmission and distribution circuit-breakers. Due
to the location of installation between the generator and the
associated step-up transformer a generator circuit-breaker
must meet high technical requirements with respect to the
interruption of fault currents. In addition to their generally high
magnitude, these currents can be characterized by delayed
current zeros.
9.1 Generator circuit-breaker model adopted for the
simulations
According to [1], [2], demonstrating the capability of a gen-
erator circuit-breaker to interrupt short-circuit currents with
delayed current zeros may be difficult and limited in high
power testing stations. Considering that various designs of
generators behave differently and that the pre-load of the
generator influences the course of the fault current, it can be
impossible to simulate the required current wave-shape in
the testing station [21]. Therefore the capability of a circuit-
breaker to interrupt a short-circuit current with delayed cur-
rent zeros has to be ascertained by calculations that take into
account the effect of the arc-voltage of the generator circuit-
breaker on the prospective short-circuit current. The genera-
tor circuit-breaker’s arc-resistance is an additional resistance
which forces the d.c. component of the short-circuit current
to decay faster. It is of utmost importance that the magnitude
of the arc-voltage is high enough to force a fast decay of the
d.c. component of the short-circuit current, so that current
zeros are produced within the maximum permissible arcing
time of the generator circuit-breaker. In order to investigate
the behaviour of the generator circuit-breaker during the
interruption of short-circuit currents with delayed current
zeros, the arc-voltage versus current characteristic has to be
transferred into a mathematical model. From the arc-voltage
and the current the arc-resistance is obtained. A non-linear
time-varying resistance is inserted into the simulation at the
time of the separation of the contacts of the circuit-breaker to
model the behaviour of the generator circuit-breaker.
According to [1] the following two cases shall be investigated:
–– fault initiation at voltage zero in one phase which implies
that the current in the corresponding phase exhibits the
maximum degree of asymmetry
–– fault initiation at voltage maximum in one phase which
implies that the current in the corresponding phase is sym-
metrical
52 | ABB
The capability of the generator circuit-breaker to interrupt fault
currents which show delayed current zeros can be ascer-
tained by calculations that take into account the effect of the
arc-voltage of the circuit-breaker on the prospective fault
current. In order to carry out a thorough investigation on the
interrupting capability of generator circuit-breakers, a com-
parison between SF6 and vacuum extinguishing technologies
is provided.
The capability of a generator circuit-breaker to interrupt a
given short-circuit current can be considered as being de-
monstrated when the following conditions are met:
–– the maximum operating voltage is less than or equal to the
power frequency recovery voltage during the short-circuit
test with the corresponding symmetrical short-circuit cur-
rent
–– the making current is less than or equal to the making cur-
rent demonstrated by a short-circuit test
– – the symmetrical short-circuit current is less than or equal to
the symmetrical short-circuit breaking current demonstrated
by a short-circuit test
– – the asymmetrical short-circuit current is less than or equal
to the asymmetrical short-circuit breaking current demon-
strated by a short-circuit test
– – the rate-of-rise and the peak value of the transient recovery
voltage are less or equal to the rate-of-rise and the peak
value of the transient recovery voltage during the short-
circuit test with the corresponding symmetrical short-circuit
current
– – the time delay of the transient recovery voltage is longer
than or equal to the time delay of the transient recovery
voltage during the short-circuit test with the corresponding
symmetrical short-circuit current
– – in case of a short-circuit current with delayed current zeros
the generator circuit-breaker is capable of forcing the
current to zero within the time interval in which it is able to
interrupt a current (i.e. within the maximum permissible arc-
ing time)
In order to correctly simulate the behaviour of the generator
circuit-breaker, the arc-voltage model used for this investiga-
tion has to be derived from tests [1].
9.2 Generator terminal faults
The current to be interrupted by the generator circuit-breaker
in case of faults between the terminals of the generator
circuit-breaker and the LV-windings of the step-up trans-
former is called generator-source short-circuit current. If the
fault initiation takes place when the voltage in one phase
passes through zero the resulting fault current in that phase
exhibits the maximum degree of asymmetry. The symmetrical
component decays with the subtransient and transient time
constants of the generator; the d.c. component decays with
the armature time constant. If the symmetrical component of
the fault current decays faster than the d.c. component, it can
happen that, for a certain period of time following the initia-
tion of the fault, the magnitude of the d.c. component of the
fault current is bigger than the peak value of its symmetrical
component. In such a case the degree of asymmetry of the
fault current is higher than 100%, thus leading to delayed cur-
rent zeros. The degree of asymmetry of the generator-fed fault
current is typically about 130%.
The course of the generator-source short-circuit current is
depicted in Figure 55. Fault initiation takes place at 100 ms
and a bolted fault has been assumed (i.e. that there is no
arc-voltage at the fault location). The fault initiation occurs at
voltage zero in phase A.

150

[kA ]

100

50

-50

-100

-150
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s] 0.30

Figure 55: Prospective generator-source short-circuit current

(generator unloaded prior to fault initiation, fault initiation at U A = 0)

Figure 56 and Figure 57 show the corresponding calcula- taken into account. Figure 56 represents the case with fault
tion results with the generator circuit-breaker closing into a initiation at voltage zero and Figure 57 shows the case with
three-phase fault. In the computation the arc-voltage of a fault initiation at voltage maximum in one phase.
SF6 generator circuit-breaker starting at contact separation is

150 150

[kA] [kA]

100 100

50 50

0 0

-50 -50

-100 -100

t cp t cp
-150 -150
0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 [s] 0.20 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 [s] 0.20

Figure 56: Interruption of generator-source short-circuit current with Figure 57: Interruption of generator-source short-circuit current with
a SF6 generator circuit-breaker (generator unloaded prior to fault a SF6 generator circuit-breaker (generator unloaded prior to fault
initiation, fault initiation at U A = 0, arcing time = 17.6 ms) initiation, fault initiation at UA = max, arcing time = 20.2 ms)

ABB | 53
For comparison purposes the interrupting capability of a gen- corresponding calculation results. Figure 58 represents the
erator circuit-breaker employing vacuum extinguishing tech- case with fault initiation at voltage zero and Figure 59 shows
nology is also analysed. Figure 58 and Figure 59 show the the case with fault initiation at voltage maximum in one phase.

150 150

[kA] [kA]

100 100

50 50

0 0

-50 -50

-100 -100

t cp t cp
-150 -150
0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 [s] 0.24 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 [s] 0.24

Figure 58: Interruption of generator-source short-circuit current with Figure 59: Interruption of generator-source short-circuit current with
a vacuum generator circuit-breaker (generator unloaded prior to fault a vacuum generator circuit-breaker (generator unloaded prior to fault
initiation, fault initiation at U A = 0, arcing time = 39.0 ms) initiation, fault initiation at UA = max, arcing time = 80.9 ms)

A method sometimes adopted to reduce the arcing time of
the circuit-breaker is to introduce an intentional tripping delay.
A value in the range of 100 ms – 200 ms is usually sufficient
to limit the degree of asymmetry of the fault current at contact
separation to values the generator circuit-breaker can cope
with. It has to be noted that this solution would lead to longer
fault duration and consequently to severe damages to power
station equipment with consequent long downtime for repair.
Fault durations exceeding 100 ms are usually sufficient to let
the step-up transformer explode in case of internal failures.
For this reason many power station operators consider the
solution of intentionally delaying the tripping as not recom-
mendable. Therefore the preferred method to handle the
delayed current zeros phenomena is to choose a generator
circuit-breaker having an arc-voltage magnitude sufficiently
high to force current to zero without the aid of any intentional
tripping delay [22].

54 | ABB
9.3 Out-of-phase synchronising
Out-of-phase synchronising occasionally occurs in power
plants [4]. The main reasons for out-of-phase synchronising
are wiring errors made during commissioning or during main-
tenance when connecting voltage transformers and synchro-
nising equipment. The current resulting from out-of-phase
synchronising may show delayed current zeros; their causes
are totally different compared to generator terminal faults. The
rapid movement of the rotor from initial out-of-phase angle δ0
to δ = 0 results in a very small symmetrical component of the
fault current and a dominant d.c. component when the condi-
tion of δ = 0 is reached. As the instant when the δ = 0 con-
dition is reached is determined by the movement of the rotor,
the inertia constants of turbine, rotor and excitation equip-
ment of the generator are of special importance. Because the
fault current to be interrupted by the generator circuit-breaker
is characterized by delayed current zeros it is extremely im-
portant to prove that the circuit-breaker by means of its arc-
voltage is capable of forcing current to zero within its maxi-
mum permissible arcing time. Even though it is recognized
that synchronising with out-of-phase angle up to 180° might
occur, [1], [2] cover only requirements for a maximum of 90°.
Therefore for the present study simulations referring to such a
fault conditions have been performed. The wave-shape of the
out-of-phase current in case of δ0 = 90° is depicted in Figure 60.

150

[kA ]

100

50

-50

-100

-150
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s] 0.30

Figure 60: Prospective out-of-phase current (out-of-phase angle δ 0 =

90°, fault initiation at U A = 0)

The simulation results are depicted in Figures 61, 62, 63 and
64. Figures 61 and 62 show the course of the fault current
in case a SF6 generator circuit-breaker is employed. Figures
63 and 64 show the corresponding results in case of use of a
vacuum generator circuit-breaker. Figures 61 and 63 repre-
sent the case of synchronisation occurring when the voltage
across the open contacts of pole A (UA) of the generator
circuit-breaker is zero, while Figures 62 and 64 show the case
when UA is at its maximum value.

150 150

[kA] [kA]

100 100

50 50

0 0

-50 -50

-100 -100

t cp t cp
-150 -150
0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 [s] 0.20 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 [s] 0.20

Figure 61: Interruption of out-of-phase current with a SF 6 generator Figure 62: Interruption of out-of-phase current with a SF6 generator
circuit-breaker (out-of-phase angle δ0 = 90°, fault initiation at U A = 0, circuit-breaker (out-of-phase angle δ0 = 90°, fault initiation at UA =
arcing time = 16.5 ms) max, arcing time = 18.9 ms)

ABB | 55
150 150

[kA] [kA ]

100 100

50 50

0 0

-50 -50

-100 -100

t cp t cp
-150 -150
0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 [s] 0.20 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 [s] 0.40

Figure 63: Interruption of out-of-phase current with a vacuum Figure 64: Interruption of out-of-phase current with a vacuum
generator circuit-breaker (out-of-phase angle δ0 = 90°, fault initiation generator circuit-breaker (out-of-phase angle δ0 = 90°, fault initiation
at UA = 0, arcing time = 18.2 ms) at UA = max, arcing time = 206.8 ms)

The results show that the fault current resulting from out-of- value and the arc-voltage of the circuit-breaker is not high
phase synchronising can impose extremely severe interrupt- enough to force current to zero before the condition of δ = 0
ing conditions if the generator circuit-breaker closes when is reached.
the voltage across its contacts in one pole is at its maximum

9.4 Conclusions
The possible occurrence of fault currents in power stations
which show delayed current zeros has been investigated. In
addition to the delayed current zeros phenomena associated
with generator terminal faults the case of synchronisation
under out-of-phase conditions has also been analysed. The
capability of the generator circuit-breaker to interrupt fault
currents which show delayed current zeros has been investi-
gated by calculations that take into account the effect of the
arc-voltage of the generator circuit-breaker on the prospective
fault current. In order to carry out a more thorough investiga-
tion on the interrupting capability of generator circuit-breakers
a comparison between SF6 and vacuum extinguishing tech-
nologies has been made.
In all the cases analyzed the application of a vacuum circuit-
breaker results in longer arcing times compared to the SF6
device. Furthermore the fault occurring at voltage maximum in
one phase leads to a longer arcing time compared to the case
of a fault occurring at voltage zero.
The generator circuit-breaker employing SF6 as extinguishing
medium is suitable for the application as the calculated arcing
time lies well below the maximum permissible value.
The cases of generator terminal faults and 90° out-of-phase
synchronisation occurring at voltage maximum in one phase
lead to severe stress for the vacuum circuit-breaker. The
vacuum circuit-breaker is not suitable for the application be-
cause it is not capable of forcing the current to zero within the
permissible arcing time.
Therefore the preferred method to cope with currents exhibit-
ing delayed current zeros is to choose a generator circuit-
breaker having an arc-voltage magnitude sufficiently high
to force the current to zero within the maximum permissible
arcing time.

56 | ABB
References
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Transients, Delft, 2011.
ABB | 57
Notes

58 | ABB
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