Chapter 1

The Origin and Structure of the Solar System and the Earth System

Geocentric Universe- a model of Aristotle contained 55 spheres turning at different rates and
at different angles to carry the seven known planets across the sky

Parallax- the apparent motion of an object because of the motion of the observer

Equant- a point to adjust the speed of the planet, when Ptolemy supposed that Earth was
slightly off center and that the center of the epicycle moved such that it appeared to move at a
constant rate.

2 Kinds of Hypothesis for the Origin of the Planet in our Solar System
1. Catastrophic Hypotheses – proposed that planets formed from some improbable event
such as the collision of sun and another star.
2. Evolutionary Hypotheses - proposed that the planet formed gradually and naturally as
the sun formed.

Solar Nebula Theory- supposes that planets form in the rotating disks of gas and dust around
young stars

Two Kinds of Planet

 Terrestrial Planet –four inner planet; small, dense, rocky worlds with little or no atmosphere.
 Jovian Planet – four outer planet; large, low-density worlds with thick atmospheres and
liquid or ice interiors.

Asteroids- sometimes called minor planets which are small rocky worlds, most of which orbit
the sun in a belt between the orbits of mars and Jupiter

“It is a common misconception that matter in the solar nebula was sorted by density, with the
heavy rock and metal sinking toward the sun and the low gases being blown outward.

Kuiper Belt- a collection of objects consist of a thousand small, dark, icy bodies orbiting in the
outer fringes of the solar system beyond Neptune

Radiation Pressure- implies an interaction between electromagnetic radiation and bodies of

various types, including clouds of particles or gases

Meteors- comets flash across the sky in momentary streaks of light, and commonly called
“shooting stars”; they are not stars but small bits of rock and metal colliding with Earth’s
atmosphere

Meteoroid- in space, before its fiery plunge, this is what you called in that object

Meteorite- any part of it that survives its fiery passage to Earth’s surface

“The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes for half of the parent isotope atoms
to decay into daughter isotope atoms.”
  Apollo lunar landings- bring lunar rocks back to Earth’s laboratories where their
ages could be measured

Uncompressed Densities- the densities the planets would have if their gravity did not
compress them, or to put it another way, the average densities of their original construction
materials

Condensation- a process when can observe the pattern of planet densities originated when
solid grains first formed

Ice Line- boundary farther from the sun beyond which water vapour could freeze to form ice
particles

Condensation Sequence- the sequence in which the different materials condense from the
gas as you move away from the sun toward lower temperature

Planetesimals- in the development of the planets from the material of the solar nebula disk,
three processes operated to collect solid bits of matter--metal, rock, ice--into larger bodies

System- any entity that consists of interrelated parts or components

Earth System- relies on the interactions among a vast combination of factors that enable it to
support life

Subsystems- which are functioning units of a major system that demonstrate strong internal
connections

Earth’s Four Major Subsystems

 Atmosphere- the gaseous blanket of air that envelops, shields, and insulates
Earth
 Hydrosphere- includes the waters of Earth—oceans, lakes, rivers, and glaciers
 Lithosphere- makes up the solid Earth—landforms, rocks, solids, and minerals
 Biosphere- composed of all living things: people, other animals, and plants

Accretion – second process of planetesimals. The sticking together of solid particles

Biogeographers – concerned about the environment that support the same plants and
animals that are classified by biologist

Geographers – a holistic perspective and a spatial perspective

Physical Geographers – processes affect the earth’s physical environments

Variables (individual components of system) change by interacting with one another as

part of a functioning unit
The Environmental Perspective
 Environment- can be defined as our surroundings; including all physical, social, and
cultural aspects of our world that affect our growth, our health, and our way of living
 Ecology- the study of relationships between organisms and their environments
 Ecosystem- refers to a community of organisms and the relationships of those
organisms to each other and to their environment

Life-support System- Earth’s most critical characteristic, whose responsible to produce an

adequate supply of oxygen; the sun interacts with the atmosphere, oceans, and land to
maintain tolerable temperatures; and photosynthesis or other processes provide food supplies
for living things

Environmental Overshoot- this is what you called with the problem of using more resources
in a year than their annual renewal, growth, or replacement

Sustainable Development- (UN definition) a development that meets the need of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Natural Hazards- refers to natural processes, typically of unusual intensity, that put
environments and human life or property at risk of damage or destruction

Pollution- an undesirable or unhealthy environmental contamination that can have negative

impacts on environmental conditions

Model- a useful simplification of a more complex reality that permits prediction, and every
model is designed with a specific purpose in mind

Different Kinds of Models

 Pictorial/Graphic Models- includes pictures, maps, graphs, diagrams, drawings, and
computer-generated visualizations
 Physical Models- are solid three-dimensional representations, such as a world globe or
a replica of a mountain or stream
 Mathematical/Statistical Models- are used to understand processes and predict
possibilities such as river floods or the influence of climate change on daily weather
 Conceptual Model- the mind imagery that we use for understanding our surroundings
and experiences

Mental Map- important conceptual model, which we use to think about places, travel routes,
and the distribution of features in space

System Analysis- a powerful strategy use by physical geographers for analysis to

comprehend Earth as a whole or to understand most of its environmental components.

Two Basic Kinds of Systems

(1) Open Systems- most Earth subsystems are like these because both energy and matter
move freely across subsystem boundaries as inputs and outputs
(2) Closed System- is one in which no substantial amount of matter crosses its boundaries,
although energy can go in and out; planet Earth is essentially a closed system
Equilibrium- if the inputs entering the system are balanced by outputs, the system is said to
have reached this state

Dynamic Equilibrium- the change within a range of tolerance where most systems are
continually shifting slightly one way or another as they react to external conditions

Feedback- the interactions that cause changes or adjustments between parts of a system

Two Kinds of Feedback Relationships Operate in a System

(1) Negative Feedback- in which one change tends to offset another (an inverse relationship),
creates a counteracting effect that is generally beneficial because it tends to maintain
equilibrium in a system
(2) Positive Feedback- changes that reinforce the direction of an initial change (a direct
relationship).

Threshold- a condition that causes a system to change dramatically, in this case bringing the
positive feedback to a halt or completely reversing the effect of the feedback

Feedback Loop- a circular set of feedback operations that can be repeated as a cycle

CHAPTER 2
EARTH MATERIALS AND RESOURCES

EARTH’S PLANETARY STRUCTURE

 The most important evidence that scientists have used to gain indirect knowledge of
Earth’s interior is the behavior of various shock waves, known as seismic waves.
 Seismograph is a sensitive instrument that can record seismic waves from an
earthquake.

Two major types of seismic waves

 P (primary) waves travel faster and are the first to arrive at a recording
seismograph.
 S (secondary) waves travel more slowly than P waves, thus they arrive at the
seismograph later.

Structure of the Earth

 Core is the innermost section that contains one third of Earth’s mass and has a radius
of about 3360 kilometers which is larger than the planet Mars.
 Inner core has a radius of about 960 kilometers. It is a solid with a very high material
density.
 Outer core forms a 2400-kilometer thick band around the inner core.
 Mantle is the largest of Earth’s interior zones and has a thickness of approximately 2885
km and represents nearly two thirds of Earth’s mass.
 Mohorovicic Discontinuity is the interface between the mantle and the overlying crust
that is marked by a significant change of density.

 Crust is the earth’s solid exterior which is composed of a great variety of rock types that
respond in diverse ways and at varying rates to surface processes.

Two types of Crust

 Oceanic crust is composed of basalt, a heavy, dark-colored, iron-rich rock that is also
high in silicon (Si) and magnesium (Mg).
 Continental crust comprises the major landmasses on Earth that are exposed to the
atmosphere.

Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

 The uppermost mantle and overlying crust form a single structural unit called the
lithosphere.
 Beneath the lithosphere lies the asthenosphere, a 180-kilometer thick layer of the
upper mantle that responds to stress by deforming and flowing slowly rather than by
fracturing.

MINERALS
 A mineral is an organic, naturally occurring, crystalline substance represented by a
specific chemical formula. A crystalline substance displays a specific, repeated, three-
dimensional structure at the molecular level.
 Silicate minerals are compounds oxygen and silicon that also include one or more
metals and/or bases.

ROCKS
 A rock is a consolidated aggregate of various types of minerals or a consolidated
aggregate of multiple individual pieces (grains) of the same kind of mineral.
 Bedrock is a mass of consolidated rock that has not been weathered.
 Bedrock maybe exposed at the surface of Earth or it may be overlain by a cover of
broken and decomposed rock fragments, called regolith.

Igneous Rocks
 When molten rock material cools and solidifies it becomes an igneous rock.
 Earth’s surface is called magma, whereas molten rock material at the surface is known
specifically as lava.
 Molten material that solidifies at Earth’s surface creates extrusive igneous rock, also
called volcanic rock.
 Pyroclastics are the fragments of volcanic rock, dust-sized.

Intrusive Igneous Rock

 When molten rock beneath Earth’s surface, that is, magma, changes to a solid
(freezes), it forms intrusive igneous rock also referred to as plutonic rock after Pluto,
Roman god of the underworld.
 Joints are simple fractures or cracks in bedrock.
 Sedimentary Rocks
 Sedimentary rocks are derived from sediment, which is a loose accumulation of
unconsolidated fragments.
 Clasts are broken fragments of solids.
 Clastic sedimentary rocks form from fragments of preexisting rocks, shells, or bones.

Examples of clastic sedimentary rocks

 Conglomerate is a lithified mass of cemented, roughly rounded pebbles, cobbles, and
boulders and may have clay, silt, or sand filling in spaces between those larger
particles.
 Sandstone consists of cemented san-sized particles, most commonly grains of quartz.
 Shale is produced from the compaction of very fine-grained sediments, especially clays.
 Planktons are the remains of shellfish, corals, and drifting microscopic organisms
 Coal is created by the accumulation and compaction of partially
decayed vegetation in acidic, swampy environments where water-saturated ground
prevents oxidation and complete decay of the organic matter

Organic Sedimentary Rocks

 Lithify from the remains of organisms, both plants and animals.

Stratification is the layering of rocks

 A bedding plane is the boundary between two sedimentary layers that represent
separate depositional events.
 Unconformity is where markedly mismatching strata meet along an irregular, eroded
surface, that contact between the rocks
 Cross bedding is characterized by a pattern of thin sediment layers that accumulated
at an angle to the main strata, often shifts of direction by waves along a coast, currents
in streams, or winds over sand dunes.

Metamorphic Rocks
 Metamorphic means “changed form”. Form when enormous heat and pressure deep in
Earth’s crust can alter an existing rock into a new rock type.

ROCK CYCLE
Rock cycle is a conceptual model for understanding processes that generate, alter, transport,
and deposit mineral materials to produce different kinds of rock.
 Geothermal gradient- temperature increases with increasing depth inside Earth.
 Seismic waves- the most important evidence that scientists have used to gain indirect
knowledge of Earth’s interior is the behavior of various shock waves.
 Seismograph- can record seismic waves from an earthquake even when the
earthquake is centered thousands of kilometers away the seismograph’s location.
 Primary(P)- waves travel faster and are the first to arrive at a recording seismograph.
 Secondary(S)- waves travel more slowly than P waves, thus they arrive at the
seismograph later.
 Core- contains one third of Earth’s mass and has a radius of about 3360 kilometers
(2100mi), which is larger than the planet Mars.
 Inner core- has a radius of about 960 kilometers (600mi).
 Outer core- forms a 2400 kilometers (1500-mi) thick band around the inner core.
 Mantle- is the largest of Earth’s interior zones.
 Discontinuity- the interface between the mantle and the overlying crust is marked by a
significant change of density.
 Crust- solid exterior, which composed of a great variety of rock types that respond in
diverse ways and at varying rates to surface processes.
 Oceanic crust- is composed of basalt, a heavy, dark-colored, iron-rich that is also high
in silicon (Si) and magnesium (Mg).Forming the vast, deep ocean floors and lava flows
on all of the continents.
 Continental crust- comprises the major landmasses on Earth that are exposed to the
atmosphere.
 Granitic- continental crust contains more light-colored that oceanic crust does and can
be regarded as granitic in composition.
 Elastic solid- it response to applied stress like the overlying Earth layer, the crust.
 Lithosphere- uppermost mantle and overlying crust form a single structural unit.
 Asthenosphere- thick layer of the upper mantle that responds to stress by deforming
and flowing slowly rather than by manufacturing.
 Plastic solid- in the other words, the asthenosphere has the characteristics of a plastic
solid.
 Tectonic forces- large-scale forces that break and deform Earth’s crust, sometimes
resulting in earthquakes and often responsible for mountain building.
 Mineral- is an inorganic, naturally occurring, crystalline substance represented by a
specific chemical formula.
 Crystalline- substance displays a specific, repeated, three-dimensional structure at
molecular level.
 Crystals- are geometric forms visible to the unaided eye consisting of smooth faces
and sharp edges.
 Ions- minerals with weak internal bonds undergo chemical alteration most easily.
 Rock weathering- is form by molecule in a mineral may leave or be traded for other
substances.
 Silicate minerals- are compounds of oxygen and silicon that also include one or more
metals and or bases.
 Rock-is a consolidated aggregate of various types of minerals or a consolidated
aggregate of multiple individual pieces (grains) of the same kind of mineral.
  3 types or rocks

 Igneous rock
 Sedimentary rock
 Metamorphic rock

 Bedrock- a mass of consolidated rock that has not been weathered.

 Regolith- bedrock may be exposed at the surface of Earth or it may be overlain by a
cover of broken and decomposed rock fragments.
 Igneous rock- when molten rock material cools and solidifies.
 Magma- molten rock below Earth’s surface.
 Lava- whereas molten rock material at the surface.
 Pyroclastics- (from Greek: pyros, fire; clastus, broken), also known as tephra, that
settle out of the air.

 2 major categories of igneous rocks

 Extrusive igneous rock- is made from lava and also called volcanic rock.
 Intrusive igneous rock- varies in texture, chemical composition, crystalline structure,
tendency to fracture, and presence or absence of layering.

Characteristics of Igneous Rocks

 Extrusive rapid-cooling fine crystals

 Mafic- which is lower in silica and rich in heavy minerals.

 Felsic- which is rich in light-colored, lighter weight minerals, especially silicon and
aluminum.

 Intrusive slow-cooling coarse crystals

 Gabbro- a coarse-grained intrusive rock that cools at depth.

 Diorite- named for the Andes where many volcanoes erupt this type of lava.
 Granite- a felsic, coarse-grained, intrusive rock, has the same chemical and mineral
composition.

 Joints- caused by regional stresses in the crust are common features in any type of
rock, including igneous rock.
 Sedimentary rock- are derived from sediment, which is a loose accumulation of
unconsolidated fragments.

 3 major categories of sedimentary rocks

 Clastic sedimentary rock- that are form from fragments of preexisting rocks, shells, or
bones.
 Organic sedimentary rock- lithify from the remains of organisms, both plants and
animals.
 Chemical precipitate sedimentary rock- form from deposit on the sea or lake bottom
when lithified.
  Lithify- the processes of compaction and cementation transform.
 Clasts- broken fragments of solids.
 Breccia- similar rock composed of lithified fragments that are angular rather than
rounded.
 Plankton- the remains of shellfish, corals, and drifting microscopic organisms.
 Coal- is created by the accumulation and compaction of partially decayed vegetation in
acidic, swampy, environments where water-saturated ground prevents oxidation and
complete decay of the organic matter.
 Dolomite- magnesium is a major constituent along with calcium carbonate, the
chemical sedimentary rock.
 Stratification- many types of sediment accumulate in distinct layers,or strata, remain
visible after lithification.
 Bedding plane- is the boundary between two sedimentary layers that represent
separate depositional events.
 Unconformity- where markedly mismatching strata meet along an irregular, eroded
surface, that contact between the rocks.
 Cross bedding- is characterized by a pattern of thin sediment layers that accumulated
at an angle to the main strata often reflecting shifts of direction by waves along a coast,
currents in streams, or winds over sand dunes.
 Metamorphic- means “changed form”.
 Metamorphic rocks- are typically harder and more compact, have a reoriented
crystalline structure, and are more resistant to weathering.
 Metamorphism- occurs most commonly where crustal rocks are subjected to great
pressures by tectonic processes.
 Foliation- platy surfaces (cleavage) or wavy bands.
 Schist- a common metamorphic rock with thin foliation.
 Gneiss- where the foliation develops into broad mineral bands, the rock is extremely
hard.
 Quartzite- is brittle harder than steel, and almost inert chemically.
 Rock cycle- is a conceptual model for understanding processes that generate, alter,
transport, and deposit mineral materials to produce different kinds of rock.
 Recycled- to form new rocks.

CHAPTER 3

GEOLOGIC PROCESSES ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE

NATURE OF EXOGENIC PROCESSES

Weathering
This is the breakdown of rock material at and near earth surface.

A rock fragment broken (weathered) from a large mass will be removed from that mass
(eroded), moved (transported) and set down (deposited)in a new location.
Mass wasting is gravity induced downslope movement of rock material that occurs without
the assistance of a geomorphic agent, as in the case of a rock falling from cliff.

Weathering

Environmental condition at and near earth surface subject rocks to temperatures pressures
and substance, especially water that contribute to physical and chemical breakdown of
exposed rock.

Clasts are broken fragment of rock.

The several types of rock weathering fall into two basic categories

Physical weathering
Also known as mechanical weathering disintegrates rock, breaking smaller from a large block
or outcrop of rock.
Chemical weathering

Decomposes rock through chemical reaction that remove ions from the original rock-forming
minerals.

Physical weathering

Unloading

The unloading process the upper part of the granite is exposed at the surface, where it
experiences the low pressure of the atmosphere.

Exfoliation

The successive removal of these outer rock sheets

Exfoliation dome
Designates an unloaded, exfoliating outcrop of rock with a dome like surface form.

Thermal expansion and contraction

Those scientists cited widespread existence of split rocks in arid regions as evidence of the
effectiveness of this thermal expansion and contraction weathering.

Granular disintegration

Less controversial has been the notion that differential thermal expansion and contraction of
individual mineral grain in coarse crystalline rocks contributes to granular disintegration.
Freeze-thaw weathering

In area subject to numerous diurnal cycles of freeze thaw, water repeatedly freezing in
fractures and small cracks in rocks contributes significantly to rock breakage.

Salt crystal growth

The development of salt crystals in cracks, fractures, and other void spaces in rock causes
physical disintegration in a way that similar to freeze thaw weathering.

Hydration

In weathering by hydration water molecules attach to the crystalline structure of a mineral

without causing a permanent chance in that mineral composition.

Chemical weathering

Chemical reaction between rock-forming minerals and other matter at earth surface also work
to break down rocks.

Oxidation

This chemical union of oxygen atoms with another substance to create a new product is
oxidation.

Solution and carbonation

In the process of solution a chemical reaction causes mineral forming ions to dissociate and
the separated ions are carried away in the water.

Carbonation

The chemical weathering process of carbonation is a common type of solution that involves
carbon dioxide and water molecules reacting with and thereby decomposing rock material.

Hydrolysis

In the weathering process of hydrolysis, water molecules alone, rather than oxygen or carbon
dioxide in water, react with chemical components of rock forming minerals to create new
compound of which the H and OH ions of water are a part.

Climate factors

In almost all environment, physical and chemical weathering processes operate together, even
though one of these categories usually dominates.

Rock type

Some rock types are more resistant to weathering than other rock types.
Joint set

Multiple joints that parallel each other form a joint set, and two joint sets will cross each other
at an angle.

Spheroidal weathering

This distinctive, rounded weathered form, known as spheroidal weathering , develops

especially well on jointed crystalline rocks, such as granite .

Mass wasting

Mass wasting also called mass movement is a collective term for the down sport of surface
materials in direct response to gravity.

With these slow mass wasting types we can only measure the movement and observe its
effects over long period.

The motion of fast mass wasting can be witnessed by people.

Slow mass wasting

Slow mass wasting has a significant, cumulative effect on earth surface

Creep

Most hillslopes covered with weathered rock or soils undergo creep, the slow migration of
particles to successively lower elevation.

Solifluction

The word solifluction which has literally means ''soil flow” refers to the slow downslope
movement of water saturated soil and/or regolith.

Solifluction is most common in high latitude or high elevation tundra regions that have
permafrost, a subsurface layer of permanently frozen ground.

Above the permafrost layer lies the active layer, which freezes during winter but thaws during
summer.

Fast mass wasting

The effects of fast mass wasting events on the land surface are more dramatic than those of
slow mass wasting.

Fall

Mass wasting events that consists of earth materials plummeting downward freely through the
air are fall.rockfall are the most common type of fall.
This slope is know as a talus sometimes referred to as a talus slope or where cone shaped,a
talus cone.

Avalanches

An avalanche is a type of mass movement in which much of the involved material is pulverized
that is broken into small, powdery fragments and then flows rapidly as an airborne density
current along earth surface.

Slumps are rotational slides where a thick block of oil called earth move along a concave
curved surface.

Landslide has become a general term popularly used to refer to any form of rapid mass
movement.

Flows

Mass wasting flows are masses of water saturated unconsolidated sediments that move down
slope by the force of gravity.

Debris flows and mudflows differ from each other primarily in grain size and sediment
attributes.

Chapter 4
Geologic Processes within the Earth’s Surface

 Landforms- are one of the most appealing and impressive elements of Earth’s
environments.
 Geomorphology- a major subfield of physical geography devoted to the scientific study
of landforms.
 Tectonic processes- (from Greek: tekton, carpenter, builder), which are movements of
parts of the crust and upper mantle.
 Igneous processes- (from Latin: ignis, fire), which are related to the eruption and
solidification of molten rock matter.
 Relief- is the difference in elevation between the highest and lowest points within a
specific area.
• Geomorphic agent- a medium that picks up, moves, and eventually lays down pieces of
broken rock matter.
• Rock structure- the nature, orientation, inclination, and arrangement of affected rock layers.
• Strike- the compass direction of the line that forms at the intersection of a titled rock layer
and horizontal plane.
• Dip- it is always measured at right angles to strike and in degrees of angle from horizontal.
• Folding- is a bending or crumpling of rock layers.
• Fold limbs- rock layers that form the flanks of anticlinal crest and synclinal
• Anticlines- elements of rock structure that upholds
• Syncline- elements of rock structure that downfolds
• Recumbent folds - asymmetrically folded rocks nay become overturned and perhaps so
compressed that the fold lies horizontally, these are known as recumbent folds.
• Faulting- is the slippage or displacement of rocks along a fracture surface
• Fault- the fracture along which movement has occurred
• Reverse Fault- it is the steep, high angle fault resulting from compressional forces
• Fault blocks- these are the tensional forces commonly cause the crust to break into discrete
blocks
• Normal faults- fault blocks that are separated from each other by normal faults
• Graben- block that slid downward between two normal faults or the remained in place while
blocks on either slide slid upward along the faults
• Horst- a fault block that moved relatively upward between two normal faults
• Escarpment- often shortened to scarp, is a steep cliff, which may be tall or short.
• Fault scarp- a cliff that results from movement along a fault.
• Dip-slip faults - fault with this kind of movement, up or down along the dip of the fault plane
extending into Earth
• Strike-slip fault - the direction of slippage is parallel to the surface trace, or strike of the fault
• Lateral fault- a horizontal motion that cause of strike slip fault
• Earthquakes- a ground motion of Earth
• seismic waves- passing along the crustal exterior or emerging at Earth's surface
• Earthquake Focus- can be located anywhere from the near the surface to a depth of 700
kilometers.
• Earthquake epicenter- the point of Earth's surface that lies directly above the focus
• Earthquake magnitude- reported as a number, generally with one decimal place, that
represents the amount of energy released in an earthquake.
• Moment magnitude- reported using the same numeric scheme devised by Richter, where a
whole number increase in magnitude represent 10 times greater amplitude, and approximately
32 times greater energy released.
• Earthquake intensity- the damage caused by an earthquake and the degree of its impact on
people and their property.
• modified Mercalli scale- it describe the effects of an earthquake on humans and the special
variation of those impacts.
• Volcanism- refers to the extrusion of rock matter from Earths subsurface to the exterior and
the creation of surface terrain feature as a result
• Volcanoes- are mountains or hills that form in this way.
• Plutonism- refers to igneous processes that occur below Earth’s surface.
• Explosive eruptions- violently blast pieces of molten rock pours less violently onto the
surface as flowing streams of lava in effusive eruptions.
• Igneous Intrusions- or plutons, masses of intrusive igneous rock that cools and solidified
beneath the surface of the Earth
• Stock- exposed at Earth's surface, an irregular shaped intrusion
• Batholith- complex masses of solidified magma, usually granite.
• Laccolith- a mushroom shaped intrusion.
• Sill- solidifying into horizontal sheet of intrusive igneous rock are called sill
• Dike- solidified magma in this case has a wall like shape
• Volcanic neck- a tall rock spire made of the now-exposed, subsurface pipe that about 30
million years aged an overlying volcano.
  Geomorphic Processes that originated within the Earth
 Endogenic Processes- (endo, within; genic, originating) tend to increase the
amount of surface relief.
 Exogenic Processes- (exo, eternal), those that originated at Earth’s surface,
work to decrease relief
.
 Exogenic Processes
 Erosion
 Transportation
 Deposition

 3 Principal types of Tectonic forces

• Compressional tectonic forces- push crustal rocks together.
• Tensional tectonic forces- pull parts of the crust away from each other.
• Shearing tectonic forces- slide parts of Earth's crust past each other.

CHAPTER 5
DEFORMATION OF THE CRUST

Plate Tectonics- a scientific theory that the Earth’s surface is made of very large sections that
move every slowly

Uniformitarianism- the idea that internal and external Earth processes operated in the
geologic past as they do today, that is, slowly and not by past monumental cataclysms

Continental drift- the idea that continents and other land masses have shifted their positions
during Earth history

Alfred Wegener- a german climatologist who proposed the theory of continental drift.

Pangaea- continents had once been a part of a single supercontinent

Laurasia in the Northern Hemisphere:

 North America
 Europe
 Asia
Gondwana in the Southern Hemisphere:
 South America
 Africa
 Australia
 Antartica
 India

Paleomagnetism- the magnetic field of Earth as it existed when the rock solidified
Seafloor spreading- movement of ocean floor in both directions away from a midoceanic
ridge is evidenced by the symmetrical pattern of increasing age with distance from ridge and
symmetrical pattern of paleomagnetism

Polarity reversals- historical record of changes in Earth’s magnetic field when the north and
south magnetic poles switch location

Subduction- the process by which Earth material moves down to the subsurface in these
zones

Lithospheric plates- large segments of Earth’s lithosphere that include continental crust,
oceanic crust and uppermost rigid part of the mantle

Inclination is the magnetic field surrounding the Earth

Magnetic clip causes not only a magnetic compass needle to point north but also to dip
downward in a straight-line direction to north.

Declination shows the direction to the magnetic pole

Tectonics- involves large-scale forces originating within the Earth

Pacific Plate- largest plate; primarily oceanic

Convection- is the mechanism for plate tectonics

Plate Divergence- the pulling apart of plates as occurs with seafloor spreading

Constructive plate margins- formation of new crust in these spreading centers

Plate Convergence- a wide variety of crustal activity occurs at areas of tectonic plate
convergence

Island arcs- major volcanic created by the type of boundary developed by volcanoes

Continental collision- causes two continental or major landmasses to fuse or join together,
creating a new larger landmass

Continental suturing- the process closes an ocean basin that once separated the colliding
landmasses

Transform movement- occurs when plates neither pull apart nor converge but instead slide
past each other

Transform faults/ fracture zones- are common along midoceanic ridges, seen elsewhere as
on seafloor offshore

Hot spots- mass of molten rock in the mantle that does not move with the lithosphere plate
Paleogeography- study of past geographic environment

Chapter 6
Geologic Processes and Hazards

Faults and Earthquakes

 Earthquake – The plates of the earth’s crust move, new crust forms, and old crust sinks
into subduction zones. It is these movements that give rise to earthquakes.
 Faults – fractures in the crust along which on one side of the break move past those on
the other
- Measured according to the amount of displacement along the fractures
Types of faults
 Normal Fault – move on a steeply inclined surface
 Reverse Fault – move rocks on the upper side of a fault up and over those below
 Thrust Faults – similar to reverse faults, but the fault surface is more gently inclined
 Blind Thrusts – are dangerous because they often remain unknown
 Strike-slip Faults – move horizontally
Causes of Earthquakes
 Elastic Rebound Theory – bending it out of its original shape with a sudden release of
energy capable of sending an arrow flying.
 Stress – forces imposed on a rock
 Strain – change in shape of the rock in response the imposed stress
 The larger the stress applied, the greater the strain.
Earthquake Waves
 Seismic waves – where the released energy travels
 Focus – hypocenter of the earthquake
 Epicenter – point on the map directly above the focus

Types of Earthquake Waves

1. Body waves
 P-waves – (first event) the primary or compressional waves, which come as a
sudden jolt
 S-waves – (secondary or shear, waves) moving with a wiggling motion
2. Surface Waves – a long series of rolling motions.
 Love waves move from side to side
 Rayleigh waves move up and down in a motion that somewhat resembles ocean
swells

 Period – The time for one complete cycle between successive wave peaks to pass
 Wavelength – distance between wave crests
 Amplitude – amount of positive and negative wave motion
 Frequency –number of peaks per second
Seismographs
 Seismograph – records the shaking of earthquake waves on a record called a
seismogram
Locating Earthquakes
 The time interval between the arrival of P and S waves recorded by a seismograph can
also help scientists locate earthquake.
Earthquake Size and Characteristics
 Earthquake Intensity – It is based on how strongly people feel the shaking and the
severity of the damage it causes.
 Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
 Shakemaps – show the distribution of maximum acceleration for many potential
earthquakes
 Earthquake Magnitude – Ritcher Magnitude
 Richter Scale is used to rate the magnitude of an earthquake, that is the amount of
energy released during an earthquake.
 Moment Magnitude – essentially measure of the total energy expended during an
earthquake.
Ground Motion and Failure During Earthquakes
 How much and how long the ground shakes during an earthquake is related to how
much and where the fault moves.
 Ground Acceleration – normally designated as some proportion of the acceleration of
gravity.
Secondary Ground Effects
 Earthquakes often trigger landslides.
 Earthquakes can also cause liquefaction in which soils that ordinarily seem perfectly
stable become almost liquid when shaken and then solidify again when the shaking
stops.
Volcanic Hazards
 Lava Flowa – An erupting can send molten rock, or lava, flowing or spewing forth.
Pyroclastic Flows and Surges
 Mixture of hot volcanic ash and steam that pours downslope because it is too dense to
rise.
Ash and Pumice Falls
 Volcanic Ash – composed of bits of pumice less than 2 mm across, light enough to drift
some distance on the wind.
- Some ash may linger for several years in the upper atmosphere, here it bocks
radiation from the sun.
- Heavy ash falls pose several threats to humans, including the inhalation of fine
particles.
- Ash fall also poses problems for transportation potentially complicating
evacuations
- Ash can also cause serious problems for aircraft
Volcanic Mudflows
 Mudflows – form when ash combines with water, primarily on stratovolcanoes, and
pours down their flanks at high speeds with a consistency similar to very wet concrete
 Lahar – hot mudflow
 Stratovolcanoes pose an especially great mudflow risk because they are inherently
unstable piles of lava and rubble
Poisonous Gases
 Even if no eruption occurs, gases emitted by volcanoes can pose a hazard to people,
animals and trees.
Predicting Volcanic Eruptions
 Scientists commonly use historical records to asses the long- term prospects for
volcanic activity in a certain location.
Examining Ancient Eruptions
 A volcano’s historical record can help geoscientists understand patterns of recurrence in
eruptions.
 Paleovolcanology – involves interpreting deposits from prehistoric eruptions and
reconstructing a record using age dates on plant material charred in past eruptions or
dates on the volcanic rocks themselves.
Eruption Warnings: Volcanic Precursors
 Forecasting volcaic behavior for the long term is one thing.
 Accurate eruption predictions are especially critical in areas where a large population
lives close to the base of stratovolcano.
 Harmonic tremors – low frequency rolling ground movements that precedes many
eruption.
Mitigation of Damage
 Controlling Lava Flows – Attempts to slow or divert lava flows have brought only partial
success.
 Warning of Mudflows – Fast moving mudflows kill thousands of people living in valleys
on the lower shapes of volcanoes.
Causes of Landslide
 Slope equilibrium involves balancing the relationship between slop angle and load.
Changes in slope imposed by external factors – such as undercutting a slope by a
stream or road building; loading of the upper part of a slope by construction; adding
water by various means; or removing vegetation to permit more access of water – can
destabilize this equilibrium and promote sliding.
Oversteepening and Overloading
 Oversteepening –occurs through natural means, such as an erosion at the base of the
slope.
Overlapping Causes
 Most causes and triggers of landslides, such as steep slopes, ndercutting, overloading,
excess water, and earthquakes, are independent of one another.
Types of Downslope Movement
 Landslides and other downslope movements are generally classified on the basis of
material type, movement type, and rate of movement.
Rockfalls
 Rockfalls – develop in steep, mountainous regions mrked by cliffs with nearly vertical
fracturesor other zones of weakness.Large masses of rocks
Debris Avalanches
 Rockfalls in which a material breaks into numerous small fragments that flow at high
velocity as a coherent stream
Rotational Slumps
 Also called as rotational slide. One of the most common landslides.
Translational Slides
 Move on preexisting weak surfaces that lie more or less parallel to a slope.
Hazards Related to Landslides
 Landslides are closely related to several other hazards. They can be triggered by
storms and flooding or by earthquake and volcanic eruptions.
Earthquakes
 Below magnitude 4 trigger few landslides. Progressively larger earthquakes trigger
more and more landslides.

Harmonic Tremors are the low-frequency rolling ground movement that precedes many
eruptions.

Failure of Landslide Dams

 The time before a dam fails and the size of a resulting flood depends on:
1. The size, height, and geometry of a dam.
2. The material making up a dam
3. The rate of stream flow and how fast a lake rises
Mitigations of Damages From Landslides
Landslide Hazard Maps
 The best strategy is to avoid building in places prone to landslides.
 High risk landslide areas:
1. Steep slopes and clearly mountainous areas
2. Local slopes that exceed the local angle
3. Areas with abundant loose debris on a slope
4. Slopes with low permeability, as in fine-grained soils.
5. Areas where large amounts of rainfall or snowmelt enter the ground.
Engineering Solutions
 Shotcrete –a cement mixture that can be sprayed with rock cliffs or slopes to restrict
water access
 Rockbolts – some are drilled and anchored in place by rockbolts

Chapter 7
Hydrometeorological Phenomena and Hazards

 Tropical Cyclone- is a storm system consisting of a low pressure center surrounded by

strong rotating winds. These storms have wind speeds of more than 120 km/h and can
exceed 260 km/h.
 When a large tropical cyclone occurs in the North Atlantic and Eastern Pacific, it is
called hurricane, a term derived from a Caribbean native Indian word meaning big
wind.
 The same type of storm is called typhoon in the Western Pacific, Japan, and Southeast
Asia.
 Hurricanes begin to develop over warm seawater of at least 25C (77F), commonly
between 5 and 20 north latitude.
 At the center of the storm is a low pressure zone called the eye generally 20-50 km in
diameter and clearly visible as a small dark area in many satellite views.

 Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale- divides hurricanes into five categories based on
average wind speed with category 1 storms being the weakest and category 5 the
strongest.

 Storm Surge- also called storm tides, as the sea rises along with an incoming hurricane,
as a result of low atmospheric pressure and high winds.

 Because hurricanes rotate counter clockwise, winds in that “right-front” quadrant point
most directly at the store and cause the greatest surge and wave effect there.

 Wind Velocity has a major effect on wave weight.

 The pileup of water before the wind is higher, with greater wind speed and fetch, the
distance the wind travels over open water, and with shallower water.

 The path of a hurricane compared with shore orientation also has an effect, as does the
shape of a shoreline.

 A hurricane arriving perpendicular to the coast can lead to a higher storm surge
because the whole surge mound affects the shoreline but will remain along the coast for
longer.

 The forward speed of a storm center can have mixed effects.

 Wind can also wreck weak buildings and blow down trees, power lines, and sign.

 Wind in some hurricanes does for more damage to buildings than flooding.

 Hurricanes cause significant flooding because of storm surge as well as heavy rainfall.

 Heavy rain and flooding during a hurricane can wash out structures drown people
contaminate water supplies and trigger landslides.

 Nearly 60% of the people who die in hurricanes drown because of river floods near the
coast. One quarter of hurricane deaths are of people who drown in their cars on while
trying to abandon them during floods.

 The deadliest Atlantic hurricanes have affected the Caribbean islands with 64% of total
storm losses.

 About 10,000 in Nicaragua and Honduras from hurricane Mitch from October 22 to
November 5 1998.

 Disruptions from Katarina the Gulf of Mexico the biggest domestic source. Pipelines
inland from the shut down for lack of power.
 Planning for a hurricane should be among the first things people do when they move to
a hurricane prove coast.

 One problem is convincing people to evacuate promptly.

 Governments, communities, and insurance companies are finally reacting to damages

and costs from hurricane.

 Beachfront sand lines absorb the energy of waves and advancing storm surges and can
reduce damages to coastal communities.

 Flooding occurs when the amount of water entering a steam, for example from rising
groundwater or surface runoff, causes the levels of the stream to surpass the capacity
of its channel.

 Bankfull level of a stream is the height at which the water reaches the highest level of its
banks which typically occur every 1.5 years to 3 years.

 The intensity of a flood can be measured by discharge of floodwater and the water’s
rate of rise.

 We can depict flood intensity graphically in a hydrograph.

 A typical flood hydrograph rises steeply to the flood crest where the flood reaches its
peak discharge.

 Flash flood, which comes on suddenly with little warming, is a flood with a very steep
hydrograph.

 If mud or clay dominates the solids choking a flowing mass, it is a mudflow.

 If volcanic material dominates it is called a lahar.

 Life landslides, mudflows are mobilized by abundant water in a slope and are often
triggered by heavy or prolonged rainfall.

 Debris flow are common and extremely dangerous.

 Debris flows are characterized by internal shearing, with some parts moving faster than
others.

 The high density of debris flows in steep terrain can propel them at higher velocity than
clear water.

 Debris flow spread a fan, they block old channels with piles of gravel and boulders.
  Debris flows commonly begin with a heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt that fills pore
spaces above less permeable bedrock.

 A valley floor strewn with boulders that seem much too large for the modern stream to
move.

 Rocks lodged against trees branches or embedded in dark.

 A drainage basin with large, actively eroding areas.

 Active faulting, which helps supply broken rock to a slope.

Chapter 8
Marine and Coastal Processes

Barrier island - is a long, sandy island that is near the shore. It is a sandy bottom that is
steeper than the coastal plain and it tops off landward in a ridge.
Sand Dunes- a formation that happens during low tide when winds pick up drying sand and
blow it landward which help maintain the barriers islands.
CCCL- Coastal Construction Control Line
Riprap- it is when such cliff-top dwellers see their properties disappearing and recognize that
part of the problem is waves undercutting the cliff, the typical response is to dump coarse
rocks.
Shotcrete- is a cement coating, on the cliff surface to minimize erosion.
Beach hardening – is a process to build structures to protect communities in which the typical
response to a threat in a property.
Seawalls- a wall built to keep sea waves from coming up onto island.
Groins- the barriers built out into the surf to trap sand from migrating down a beach.
Jetties- also known as riprap walls. Are sometimes used to maintain navigation channels for
boat access into bays, lagoons, and marinas.
Breakwaters- built offshore and parallel to the shore, have similar effect, causing deposition in
the protected area behind the barrier.
Beach replenishment- a process which replaces sand on beaches beginning in the 1950s
and became popular in the United States.
Shoreline- is the exact and constantly changing contact between the ocean and lake surface
dry land.
Sea level- is a complexly determines average position of the ocean shoreline and the vertical
position above and below which other elevation to which other elevations are measured.
Swash- thin sheet of water rushing toward the land
Backwash- return of the thin sheet of water
Wave steepness- the ratio of wave height to wavelength.
Wave period- the time it takes for one wavelength to pass a fixed point.
Tsunamis- result from the sudden displacement of water by movements along faults,
landslides, volcanic eruptions, or other impulsive events.
Wind waves- created when air currents pass along the water surface.
Spring tide- the increased tidal range caused by the alignment of Earth, the moon, and the
sun.
Neap tide- a moderated situation, which like spring tides occurs every 2 weeks.
Semidiurnal tidal- is a characteristic along the Atlantic coats of the United States.
Diurnal- not very common type of tide
Sea stack- a remnant from the top of an arch collapses or sea cliff retreats and resistant pillar
is left standing.
Abrasion platform- record the amount of cliff recession.
Marine terraces- if tectonic activity uplifts these wave-cut benches and wave-built terraces
above sea level out of reach of wave action.