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Valve Amps

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Overview Valve amp Basics Pre-amp Driver Output Stage Output Transformers
Power-supply Valve V Solid-state
Topic 2 of 7

Valve amp basics

This 7 page chapter on valve amps is centred on understanding the operation of the Williamson
Ultra Linear 100 Watt valve amp. Valve technology is now redundant and there is no point
discussing valve amp designs that fall short of achieving the highest performance for replicating
music.

Rod Elliott (sound.whsites.net) has also written chapters on Valve technology. We have
collaborated on what we are best able to describe with minimum overlap. It is essential to read
the valve chapters on both sites to obtain a pragmatic understanding of valve amp technology.
sound.whsites.net / valves

A valve is an extension of the light bulb. Inside the valve is

a vacuum. The glowing hot filament in the center of the
valve is the 'Cathode'. The letter K represents Cathode.
The metal plates on the outside of the Cathode is the
'Anode'. The thin helical wire between the Cathode and
Anode is the 'Grid'. The right pic shows the inside of a
triode (view these links).
www2.117.ne.jp / A-08S-205D-amp-e
www.6moons.com/audioreviews/yamamoto/a08_2.html

When a +Voltage is placed on the Anode and a -Voltage is placed on the hot Cathode, a current
can flow between them, but not the other way around. This function is described as a 'Rectifier'.
The solid state diode uses the same symbols as the valve (A Anode, Cathode K).

The red arrow in the right pic symbolises that current is

conducting between Anode and Cathode. The direction of
the arrow does not refer to the direction of current flow, but
only that conduction is happening. Early academic text of
Valve technology sometimes refers to current flowing from
Cathode to Anode, Later academic text of solid state
technology sometimes states that current flows from Anode
to Cathode. Confusion to say the least. From Quantum
mechanics we know that electro-magnetic energy functions at the speed of light (4th dimension)
where time and direction do not exist. Therefore this text does not refer to current flowing in a
direction.

Heater filament. In the earliest valves the heater filament and Cathode K was the same
element, described as a directly heated Cathode. Approx 1940 onwards (except rectifier valves)
the majority of valves, the heater filament and Cathode are separate elements. The Cathode is
in-directly heated by the filament. The majority of valve filaments is 6.3V. Early vehicle batteries
were 6.3V.

The temperature of a filament can be as high as 2,000 deg C. In small pre-amp valves the
filament current is 6.3V x 300mA = 2 Watts approx. The filament current in large power output
valves can be 6.3V x 1.5A = 10 Watt approx. Because the 6.3V heater filament is common to all
valves, the heater filament does not need to be drawn in the circuit.

Triode. A fine helix (spiral) wire is placed close to the Cathode. A valve with
a single grid between Anode and Cathode K is a Triode. Without a Voltage
on the Grid (0V) the current between Anode and Cathode will be maximum
(saturation). -V on the Grid will reduce the current between Anode and
Cathode K. A small audio signal on the grid can modulate the current
between Anode and Cathode. When a valve is applied in a circuit the
modulated audio current between Anode and Cathode will appear as a large
amplified signal, as a perfect replica of the input, rotated 180deg in phase.

Thousands of variations of valves evolved since the 1920s. The only valves discussed in this
chapter are those required for the Williamson 100 Watt Ultra Linear amplifier. These valves
were readily available from the mid 1950s onward and became the most popular valves used in
the majority of Hi fidelity valve amps till solid state technology took over in the late 1960s.
Occult magical audiophile valves and single ended Class A amps of the 1930s are not discussed
in this text.

Valves for audio amplifiers are categorised into three primary groups.
A Small (noval base) pre-amp twin triode 12AX7 and 12AU7. 12AT7 12AY7 similar but less
used.
B Small (noval base) power tubes for 10 to 15 Watt amps. EL84 6BQ5
C Large (octal base) power tubes for 30 to 100 Watt amps. EL34 6CA7 6550 KT88 KT90

12AX7 (ECC83) and 12AU7 (ECC82) are twin triodes. ECC83/82 are the European numbers
for these valves. There are 2 separate triodes in each valve. They are the most commonly
used small valves for pre-amplifiers and signal processing. They only conduct a small amount
current between Anode and Cathode. Small pre-amp valves function between +100V to +300V
DC and conduct 0.5mA to 3mA (average) and can be touched without scorching your fingers.

The 12AX7 is for high signal gain (approx 40), whereas a 12AU7
is capable of driving a lower impedance and will be of lower gain
(approx 10). The letter A is placed at the end as 12AX7-A and
12AU7-A to represent high quality and low noise. Many
variations of these valves were produced by valve manufacturers
from the 1940s to the 1960s, that have similar numbering 12AY7
12AT7 etc. Most of the twin triodes have a standard noval (9 pin)
base, with the same pin configeration. The heater filaments can
be paralleled for 6.3V or wired in series for 12.6V. 6.3V and 12.6V was the standard for vehicle
batteries. Heater filaments are normally connected to AC from the mains transformer. DC for
the heater filaments was and is used to eliminate hum leakage into the Cathode when used for
high-gain phono pre-amplifiers and microphone inputs.
Numbering. When solid state technology took over, nearly all valve factories in western
countries closed. What tended to evolve was the numbering variations on many valves
including twin triodes was reduced to represent application rather than technical parameters in
the original RCA valve manual. 12AX7 for high gain and 12AU7 lower Impedance, low gain.
When purchasing other variations of twin triodes 12AY7 12ATY etc today, to be used for specific
application where substitution is not appropriate, it is wise to test if these other valves are still of
the original RCA specification, or are the same as the presently available 12AX7 and 12AU7
relabeled.

Power valves conduct a large amount current and have extra internal elements to enable them
to function at greatest efficiency and lowest distortion. Large power valves function between
+300V to +600V DC and conduct 50mA to 150mA (average). The heat generated by the current
flowing between Anode and Cathode is in addition to the heat generated by the heater filament.
Large power valves can dissipate 30 to 50 Watts of heat and will readily scorch unwary fingers.

6CA7 EL34 is an octal base output valve, described as a power pentode. These large valves
were mostly used in independent chassis Hi-fidelity amplifiers. 2 x 6CA7 Class AB push pull
was used by the majority of 35 Watt per channel valve amplifiers, with a 375V DC power supply.
The 6CA7 / EL34 has high gain requiring minimum pre-amp circuitry to drive them to full power.
Some European amp manufacturers used 800V DC
supply which enabled a pair of EL34s to achieve 100
Watts. During the 1960s EL34s were very cheap $1.50
each in packs of 100, and readily available, therefore
6CA7 was the preferred power valve for many amplifier
manufacturers to use.

6V6 6L6 7591 KT66 were and are lower power

octal based power valves that pre-date the 6CA7, KT88 and 6550.

Screen grid Another fine helix (spiral) wire is added and placed between the Grid and Anode.
A power valve with an added screen grid next to the Anode can be described as a Tetrode or
Pentode. The screen is always kept at a high +V. A high +V on the screen increases the
current efficiency between Anode and Cathode and magnifies the gain of the valve. A very
small change in the -V on the grid will now cause a larger current change between Anode and K
Cathode. 0V on the screen will cause the current between Anode and Cathode to be zero (cut-
off). Switching off the supply Voltage to the screens is used as a standby method in some guitar
amps.

Different power valves have variations of extra elements, but only the Anode, Grid, Screen and
Cathode are externally assessable. Other internal elements (suppressor grids and beam plates)
are internal connected and are not externally assessable.

Tetrode and Pentode A Triode has 3 elements that are externally assessable (Anode, Grid,
Cathode). The Tetrode and Pentode have 4 elements that are externally assessable (Anode,
Screen. Grid, Cathode). The extra screens described as suppressor screens and beam plates
are internally connected and are not externally assessable. Variations of Tetrodes and
Pentodes evolved as a means of getting around each others patents. A KT88 is a beam
powered tetrode, whereas a 6CA7 (EL34) is a power pentode. Both valves use the same large
octal base arranged in the same pin configuration for Anode, Screen, Grid and Cathode,
including the 6.3V heater filament. Many patents have lapsed and the numbering on valves
today represents marketing application rather than the internal structure of how a valve is made.

Internal differences. A person who constructs valve amps does not need to be concerned with
the internal differences of how a Triode, Tetrode or Pentode is designed or constructed.
Understanding the internal parameters of valves is academic. Many people who make valve
amplifiers have a good understanding of the academic parameters of valves. But many people
who make valve amps appear to have a limited and narrow understanding of valve physics when
applied in a circuit. This is demonstrated by the bewildering and illogical variations of valve amp
designs including basic circuit design mistakes, particularly with power valve biasing.

6BQ5 EL84 (and 6GW8 EL86) is a small noval base power pentode. Many cheap stereo
systems used one 6BQ5 per channel (Class A) approx 4 Watts. The majority of domestic high
fidelity stereo systems used 2 x 6BQ5s in Class AB push pull, and are capable of 16 Watts.
Many stereo systems that used these small power valves were marketed as 30 Watts total.
The above pic is a 1960s National SA-52H (30 Watt) FM stereo-tuner integrated Hi-fi amplifier
that included a multitude of features. A total of 18 valves. 4 x 12AX7, 3 x 12AU7 and 7 radio
tuner valves, plus 4 x 6BQ5 power valves behind a heat protection shield at the rear of the
chassis. Class AB push pull 15 Watts per channel. The transformers were high quality.
Hundreds of thousands of variations of these products flooded the world market. They were
hand wired in a birds nest manor using cheap labour. Most of these domestic amps performed
well, but were nightmares to service.

KT88 and 6550 are large octal base output valves, described as a power Tetrodes. KT88 and
6550 are almost identical and can be interchanged in most applications. These were the
highest performing octal based tubes available. A pair of KT88s in UL class AB push pull were
the preferred power valves in the more expensive Hi-fidelity amps, 50 to 60 Watt per channel. A
pair of KT88s can achieve 100 Watts from a 560V DC supply. The KT88 is low gain, requiring
extra pre-amp circuitry to achieve a large signal voltage to drive a pair of KT88s to full power.
During the 1960s, KT88s were approx $10 each and difficult to source in quantity. Today, KT88
and 6550 are readily available from many suppliers and in comparison to todays money value
they have decreased in price.

Williamson is the name of a person attributed to rationalising how valve amplifiers could be
made to achieve the highest technical performance. His scientific articles appeared in the late
1940s and by the mid 1950s many variations of the Williamson Ultra Linear Class AB AB1
amplifiers became available (15 Watts to 100 Watts). www.wikipedia.org / Williamson amplifier

The following pages of this chapter will describe how a Williamson UL Class AB AB1 amplifier
works and how valve amps can be serviced and maintained to give the best performanse.

In 1956 MOV (Marconi Osram Valve) subsidiary of G.E.C, re-modelled the TT21
transmitting tube, naming it KT88. The KT88 was designed for high-power low-
distortion domestic and commercial amplifiers to give the best performance from
the UL Williamson design. But the KT88 was approx x10 greater in cost than
the majority of output valves that were currently available, hereby restricting
their use only to the highest quality and therefore most expensive amplifiers,
which very few people could afford. The average output valve in most 15 to 30
Watt amplifiers was less than $1 for amp manufacturers to purchase in quantity.
The KT88 was approx $10 for a amp manufacturer to purchase and a pair of
KT88s would have equaled half the average weekly wage. By the time that
cost is passed on at retail in a finished amplifier using KT88s the price was
simply prohibitive for the majority of consumers. If KT88s were available at low
cost, every amp manufacturer would have used them. www.wikipedia.org /
KT88
By todays perspective the cost of a KT88 in comparison to the smaller less performing 6L6 6V6
5118 6CA7 etc is approx 2:1. KT88s are now manufactured in Russia and China and affordable
by everyone. It makes no logical sense not to use KT88s in every octal based valve amplifier
today.

Valve sound

No valve should have its own sound. If it does, then the added distortion is imposed on the
music where it does not belong. There is a vast amount of miss-information on the web about
various valves having individual characteristic sounds. This is only true when a particular valve
(valve A) biased to give optimum performance is substituted with another valve (valve B) with the
same pin configuration with different internal parameters. Therefore the biasing that was used
to correctly center valve A in its linear operating position does not apply to valve B. The majority
of differences heard are simply gain related, no different than if the volume (level) is changed
slightly. Other differences are to do with valve B operating outside of its linear region and the
difference heard is nothing more than increased 2nd harmonic distortion.

Valve reliability

The largest problem with valve amps is the inconsistency of gains between the 2 triodes in the
12AX7, 12AU7s and between the same model of output valves. The random gain differences
between valves made it almost impossible for any 2 valve amps to perform identically. Having
to adjust the balance between left-right channels each time the amp is turned on, then having to
re-adjust the balance while listening to the music, was part of the experience of owning a valve
amp. Many amps of the same model could vary considerably.

When purchasing a new valve amp, discerning music lovers would select a new amp from 3 or
more of the same model. Also the inconsistencies between valve amps made it difficult for
active systems greater than 2 way, to evolve.

Many un-reliable valves are being made and sold. The largest problem is air leaking inside the
valve, around the pins at the base. Hopefully the re-seller will enable you to return a faulty
valve, but the re-seller maybe stuck with the loss. When purchasing in large quantity from a
factory the percentage of dud valves will be random, depending on quality control at the time.
Most power valves are re-labeled by the distributer and the end user has no way of knowing
which manufacturer's valve is sold under a particular label.

Valve lifetime is approx 10,000 hours and many valves have been known to work well after
50,000 hours. Most valves are at operational temperature within 60 seconds. However large
power valves KT88 etc may take 5 minutes to stabilise at the correct quiescent current. Some
KT88s will randomly change the quiescent current level they will stabilise at, each time they are
turned on.

Matched valves There is little evidence to prove that the extra money spent on purchasing
matched power valves are actually matched. There maybe a few valve distribution companies
that provide a service to supply matched power valves. Often the valves are palaced in a valve
tester to check that they work, only. But unfortunately many companies that charge extra for
matched power valves are nothing more than scams. The advantage of purchasing matched
valves is that a faulty valve may be replaced by the distributer without question.
Fingerprints Do not put fingerprints on output valves. Clean the glass if you touch it.

Always turn off valve equipment when you are not at home and especially when asleep. The
heater filament of a power valve is approx 2,000 deg C.

There are many web sites that have information on valves. To save repeating information on
this site, the following links have excellent information and pics on valves and air leaking
problems, including the understanding of the Getta which is the black colouration inside valve
that is used to help maintain a vacuum inside the tube. Please read the following links.
www.thetubestore.com / blue glow
How Vacuum Tubes Work by Eric Barbour.

Rod Elliott (sound.whsites.net) has also written chapters on Valve technology. We have
collaborated on what we are best able to describe with minimum overlap. It is essential to read
the valve chapters on both sites to obtain a pragmatic understanding of valve amp technology.
sound.whsites.net / valves

Valve Links

www.wikipedia.org / Vacuum tube

www.wikipedia.org / Triode
www.wikipedia.org / Pentode
www.wikipedia.org / Tetrode
www.wikipedia.org / Beam tetrode
www.wikipedia.org / 12AX7
www.wikipedia.org / 12AU7
www.wikipedia.org / EF86
www.wikipedia.org / KT88
www.wikipedia.org / Dynaco

http://www.tubedata.info A vast data base of valve information by Frank Philipse.

www.jacmusic.com / KT88 overview of various KT66, 6550, KT88, KT90 types and brands.

History of electron tubes By Sogo Okamura

www.rewindmuseum.com / Valve amplifier Museum of early consumer electronics.

www.turneraudio.com.au Valve amp education pages

www.drtube.com Large collection of valve amp schematics.

www.hifiworks.co.uk Collection of vintage valve amps.

www.webace.com.au / Electron tubes by Dennis Grimwood

mysite.du.edu/ Vacuum Tubes Composed by J. B. Calvert.

www.westernelectric.com Manfacturers of the 300B n 1938

www.antiqueradio.com / 300B The 300B Tube Lives Again! by Howard W. Stone

www.iol.ie/~waltonaudio/mk1300bindex.html Walton Audio. 300B amplifier

 www.youtube / v=8_eLO0exato video of making a valve

www.dailymotion.com/video / fabrication dune lampe triode video of making a valve

www.aikenamps.com / Bibliography "Must Have" Tube Electronics Books

www.synthtopia.com interviews Eric Barbour

www.newsensor.com Large supplier of valves

www.ehx.com Large supplier of valves

www.vacuumtube.com Vacuum tube valley parts suppliers.

www.bel-tubes.co.uk Large supplier of valves in the UK

End of Topic 2 Written by John Burnett Volgen

Created: 20-May-2010

Valve Amps
Overview Valve amp Basics Pre-amp Driver Output Stage Output Transformers
Power-supply Valve V Solid-state

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