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Buddhist Psychology

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 BuddhistPsychology 185

is basedon the teachingsof SiddharthaGautama

In:
Teo, T. (Ed.), Encyclopediaof Critical
Psychology.New York: Springer.
Buddha, who was born - probably in the fifth
centuryBCE - into nobility in the Hindu caste
system.The fact thatearly Buddhistthinkin_e had
a Hindu backgroundinfluencedthe directionsof
Buddhistargumentsandexplainswhy par-ts of the
theoreticalframework of Buddhist and Hindu
psychology somewhatoverlap. Moreover, the
factthatthemain bodyof earlyclassicalBuddhist
textsis writtenin Pali and Sanskrit.explainswhy
the first and still importantaccountsof Buddhist
psychologyin the West stem from Indologists
while most Westernpsychologistsremain unfa-
miliar with Buddhistpsychologicaltexts even
today.Unfonunately,only a few of the essential
texts, which were also written in other Asian
languages(e.9..Ttrmil. Chinese,Korean, Japa-
nese, and Tibetan), have been translatedinto
a Westernlanguage.and the quality of many of
the translationsis hi-ehly disputed (de Silva.
l(X).5).In addition, Buddhist psychologyhas
diff'erent schools that have different scholarly
traditionscorresponding to diff'erentlinesof Bud-
dhism.Nevertheless, the tollowing sectionswill
focus on a f-ew aspectsshared by most of the
Buddhisttraditionswe know of todav.

Definition

Since "psychology" is a Western term closely

connectedto the scientificstudy of the hunran
psycheas it was conductedin the late nineteenth
centuryespeciallyin Germanyand the USA. the
BuddhistPsychology tenn "Buddhist psychology"is commonly used
to characterizeelementsof Buddhistthinking and
PradeepChakkarath practicethattouchuponthe observation, descrip-
Universityof Bochunr,Bochunr,Germany tion, and analysisof phenomenadeemedpsycho-
logically relevantfrom a Westernpsychological
standpoint.However,sincethe Buddhistinvesti-
Introduction gationsof mentalphenomenaas well astheir role
in hunranwell-beingplay a fundamentalrole fbr
"Buddhist psyclrology"ref'ersto centralaspects the largersystemof thoughtknownas Buddhism,
of a manifold philosophical,psychological,and the term "Buddhist psychology"should be rec-
spirituirltraditionof thoughtarndpracticethatwas ognizedas a coherentcognitiveframeworkand
originally developedand systematizedin India belief system that as a whole plays
during the last 400 years before the Cornmon a psychologicallyimportantrole in shapingthe
Era (BCE). The earliestaccountof this tradition culture-specific developmentalcontextsof many
 186 Buddhist
Psychology

hunran beings. The Indologist Caroline Rhys branches with their different psychological
Davids who translatedmany important texts assessments wÖrernitinlyaboutthe development,
fl'orn Pali into English and was the lirst to use function, and meaning of identity: the role of
the term "Buddhisl psychology" emphasized cognition, interaction,and communication in
both its narrower and broader meaning (Rhys the constructionof psychologicalphenomena;
Davids,I (XX)il(X)-l
). aboutcausality,intentionality,and mind; as well
as the natureof certainstatesof consciousness,
including awarenessand the perf-ectinner peace
Keywords called nirt,ana.Some basic aspectsof Buddhist
psychologyresultedfrom the debateof the Hindu
Ahhidlrumnw. four noble truths; eightfbld path; assumptionthat identity is an essentialand per-
therapy;skrnclhas;theory of dependentorigina- manent feature of a person, which Buddhism
tion; identity; nonself; meditation;indigenous denies.Although Indian Buddhistscholarslike
psychology Asanga,Buddhaghosa, Candrakirti,Dharnrakirti,
Digna-ea.Na-tarjuna,Shantideva,Santaraksita,
and Vasubandhu - to namejust a few - disputed
TraditionalDebates this and related topics among themselves,key
elementsof their and later Buddhist'stheories
Most classicaldebatesare rootedin two crucial can be describedby taking the "four noblefruths"
outcomesof a seriesof council meetingsduring as a star-tingpoint in order to show how the
the centuriesfollowing the Buddha'sdeath.First, Buddhist theory of the "nonself' (anatma) is
thesemeetingsresultedin a collectionof canon- explained (cf. Kalupahana, lt)l'i7; Pickerin-e,
ical texts. known as the "three baskets" I t)()7). These truths denote the insights
(tt'ipitaka): The suttctltituku is said to contain SiddharthaGautamahad during his Enlighten-
the original teachingsof Siddhar-tha Gautama ment,namely.(l) lif-eis filled with physicaland
Buddha. the ublticlhctnmta pituku containsconl- psyclrologicalsuffering(dukkha):(2) the source
ments on these teachingsand places them in of our sufferingis our attachment to things,which
a lar-eersystematiccontext,and the lizal'tt ltituka is drivenby our desires(tanho)and t-rurfailureto
lays down sets of rules for tlre comrnunity of realizethateverythingwe passionately cravefor,
monks. Parts of the suttu and especially the includingour ego. is merely transient:(3) the
abltidlruntnru pitukd can be consideredthe textual cessationof suffering can be reachedby extinc-
foundationof Buddhistpsychology.The second tiorr (nirodhu)of our desiresthroughthe attain-
crucialoutcon'lewas a lastingseparationof Bud- ment of dispassion;and (4) the eightfold path
dhism into two fbrrns: the "path of the elders" (attlrungikanrugga),which leadsto the cessation
(tlrcravurla)or "small vehicle" (hinayctttu)and of suffering,requiresthe developmentand exer-
the "-[reat vehicle" (mulru\'unct). The hinayana cise of wisdom and intellect,morality and ade-
form of Buddhism held that only the tripitaka quateconduct,awareness, and rneditationskills.
texts basedon the teachingsof the movenrent's The contentand structure thesefbur assump-
of
founderhave authority:the mahayanaform held tions show that the diagnosisof sufferingis par-
thatothertextsandcomnrentaries, includingtexts tially psychological,identifiescauseand effect
that were still to come. are also fundanrentalto relationships tretween perceptions.emotions,
Buddhistthinking. In the following centuries, and motivationsthat are also psychological.arrd
a third form of Buddhism developed:Tantric prescribes a cure that ciur be understood as
Buddhismor the "diamondvehicle"(va.jrat,ctnct\.a cognitiveand behavioral.that is, psychological
The debatesthat accompaniedthe develop- therapy (Kwee, Gergen,& Koshikawa, l(Xlrr).
ment of these main schoolsand their various Sincethesemain facetsof Buddhistpsychology
Buddhist
Psychology 187

are also reflectedin its detailedanalysisof the all theseevents is createdby nreansof causal
self-concept. this analysiswill be usedto illus- interplays that are constantly changin-uand
trate the generalcharacterof Buddhistpsycho- being restructuredand does not comespondto
logicaltheoryand practicein the following. anythingin reality becausethis self is also only
According to the Buddhist psychological the resultof a processthat is constantlybe_einning
analysisof the self-concept, one's "I" conscious- and ending (.sarrsara). Thus, the widely spread
ness is constitutedby five aggregates(skanclha): notion of a personalsoul or a lastingidentity is
(1) physicalfomr Q'upa\,which includesthe four refuted.Moreover,one can also understandwhy
elements:eafth (solidity),water (liquidity), fire this self'-conceptcan be identified as the key
(temperature), andwind (expansion); (2) sensations sourceof human suffering:In the causalnexus
arrdfeelings (veclunrr), which refer to unpleasant, describedabove. it bears selfish attitudesand
pleasant, or neutral sensations(touch, sound, resultantmotivationsand actions,which finally
appearance, smell, taste.and merrtalobject) that leadto psycholo-rical discomfon.
resultfrom contactbetweenany of the six intemal Interestin-ely,Buddhismdeclaresthe belief in
sensoryorgans(body,eani,eyes.nose,tongue,and an unchangingandeveninrmortalself an expres-
nrind) and externalobjects:(3) perception(sunnu) sion of human selfishness deeply rootedin psy-
of physicalform, sound,appearance. smell, taste, chology: It is out of ignorance,weakness,fear,
and spirit; (4) mental fonnations (sankhora), and desirethat man developsthe consolingidea
includin,estereotypes, prejudices,and habitsfiom of a stableand enduringself. Having startedas
which the six expressions of will emerge.which a critical intellectualand social reform move-
can be directedtoward all of the sensationsand ment,Buddhismaimedto detectthe psychologi-
perceptionsspecifiedabove;and (5) consciousness cal roots of thesekinds of irrationalbeliefsand
(t,inrruttcr)
of the six sensoryor-qansandtheextemal thus also provided a critical perspectiveon the
objectsassignedto them. psychologyof psycholo-ey and psychologists.
Humansare thus describedas an aggregateof
differentnrutuallycausalfhctorsthat are in con-
stantflux. transient.andtemporary.The six inter- CriticalDebates
rtal sensebases(organs)and tlreir six extemal
sense bases (objects) are called the 12 sense The interestin an encountertretweenBuddhist
bases.The 12 sensebasesand the six fonns of and acadernicWestempsychologybeganto take
consciousness aretogethercalledthe l8 elements shape in the first few decadesof the twentieth
(dhutu).When the physicalfactorsare alsotaken century,for example,wlrenC. G. Jungand Erich
into consideration,every nrentalprocedurecan Fromm along with Zen scholar D. T. Suzuki
be describedas a specificcombinationof ele- begansearchingfor the comrnongroundsof Bud-
mentswith the perceptionand volition phenom- dhism and Westernpsychoanalysis. In addition,
ena they cause.This analysisis based on the representativesfrom humanistic psychology
Buddhist theory of dependent origination showedinterestin the therapeutic valueof certain
Qlrtrtitt'asunrutltuda) accordin-9to which all phe- meditation techniques and the holistic perspec-
nonrenaariseand ceaseto exist as a functionof tive takenby Buddhist psychology. Beginningin
multiple nestedcausesand conditionsand the the 1960s, these topics were popularized by
notion that theseprocesses ceitsewhen the con- Western Buddhists like Alan Watts and Jack
ditionsceaseto exist.The theoryis empirically Kornfield.When FranciscoJ. Varelaco-initiated
supportedby the most elaborateintrospection the Mind and Life Institutein the 1980s,many
techniques. known as meditation,everdeveloped prominent neuroscientists and cognitive scien-
in the history of psychology.They aim to show tists,includingpsychologists, also becameinter-
that the powerful illusionof a self that witnesses ested in an intensive exchanse with leadinq
 188

Buddhist scholars.anrongthem the l4th Dalai

Lama and Chogyam Trunepa Rinpoche.
Although thesekinds of exchangesnrark a new
quality of interestand exchange,as said before,
the scientific value of Buddhist psychologyis
frequentlymeasuredby assessing the degreeto
which it can be adaptecl to Westerntraditionsof
psychologyand integratedinto various clinical
settings.This, of course, can be seen as an
ethnocentric,presentistic,and distortiveassess-
ment of "Buddhist psychology"(cf. Pickering,
l()()7).For example,in Buddhistargurnentatiolt,
the links betweenthe theory of rebirth and the
analysisof self and identity are quite impor-tant.
However,in thisexample,Westempsychologyis
only interested in self and identitytheory,which
is thereforenonnally decoupledfiom its original
frameworkand transferredinto contextsof West-
ern interestand Westernways of doing psychol-
o-ey.Indigenouspsychology,however,holdsthat
any intellectualtradition- includingWestenror
Buddhistpsycholo-sy - can af-fecthumandevel-
opmentalcontexts.includinglay theories.This
renrainstrue even if scholarsfrom one psycho-
logical tradition doubt the scientificvalue of
anotlrertradition and nrerely use parts of it to
fonn or bolster their own theories.Thus. the
debatesabout the contents,character,and cul-
tural psychologicalinrportanceof Buddhistpsy-
chology also touch on questionsvery familiar to
the areasof postcolonialtheory,power politics,
and the plrilosophyof science.

References

de Silva, P. (2005). Art introcltl:tilnt rc Buddhist psvchol-

o,qr'(.tthcd,). Ncw York: PalgraveMacmillan.
Kirfupirlrirna, D. ( 1987). Thc principles o.f Buddhisr
ltstcholouv. Ncw York: Statc University of
Ncu,York Prcss.
Kwce, M. G. T., Gcrgen. K. J.. & Koshikawa.F. (2006).
Hot'i:ttns in Buddhist ltsvchoktgt': Pructit'c, rcscart'lt
& tlu:or\'. Chagrin Falls, OH: Taos Institutc
Publications.
Pickering.J. (Ed.). (1997). The outhorin of e-r'ltcriencc:
6sra_r'son Butldhism uncl psvL'ltologt'.Surrcy, UK:
Curzon.
Rh1'sDavids. C. A. F. (1900/2003).Bucldhisrnrunuulof'
ltst'clnlogicalultics. Whitefish.MT: Kcssingcr.

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